448 Revista

Sedov Mexicana
et al. de Ciencias Geológicas, v. 26, núm. 2, 2009, p. 448-465

The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence: a multiscale proxy of

middle to late Quaternary environmental change in central Mexico

Sergey Sedov1,*, Elizabeth Solleiro-Rebolledo1, Birgit Terhorst2, Jesús Solé1,

María de Lourdes Flores-Delgadillo1, Gerd Werner3, and Thomas Poetsch4

1
Instituto de Geología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Ciudad Universitaria, C.P. 04510, México D.F., Mexico.
2
Institute of Geography and Regional Research, University of Vienna, Althansstr. 14, A-1090, Vienna, Austria.
3
Center for International Development and Environmental Research (CIDER), Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen,
Otto-Behaghel-Strasse 10, D-35394 Giessen, Germany.
4
Institut für Geographie, Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany.
* [email protected]

RESUMEN

La porción central de la Altiplanicie Mexicana Central aún carece de un escenario consistente

de evolución ambiental del Cuaternario, especialmente para el periodo previo al último ciclo glacial/
interglacial. En este trabajo se presenta una amplia secuencia tefra-paleosuelos (11 paleosuelos agrupados
en tres unidades: Gris, Parda y Roja) cerca de la ciudad de Tlaxcala, en dos localidades (Tlalpan y Mamut)
para obtener un proxy paleoclimático del Pleistoceno medio y del Holoceno. A partir de los datos de la
localidad Tlalpan, se ha interpretado una tendencia paleoclimática general para los últimos 900,000 años
(la base de la secuencia se fechó por el método de K/Ar), mientras que de la localidad del Mamut se obtuvo
un registro más detallado, que comienza a partir de la etapa isotópica marina 3 (EIM 3), proporcionada
por una serie de fechamientos de radiocarbón. Las características físicoquímicas y mineralógicas de
todos los paleosuelos sepultados evidencian los procesos pedogéneticos típicos de ecosistemas húmedos:
intemperismo, neoformación de arcillas kaoliníticas-haloisíticas, gleización e iluviación de arcillas.
El suelo superficial del Holoceno tardío se caracteriza por la presencia de carbonatos, indicativos de
un clima más seco. En Tlalpan, la Unidad Roja, en la parte baja de la secuencia, demuestra el fuerte
desarrollo de los rasgos de intemperismo con una acumulación máxima de arcilla y cristalización de
óxidos de hierro. Los paleosuelos sobreyacentes tienen un menor grado de intemperismo: la Unidad
Parda, en la parte intermedia, muestra prominentes características de iluviación de arcilla mientras
que en la Unidad Gris superior, hay marcadas propiedades reductomórficas. Se ha considerado que
los paleosuelos de la Unidad Roja corresponden al periodo de la Transición Climática del Pleistoceno
Medio, cuando una ciclicidad menos pronunciada glacial/interglacial permitió un mayor desarrollo del
suelo a través de periodos más largos de estabilidad del paisaje. En el Mamut, el paleosuelo inferior
posee propiedades vérticas, en tanto el intemperismo y la iluviación de arcilla son más frecuentes en el
paleosuelo intermedio. Finalmente, en el suelo superior, incipiente, dominan las propiedades gléicas.
Esta tendencia indica un cambio de clima más seco, con fuerte estacionalidad, en la segunda mitad de la
EIM3, hacia condiciones húmedas y frías, uniformes, durante la mayor parte de EIM2 y posteriormente
hacia un clima inestable con precipitaciones ocasionales pero excesivas e irregulares en el último glacial,
las cuales promovieron la formación de un suelo sinsedimentario, en un ambiente pantanoso.

Palabras clave: paleosuelos volcánicos, paleoambientes, Cuaternario, centro de México.

Sedov, S., Solleiro-Rebolledo, E., Terhorst, B., Solé, J., Flores-Delgadillo, M.L., Werner, G., Poetsch, T., 2009, The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence:
a multiscale proxy of middle to late Quaternary environmental change in central Mexico: Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas, v. 26, núm. 2, p.
448-465.
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 449

ABSTRACT

The Central Mexican Highlands still lack a consistent scenario of Quaternary environmental
evolution, especially for the period before the last glacial/interglacial cycle. We studied an extensive
tephra-paleosol sequence near the city of Tlaxcala (11 paleosols grouped in 3 units: Grey, Brown and
Red) in two sections (Tlalpan and Mamut) to obtain a paleoclimate proxy for the middle to late Pleistocene
and the Holocene. A general paleoclimatic trend for the last 900,000 yr. is interpreted from the Tlalpan
section (the base dated by K/Ar), and a more detailed record for the period starting with Marine Isotope
Stage 3 (MIS3) from the Mamut section (provided with a set of 14C dates). Morphological, physico-
chemical and mineralogical characteristics of all buried paleosols point to pedogenic processes typical
for humid ecosystems, namely: weathering and neoformation of kaolinitic-halloysitic clay, gleization, and
clay illuviation, whereas the surface late Holocene soil is characterized by precipitation of carbonates,
indicative of a drier climate. In Tlalpan section, the lowest Red Unit demonstrates the strongest
development of weathering features, together with maximum accumulation of clay and crystallized
iron oxides. The overlying paleosols have lower weathering status; the intermediate Brown Unit shows
prominent features of clay illuviation whereas the upper Grey Unit is marked by surface redoximorphic
properties. We hypothesize that the Red Unit paleosols correspond to the period of the Mid Pleistocene
Climate Transition, when less pronounced glacial/interglacial climate cyclicity permitted more advanced
soil development through long periods of landscape stability. In the Mamut section vertic features are
present in the lower paleosol, weathering and clay illuviation are more pronounced in the middle one,
and the incipient upper soil is dominated by gleization features. This trend indicates the change from
drier climate with strong seasonality in the second half of MIS3 to uniform cool humid conditions during
major part of MIS2 and then to unstable climate with uneven, occasionally excessive precipitation in the
late Glacial, which promoted local synsedimentary soil formation in a wetland environment.

Key words: volcanic paleosols, paleoenvironment, Quaternary, central Mexico.

INTRODUCTION (Bradbury, 1997b, 2000) and “cool dry” (Lozano-García

and Ortega-Guerrero, 1998; Ortega-Guerrero et al. 2000)
The climatic system of Mexico and Central America scenarios have been proposed.
demonstrates a complex and heterogeneous response to Much less knowledge exists about paleoclimates
global changes, being a result of the interplay of different of the period before Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS3), for
factors. For instance, during the Last Glacial Maximum which no paleolimnlogical results currently exist. Some
(LGM) rather humid conditions have been reconstructed for inferences are provided by rather fragmental glaciological
northern Mexico and the south-western USA (Thompson proxies that register changes in the size of mountain gla-
et al. 1993; Bradbury, 1997a; Lozano-García et al., 2002; ciers (White and Valastro 1984; White, 1986; Heine 1988;
Metcalfe et al., 2002), whereas the Caribbean presents evi- Vázquez-Selem and Heine, 2004). However, there is a clear
dence of aridity (Bush and Colinvaux, 1990; Leyden et al. lack of paleoecological evidence for the intervals separating
1993; Peterson et al., 2000; González et al., 2006). These glacial advances.
records indicate rather strong past climatic gradients, which These difficulties imply the necessity to search for ad-
is different from the modern climate. ditional and independent sources of paleoenvironmental in-
The Central Mexican Highland is located in the formation. Recently, paleosols embedded in volcanic materi-
center of these present and past climatic gradients. Its late als of the Transmexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) were used
Quaternary environmental history is relatively well docu- successfully to understand environmental change in central
mented by palynological, diatom, rock magnetic and sedi- Mexico (Sedov et al., 2001, 2003; Solleiro-Rebolledo et al.,
mentological records recovered from lacustrine sediments 2003); in particular, these sequences seem to provide the
in mountain basins (Watts and Bradbury, 1982; Straka and paleoclimate proxies for the period before 50,000 yr BP.
Ohngemach, 1989; Lozano-García and Ortega-Guerrero, For the younger interval, the importance of paleosols for
1998; Caballero et al., 1999, 2002; Ortega-Guerrero et developing a regional paleoecological scenario consists in
al., 2000; Lozano-García et al., 2005) and paleoglacio- their intermediate landscape position between the two other
logical data (White and Valastro, 1984; Heine, 1984, 1988; major recorders of paleoenvironments: glacial deposits of
Vázquez-Selem, 1997, Vázquez-Selem and Heine, 2004). the highest volcanoes and lacustrine sediments of basin
However, even the most detailed reconstructions for the floors. Thus the paleosol record provides a complemen-
last ~50,000 years based on lacustrine records are not free tary source of information that links the two end-member
from contradictions, e.g., for the LGM both “cool humid” archives and helps validate their interpretation. Another
450 Sedov et al.

specific contribution of paleopedological research is the sediments are diatomite deposits, which have an age esti-
high spatial resolution of the paleosol records (Targulian and mated as Pliocene-Pleistocene (Rico et al., 1997; Vilaclara,
Goryachkin, 2004). Tephra-paleosol sequences, spread over et al., 1997). Basaltic lava flows overly diatomite sediments.
the whole TMVB, allow documentation of paleoclimatic The oldest unit of the Tlaxcala tephra-paleosol sequence that
variability from regional to local scale. we investigated rests on the lava flows discordantly.
In this work, we study a broad set of pedogenic prop- Modern environmental conditions in the study area
erties of Tlaxcala paleosols with the goal of interpreting correspond to a subhumid-temperate climate, with a mean
them as a proxy of the Quaternary environmental history annual temperature of 13 °C and an annual rainfall of
at different time scales. 600–700 mm (García, 1988). Natural vegetation cover in-
cludes an oak-mixed-forest with Pinus oaxacana, Querqus
crassipes, Querqus castanea, Querqus dentralis, Querqus
PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA obtuse and Arbutus glandulosa, in areas less disturbed
(Klink et al., 1973). However, almost the whole region is
The study area is located in the Tlaxcala block, which cultivated and strongly affected by erosion.
is part of the Transmexican Volcanic Belt, central Mexico This area has attracted the attention of different spe-
(Figure 1). This block was uplifted in the early Miocene cialists since the 1960´s. Cornwall (1968) found deeply
(Mooser, 1975). The block is bounded to the west by the buried thick red soils, which were used as stratigraphic
Sierra Nevada, where two of the highest Mexican volcanoes markers. Parent material of many soils of the region was
are found, Iztaccíhuatl and the still active Popocatépetl, and identified as reworked pyroclastic sediments similar to
to the east by Malinche volcano. During the Pliocene, the loess (Cornwall, 1969). During the 1970´s, the area was
state of Tlaxcala was covered by large water bodies where extensively studied as part of the Puebla-Tlaxcala Project
saline lacustrine sediments accumulated. Overlying these of the German Foundation for Scientific Research (DFG).

Tlalpan section Mamut section

Depth Depth
(cm) (cm) Legend
30 45 Ah
TX1
Bw
Gray Unit

1,310 ± 35
X X
(CURL5809) 135 Bt
X X X

208 X X 205 21,340 ± 110 BC and C

TX2 TX1a (Beta233846)
33,595 260 Tepetates
278
X X

(Hv33595) 16,820 ± 70
302 Organic sediment
(Beta233847)
TX1b 22,070 ± 120 CaCO3 concretions
TX3
Brown Unit

407 (Beta233848)
443
X X
Town or city
28,925 ± 1,750
X X X
X X X
X X X
467
X
X
X
X
X
X
(Hv24872) Road
Site location
X X X

X
X
X
X
X
X
TX2
X
X
X
X
X
X

620 X X X
River
X X X
X X

663
X X X
X X X

Gulf
Mex of 20° Tlaxco
19°30´

ico
803 Pa
TMVB
TX4 cif
Tlalpan
Study
ic area
X X X Oc
X
X
X
X
X
X ea
n 15°
X X X
105° 95° Apizaco
X
X
X
X
X
X B. Blanca
943 X X X

Mamut
R.
A

1013
toy

X X X X 117
Tlaxcala
ac

TX5 X
X
X
X
X
X
X
R. Z

X X X
X X X X
X X X San Martín Texmelucan
ahu

1168 X X X X
La Malinche
apa

R.
TX6 1238 At
n

Iztaccíhuatl oy
a
Huejotzingo c
3000
Red Unit

TX6a
0
0

3 00
4 00

2500

2500
1393
TX7
Cholula
Puebla
19°00´

X
X
X
X
0.9 ± 0.3 ka Popocatépetl
1528 (TLX-1)
98°40´ 98°00´
X X

10 km

Figure 1. Location and pedostratigraphy of the study sections. TMVB: Transmexican Volcanic Belt.
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 451

Surface soils of the region were studied in detail, in par- modern soils. We also took samples from selected horizons
ticular Andosols of the higher altitudes of Sierra Nevada (containing organic matter) for radiocarbon dating and
(Miehlich, 1991) and “barro” soils – Cambisols in the in- samples from underlying rocks for K/Ar dating.
termediate positions (Aeppli, 1973; Aeppli and Schönhals,
1975; Miehlich, 1978).
Heine (1974) developed the stratigraphy of the Puebla- Laboratory analyses
Tlaxcala region using radiocarbon dates from paleosols.
Three formations of tephra sediments have been recognized, Soil colors were determined according to the Munsell
and are referred to as T1, T2 and T3 (Heine and Schönhals, Soil Color Charts (1975). Paleosol color characteristics in
1973; Aeppli and Schönhals, 1975; Miehlich, 1978). Heine Tlalpan section show quite contrasting differences among
and Schönhals (1973) proposed an eolian origin of these the pedostratigraphic units, so we decided to determine
tephra. Between tephra layers, frequently indurated to form colors of Bt horizons quantitatively with a Minolta 310
tepetate, fossil soils were described (Heine and Schönhals, Chroma Meter, by using oven-dry (105°C) and finely milled
1973; Aeppli and Schönhals, 1975; Miehlich, 1991). On samples. The results are presented in the coordinates of the
the regional scale, Heine (1975, 1994a) identified three CIE L*a*b* color system, assumed to be most suitable for
paleosols formed during the late Pleistocene to Holocene: the characterisation of pigmentation with ferric components
fBo1 (27 – 16 ka BP), fBo2 (12 – 10 ka BP) and fBo3 (5 – 8 in soils with low humus content (Barron and Torrent, 1986;
ka BP). According to Heine (1975), development of these Vodyanitskiy and Shishov, 2004). Organic carbon and Fe,
paleosols occurred within the intervals between the major Al and Si contents, extracted with dithionite-citrate-bicar-
advances of the mountain glaciers of the Central Mexican bonate and oxalate solutions, were evaluated according to
Highlands. the USDA (1996). To establish particle size distribution,
The Tlaxcala block (a tectonic landscape unit) in the we separated quantitatively the sand fractions (2–0.02
northern part of Puebla-Tlaxcala basin has attracted major mm) by sieving and silt (0.02–0.002) and clay (<0.002
attention by soil scientists as the area of strongest and most mm) fractions by gravity sedimentation with preliminary
variable tepetate development. A complete tepetate and destruction of aggregating agents: 10% H2O2 was used for
paleosol stratigraphy was proposed by Hessmann (1992), organic matter and dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate extraction
who identified seven tepetate layers and described buried for iron oxides.
Cambisols and Luvisols between them. More recently, Clay minerals were identified by X-ray diffraction,
Ortega-Guerrero et al. (2004) and Rivas et al. (2006) char- using CuKα radiation in a Philips diffractometer Mod.
acterized rock magnetic properties of paleosols in the 1130/96. X-ray diffraction patterns of the Mg-saturated clay
Tlaxcala block, recognizing different patterns of the paleosol were obtained for oriented specimens after the following
magnetic parameters related to different combinations of pretreatments: air dry at room temperature, saturated with
pedogenetic processes. ethylene-glycol, after heating at 400 °C and 550 °C for 1 h.
To estimate semi-quantitatively, based on the peak heights,
the relative amounts of true kaolinite and dehydrated hal-
MATERIALS AND METHODS loysite, we utilized the ratios between 7.2 Å and 4.4 Å peaks;
the latter, being a non-basal maximum, is high for halloysite
Paleosol sections and field work and very weak for kaolinite (Dixon and Weed, 1989).
Thin sections (30 µm thick) were prepared from un-
Two sections of the Tlaxcala paleosol sequence were disturbed soil samples impregnated at room temperature
described and sampled according to the criteria established with the resin Cristal MC-40, studied under a petrographic
by Retallack (1990). The sequences are located in the upper microscope and described, following the terminology of
part of the slope near the watershed divide, in two different Bullock et al. (1985).
gullies: Tlalpan and Mamut.
The Tlalpan section (19°27´54´´N, 98°18´37.2´´W)
is situated near the village of the same name, at an alti- Paleosol dating
tude of 2600 m. It is the thickest section of the Tlaxcala
paleosol-sedimentary sequence with seven paleosols sepa- Age control for the upper part of both sequenc-
rated by tephra sediments. Mamut section (19°23´38.4´´N, es is based on radiocarbon dating of paleosol humus
98°17´1.9´´W) was studied near the village San Tadeo and pedogenic carbonates. Conventional radiocarbon
Huiloapan, at an altitude of 2580 m. The location was dates were obtained from humus of the TX2 paleosol of
named from remains of a mammoth found in the outcrop; Tlalpan and Mamut sections (Figure 1) in the Institute of
it includes four paleosols (Figure 1). Geography, Russian Academy of Science, and in the 14C
Bulk samples for physical and chemical analyses as and 3H Laboratorium of Niedersächsisches Landesamt für
well as undisturbed samples for preparation of thin sec- Bodenforschung, Hannover, Germany. Age estimation of
tions were collected from genetic horizons of paleosols and the paleosols TX1a and TX1b in Mamut section is based on
452 Sedov et al.

Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) ages of soil organic Grey Unit is thicker and provides greater temporal resolution
matter recently obtained from Beta Analytic, which are with four paleosols.
supported by some conventional radiocarbon ages, obtained
earlier. In the TX1b paleosol we managed to date organic Modern soil in Tlalpan and Mamut sections
materials not only in the AE but also in the Bt horizon, The modern soil has a greyish-brown Ah horizon, up
making use of the organic components included in illuvial to 30 cm-thick, with a weak, very coarse subangular blocky
clay coatings. AMS dating of CaCO3 concretions was made structure, containing abundant artifacts (ceramic fragments,
in the Laboratory for AMS Radiocarbon Preparation and obsidian tools, etc.). It is separated from the underlying unit
Research of the University of Colorado at Boulder. We by an abrupt, erosional boundary. Sometimes it becomes
have not dated paleosols underlying TX2 because they lack thicker, and in addition to an A horizon, a pale B horizon is
humus and carbonates, and furthermore they are obviously present. Downslope, the soil merges into a 5 m-thick col-
older than the interval covered by radiocarbon dating (see luvial stratum with at least two buried incipient Ah horizons.
chapter Results); also, the TX1 paleosol was not sampled In the uplands, it is classified as a Molli-calcic Cambisol
for dating as its burial is very shallow and a large input of (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006)
recent organic materials is evident.
To establish the maximum age of the sequence, we Grey Unit in Tlalpan section (30–303 cm)
processed three samples of the underlying volcanic materials This unit includes two grey paleosols (10YR 5/1, 2.5
for K/Ar dating: 1) the lowest tephra material (C-horizon Y7/2, dry) TX1 and TX2, separated by an indurated Cx ho-
of the TX7 paleosol) in Tlalpan section– sample TLX-1; rizon (tepetate). TX1 has an Ah-Bt-Cx profile, 178 cm thick,
2) the andesitic lava directly below the basal tephra and while TX2 is partly truncated, and exhibits only a Bt, 60
overlying the Pliocene-Pleistocene diatomites from the cm-thick. Bt horizons are characterized by a well developed
Barranca Blanca exposure (some 2 km from Mamut section subangular blocky–prismatic structure with thin illuvial clay
– sample TLX-3; and 3) scoria found beneath a correlative (in PT2 – darker humus-clay) coatings over ped surfaces
tephra-paleosol sequence in the Tlaxco quarry (18 km to and abundant redoximorphic features (represented in TX1
NE from the study area) – sample TLX-2. The samples by hard rounded black Fe-Mn concretions). Secondary car-
were crushed, sieved and washed. The 300–500 μm frac- bonates are common in the upper part of this unit, forming
tion was selected as the most representative for dating hard concretions in the Bt horizons of TX1.
purposes. A whole rock aliquot from TLX-2 and TLX-3
and a plagioclase concentrate from TLX-1 were cleaned Brown Unit in Tlalpan section (303–1168 cm)
and purified from phenocrysts and the most magnetic The Brown Unit is comprised of three similar brown
fraction was separated with a Frantz magnetic separator. paleosols TX3, TX4 and TX5 (10YR5/3, 10YR6/2, dry),
A noble gas mass spectrometer (MM1200B) was used consisting of well developed Bt horizons, underlain by
for argon determination using both isotope dilution and tepetates (Cx). TX4 is better preserved and it is possible
spikeless techniques. Potassium was determined by X-ray to recognize EB-Bt-BCm horizons. Bt horizons have well
fluorescence analysis following the method described by developed prismatic and subangular blocky structure; il-
Solé and Enrique (2001). The ages were calibrated with the luvial clay coatings on ped surfaces, and Fe-Mn nodules
international standards LP-6 and HD-B1 biotites. We used and mottles are frequent. Tepetates have brown color, paler
the constants recommended by Steiger and Jäger (1977) and than that of Bt horizons. These paleosols were defined as
compared our data with the available regional knowledge Duric Haplic Luvisols.
about the chronology of the volcanic and sedimentary bodies
to develop a time scale of maximum precision and reliability Red Unit in Tlalpan section (1168–1528 cm)
currently available. This unit, 360 cm-thick, includes pedocomplex TX6,
which consists of two well developed Bt horizons (TX6
and TX6a) underlain by thin BC horizons, already affected
RESULTS by pedogenic processes. Paleosol TX7 is constituted by
the thickest and most mature Bt horizon in all the study
Field description of modern soil and paleosols sequence and is underlain by a basal sandy tepetate (Cx)
layer. All Bt horizons of the Red Unit have a reddish-brown
On the basis of morphological characteristics, the color (5YR4/3, 5YR5/3) and very well developed prismatic
study sequence was divided into four different units: the structure with thick clay coatings over prism surfaces. TX6
modern soil (youngest), the Grey, the Brown, and the Red and TX7 are classified as Chromic Luvisols.
Units (oldest) (Figure 1). Each unit is constituted by two
or more paleosols separated by volcanic materials, and in Grey Unit in Mamut section (20–620 cm)
some cases they are pedocomplexes. Tlalpan section is the In this section, the most complete variant of the Grey
most profound and contains all units. In Mamut section, only Unit is found. It includes paleosols TX1 and TX2 similar to
the modern soil and the Grey Unit are present, however, the those in the Tlalpan section, however unlike Tlalpan, it has
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 453

two additional paleosols: TX1a and TX1b. TX1, 20–205 cm, to the first paleosol of the Tlalpan section. The Bg horizon
includes a grey Bt horizon, with a well expressed subangular of the TX1a Gleysol is more compact with very few illuvial
blocky-prismatic pedality, few illuvial clay coatings and clay coatings (most probably they are the “roots” of clay
Fe-Mn nodules. TX1a has a shallow Ahg-BCg profile with illuviation from TX1 paleosol, that is deep clay illuviation
weakly developed structure. Fe-Mn spots and concretions from TX1). Here the rounded ferruginous nodules with
are very common in a BCg horizon. We classified this profile sharp edges are most frequent. The Bt horizon of TX1b is
as a Gleysol. TX1b (287–447 cm) has a AE- Bt profile with quite different: it has higher porosity, formed by both chan-
a well developed grey Bt horizon demonstrating a prismatic nels and fissures. Illuvial clay pedofeatures are the most fre-
structure and frequent illuvial dark grey clay-humus coat- quent among all Grey Unit paleosols. They are presented by
ings. TX1a and TX1b are separated by compact, laminated, undisturbed coatings and infillings, thinner in fissures, thick
colluvial organo-mineral sediment (260–287 cm). and laminated in channels, frequently containing humus
The paleosol TX2 (447–620), with an Ah-Bt-BC pro- inclusions. Weathering signs are also the most pronounced:
file, lies in the base of the sequence. It has a well developed glass particles are few, often substituted by oriented clay
prismatic and subangular blocky structure. Vertical and pseudomorphs. Pellicular alteration of pyroxene accounts
horizontal cracks are frequent; they often cross at 30-40° for the loss of up to 50% of original grains (as seen from
and are covered by dark grey humus-clay coatings. TX1, the size of the “shadow” pore, outlining the original grain
TX1b and TX2 were classified as Stagnic Luvisols. limits) (Figure 2d). Paleosol TX2 contains fewer weather-
ing features. Some illuvial clay pedofeatures are present;
however, most of them are deformed and demonstrate low
Soil micromorphology interference colors and diffuse extinction pattern. Often they
are crossed by linear stress cutans with high birefringence;
Observations in thin sections showed that the min- the latter are outlining the fissures that dissect illuvial ped-
eralogical composition of coarse (sand and silt) material ofeatures (Figures 2e-2f).
in all soils is rather similar; it is dominated by plagioclase, In the Bt horizons of the Brown Unit illuvial clay coat-
pyroxene, hornblende and volcanic glass, typical for an- ings are most abundant; in some areas they compose up to
desitic tephra. However, the relative amounts of different 40% of the soil material. They are limpid and demonstrate
minerals (especially glass content) and their weathering high birefringence and sharp extinction pattern, evidence
features differ considerably. In all BC and C horizons (tep- of perfect orientation of clay domains (Figure 2g). Some of
etate) this coarse volcanic material is dominant; the grains them are partly colored by brown iron oxides. The grade of
have different sizes, ranging from coarse sand to silt, with primary mineral alteration is moderate.
predominantly angular or subangular shape. In the paleosols of the Red Unit we observed the
In the surface soil volcanic glass is frequent and all most advanced development of weathering features. In
primary minerals appear unweathered. The Ah horizon has the Bt horizons, volcanic glass is absent, plagioclase,
high porosity and a complex structure: a combination of pyroxene and amphibole crystals are etched, fractured and
subangular blocks with coprogenic granules and crumbs. contain fine secondary products. The micromorphology of
Only in this horizon we found specific illuvial coatings of clay illuvial pedofeatures is very characteristic. Besides
highly heterogeneous composition (unsorted clay, humus in situ clay coatings in pores, there are frequent small
and silt) with a very poor orientation of clay components fragments of clay illuvial pedofeatures incorporated in the
(Figure 2a). However, in the B horizons of a more complete groundmass (clay papules) (Figure 2h). The latter are most
modern soil profile, a different type of coating is present, abundant in the lower (TX7) Bt horizon. In this horizon
consisting of pure clay with relatively high birefringence we found rounded bodies enriched with fine material and
and sharp extinction pattern (Figure 2b). pigmented with humus (Figure 2i). We interpret them as
The AB and Bt horizons of the first paleosol TX1 of faunal excremental aggregates, welded with groundmass. In
the Grey Unit in the Tlalpan section are much more compact the Red Unit, contrary to the overlying part of the sequence,
than the modern soil, their structure is formed by subangular well pronounced weathering features are observed also in
blocks, separated by cracks, which sometimes are delineated the indurated BC horizons (tepetates) (Figure 2j), where
by thin clay coatings. Characteristic redoximorphic pedofea- they are accompanied by major accumulation of iron-clayey
tures of this paleosol are rounded ferruginous nodules, some fine material, giving rise to an open porphyric relative
of them concentric (Figure 2c). A specific property of the distribution pattern.
second paleosol TX2 is the development of porostriated b-
fabric (stress cutans). Weathering status of primary minerals
in the Grey Unit is moderate, volcanic glass is still present Physical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics
but frequently shows substitution with clay. of paleosols
The Grey Unit is more complete in the Mamut section,
where it is represented by four paleosols, each showing a The color characteristics (Table 1) show clear dif-
distinct micromorphological pattern. Luvisol TX1 is similar ferentiation within the Tlalpan sequence: the values of a*
454 Sedov et al.

a) b)

400
m 250
m

c) d)

400
m 400
m

Figure 2. Micromorphology of surface soil and buried paleosols of Tlaxcala sequence. Surface soil. a: Impure coatings in the A horizon, Tlalpan expo-
sure, PPL. b: Thin pure clay coatings with high birefrigence in the B horizon, Tlalpan exposure, PPL. Paleosols of Grey unit. c: Rounded ferruginous
nodule, TX1 paleosol, Bt horizon, Tlalpan exposure, PPL. d: Etched pyroxene grain, TX1b paleosol, Mamut exposure, PPL. e: Deformed clay illuvial
pedofeatures, TX2 paleosol, Mamut exposure, PPL. f: Same as e), XPL; Note “stress cutans” – elongated areas of oriented clay with high birefringence
along the fissures. Paleosols of Brown unit. g: Clay coatings, predominantly limpid, TX6 paleosol, Bt horizon, Tlalpan exposure, PPL. Paleosols of Red
unit. h: Laminated clay coating fragment, incorporated in the groundmass. TX8 paleosol, Bt horizon, PPL. i: Rounded intercalation enriched in fine mate-
rial . TX8 paleosol, Bt horizon, PPL. j: TX8 paleosol, BC horizon (tepetate): left side: weathered pyroxene with saw-like edges, right side: cross-linear
weathering of plagioclase, center: illuvial clay coating.

parameter (reflecting redness) increases from Grey to Brown horizon of TX1, Bt of TX5 and Bt of TX7. In Mamut, clay
Unit and reaches maximum in the Red Unit. The highest content varies from 24.5 to 49.6%, similar values to those
values of the b* (yellowness) parameter are registered in obtained in Tlalpan section, with high levels of accumula-
the Bt horizons of the Brown Unit. The Bt horizons of the tion in Bt horizons of TX1, TX1b and TX2 (Figure 3b).
Grey Unit have lowest values of both a* and b*, whereas The main differences in paleosol characteristics
L (lightness) is relatively high; this combination is typical were found in the concentration of the Fed (Fe extracted
for the mineral gleyic soils, poor in organic matter, where by dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate solution) and Feo, Sio, Alo
the color is determined mostly by the surfaces of the silicate (Fe, Al, Si extracted by an oxalate solution). Fed values are
particles, free of iron oxide coatings (Vodyanitskiy and relatively low in the Grey Unit (2 – 4.9 mg/g) while the
Shishov, 2004). highest ones are found in the Red Unit (9 to 12.1 mg/g),
Grain size distribution shows similar tendency of clay showing an elevated concentration of free (pedogenic)
increase in the Bt horizons compared to tepetate in the three iron oxides. The Feo/Fed ratio, which provides an estimate
study units (Figure 3a). Clay content ranges from 41 to 57% of the proportion of poorly crystalline compounds within
in the paleosols, being higher in the Ah and Bt horizons than the total fine-grained pedogenic iron oxides, has very low
in tepetate. The highest values have been found in the Ah values in the Red and the highest in the Grey Unit (Figure
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 455

e) f)

400
m 400
m

g) h)

400
m 400
m

i) j)

400
m 400
m

Figure 2. (Continued).

3a and 3b). Sio and Alo exhibit similar values in the Brown same range of those obtained in the Grey Unit of Tlalpan
and Red Units, however in the Grey Unit Sio content grows, section, supporting the correlation between both localities
reflecting the increase of the amorphous minerals. These (Figure 3b).
values coincide with color characteristics. X-ray diffraction patterns of clay fractions have
Although Mamut paleosols demonstrate variation in clearly shown that the minerals of kaolinite group (1:1 type,
the quantities of Fed, Feo, Alo, and Sio, they are within the identified by 7.2 Å peak) are dominant in all paleosols (Table
456 Sedov et al.

Table 1. CIELAB color parameters of paleosol B horizons, Tlalpan located within the Grey Unit produced a very young AMS
section. date of 1,310±35 14C yr BP.
Paleosol, L a* b* The K/Ar age from the lowest tephra (tepetate) sets
Horizon the lower limit of the Tlaxcala sequence time scale at about
0.9 Ma (Table 4). The K/Ar ages of the underlying volcanic
Grey Unit
materials are older. In case of scoria from Tlaxco (1.35 and
TX1, 2Bt1 61.2 2.1 11.6
1.39 Ma) the difference with the lowest tepetate is rather
TX1, 2Bt2 66.6 1.9 12.5
TX2, 3Bt1 51.8 3.0 10.8
small (confidence intervals partly overlapping). On the
TX2, 3Bt2 54.0 3.6 13.7 contrary, the lava from Barranca Blanca is 1–1.5 Ma older
than the lowest tepetate.
Brown Unit
TX3, 4Bt 53.5 4.8 16.6
TX4, 5Bt 59.9 4.2 16.5
DISCUSSION
TX5, 6Bt 55.8 5.5 17.1

Red Unit Paleosol chronology and correlation; record

TX6, 7Bt1 50.2 6.4 16.7 continuity.
TX6, 7Bt2 47.6 6.0 14.9
TX7, 8Bt 51.5 5.7 15.8 Numerous pre-Hispanic artifacts indicate that the
surface Holocene soil has a maximum age of about 3,500
yr BP – the time of the onset of cultural development in
2). Traces of smectites (weak broad maximum at 14.5 Å, the Tlaxcala basin (Abascal et al. 1976; García-Cook
shifting to smaller angles in the specimen saturated with 1976, Heine, 2003). The correlation between Grey Unit
ethylene-glycol) have been found only in the uppermost paleosols at Tlalpan and Mamut sections is supported by
paleosol of the Grey Unit (TX1); in all samples minor similarities of morphological, chemical and mineralogical
quantities of crystobalite and plagioclases are present, the characteristics of the TX2 paleosol as well as their strati-
latter showing a tendency to higher concentrations in BC graphic relation to the underlying Brown Unit paleosols
and C horizons. and tepetate. The radiocarbon dates of the TX2 paleosol
Within the 1:1 type, both dehydrated halloysite with differ in the two studied sections; however, taking into
poorer crystallinity (demonstrating high relative intensity account the confidence interval, the difference could be
of the non-basal maximum at 4.4 Å) and more crystallized just a few thousands years. Such variations of 14C ages are
kaolinite are present. We observed the following tendencies observed in some Holocene soils within a single soil profile
in the profile distribution of these components (Table 2): (Alexandrovskiy and Chichagova, 1998). Considering that
1. Clay fractions of the Grey Unit paleosols are en- the radiocarbon dating of humus provides estimates of the
riched with halloysite (this tendency is the clearest in the minimum age of paleosols, we suggest that in Mamut, the
Mamut sequence), whereas kaolinite is more abundant in TX2 paleosol was formed during MIS3, whereas TX1b
both Brown and Red Units. formed during the first half of MIS2, including the Last
2. Within each individual paleosol, kaolinite tends Glacial Maximum. Regarding the inversion of 14C age in
to accumulate in Bt horizons whereas indurated BC and C TX1a in relation to that of the underlying paleosol we sup-
horizons (tepetate) contain more halloysite. pose that the re-deposition of humus from older paleosols
and its persistence in this very poorly developed soil is
responsible for this phenomenon. We have detected nu-
Instrumental dating of paleosols and parent materials merous cases of 14C age inversions in Holocene profiles
affected by intensive deposition of soil materials in the
Radiocarbon dating of paleosol humus (Table 3) gave nearby Teotihuacan Valley (McClung de Tapia et al., 2005).
14
C ages of 38,160±5880 and >33,595 14C yr BP for TX2 A similar situation is proposed in the Mamut section, the site
paleosol in Tlalpan, whereas in Mamut section they are with evidence of higher sedimentation rates compared to
somewhat younger: 27,940±2,400 and 28,925±1,750 14C Tlalpan. If this hypothesis is right, the development of TX1a
yr BP. In the overlying TX1b paleosol, the 14C ages of Bt corresponds to a short interval in the end of MIS2 whereas
horizons are 22,070±120 and 25,375±800 14C yr BP; in the TX1 formation occurred in the early-middle Holocene. In
AE horizon younger 14C ages 16,820±70 and 17,310±920 Tlalpan section, the TX1 paleosol is most probably a pedo-
14
C yr BP were obtained. In the Mamut section, radiocarbon complex that incorporates also TX1a and TX1b pedogenesis
ages from TX2 and TX1b paleosols are in clear agreement events in one soil body, due to restricted sedimentation
with their stratigraphic position; however, the 14C ages of in this site.
TX1a paleosol (21,340±110 and 24,690±2,550 14C yr BP) The AMS date of pedogenic carbonate: 1,310+35 yr
are inverted; they are older than that of the underlying AE shows that the timing of carbonate illuviation corresponds
horizon of TX1b. Unexpectedly, pedogenic carbonates to the development of modern soil and not to the paleosols
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 457

Figure 3. Analytical properties of study paleosols; for legend description see figure 1. a: Tlalpan section; b: Mamut section.
458 Sedov et al.

of the Grey Unit, although calcitic pedofeatures are located proposed chronologies: our age estimations are considerably
below the modern profile. Thus we consider this process older than 12,000 to 13,000 yr BP proposed for T2 (Miehlich
within modern pedogenesis (see below) and associate it with 1978) and 20,000 – 40,000 yr BP for T3 (Werner et al.,
the recent increase of aridity in the area, maybe synchronous 1978). Regarding correlation with the regional pedostrati-
with anthropogenic perturbation (Heine 2003). graphic scheme of Heine (1975, 1994a), we suppose that
The correlation of our pedostratigraphic scheme with the TX1 paleosol is correlative to fBo3, TX1a – to fBo2 and
the tephra stratigraphy developed for the Tlaxcala region TX1b – to fBo1. At the same time, the TX1a paleosol, its
by Heine and Schönhals (1973) and Aeppli and Schönhals parent materials and the overlying sediments are supposed
(1975) yielded the following linkages: the tepetates of the to be correlative with the Becerra Formation, developed
Grey Unit (C horizons of TX1 and TX2) correspond to the in the Central Mexican Highlands during the terminal
tephra T2 (sub-units T2a and T2b respectively), whereas Pleistocene – early Holocene (Bryan, 1948), and identified
the upper tepetate of the Brown Unit (C-horizon of TX3) in various localities of the Puebla-Tlaxcala Basin by Heine
corresponds to T3. Major disagreement exists between the and Schönhals (1973).

Table 2. Mineralogical composition of clay fractions (semiquantitative, based on peak heights, interpretation of X-ray difractograms).

Unit, paleosol, horizon Kaolinite Halloysite Feldspars Low Cristobalite

Tlalpan section
Modern soil, Ah xxx x x
Grey Unit TX1 Ah xxx x xx x
Bt1 xxx x xx x
Bt2 xx xx x x
C1 x xxx x x
C2 xxx x xx x
TX2 Bt1 xxx (x) xx x
Bt2 xxx (x) x x
BC xx (x) xx x
Brown Unit TX3 Bt xxx x x x
BC xxx (x) xx x
C x xx x
TX4 Bt xxxx x x
BC (x) xxx xx xx
TX5 Bt xxxx x x
C xxx x xx x
Red Unit TX6 Bt xxx (x) x x
BC xxx x xx x
TX6a Bt (x) xxx xx x
C xxx x xx x
TX7 Bt xxxx xx xx
C xxx x xx xx
Barranca Mamut
Modern soil, Ah xxx xx xx x
Grey Unit TX1 Ah xxx xx xx x
B1 xx xxx x x
B2 xxxx x xx
C (x) xxxx xx xx
TX1a Ahg (x) xxxx xx xx
BCg x xxxx xx x
Colluvium x xxxx xx xx
TX1b E xxx xx x x
Bt x xxx xx xx
BC x xxx xx xx
C x xxx xx xx
TX2 Ah (x) xxxx x x
Bt1 (x) xxx x x
Bt2 xxx xx x x
BC xx xxx x xx

Content: (x): rare; x: present; xx: low; xxx: moderate; xxxx: high.
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 459

Table 3. Radiocarbon dating of paleosols of the Tlaxcala section.

Paleosol, horizon, Section Material Lab. No. Age Calibrated Age

depth (14C yr. B.P.) (2 sigma ranges)

TX1a-Agh Mamut Humus Beta233846 21,340 ± 110 24,051 BC* – 23,568 BC

IGAN2342 24,690 ± 2,550 out of calibration range
TX1b-AE Mamut Humus Beta233847 16,820 ± 70 18,218 BC* – 17,882 BC
IGAN2377 17,310 ± 920 20,794 BC ** – 16,764 BC
TX1b-Bt Mamut Humus Beta233848 22,070 ± 120 out of calibration range
Hv24875 25,375 ± 800 out of calibration range
TX2-AB Tlalpan Humus IGAN2341 38,160 ± 5,880 out of calibration range
Hv24565 >33,595 out of calibration range
Mamut Humus IGAN2376 27,940 ± 2,400 out of calibration range
Hv24872 28,925 ± 1,750 out of calibration range
TX1, Bt1 Tlalpan CaCO3 CURL5809 1,310 ± 35 656 AD** – 772 AD
concretions

*Database: INTCAL04, provided by Beta Analytic. ** Calib Rev 5.0.1 (http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/).

New K/Ar dates allowed establishing a justified lower erties. The first step towards meeting this goal offers some
age limit for the Tlaxcala tephra-paleosol sequence. The difficulty, namely the comparison of buried paleosols with
age of 0.9 Ma (± 0.3) for the basal tepetate of the Red Unit the surface Holocene soil. Strong and prolonged erosion,
establishes the time of sedimentation of paleosol parent profound human disturbance, small thickness and “weld-
material and the beginning of pedogenesis of the lowermost ing” with the underlying paleosol, among others, hamper
TX7 paleosol. Thus we assume that the Tlalpan sequence a clear identification and classification of the modern soil
covers the whole middle and late Pleistocene and probably profile. Thus, to compare modern soil with paleosol features
extends to the end of the early Pleistocene. we had to put together a puzzle of different observations
It should be noted that the dating of the Red Unit and evidence.
is consistent with the K/Ar dates from the volcanic rocks The following phenomena were considered to be
found below and fits well into the general context of the indicative of contemporary natural pedogenesis:
chronology and stratigraphy of the Tlaxcala block. In par- -Formation of a dark humus horizon, which in places
ticular, the date 2.6 – 2.87 Ma for the andesitic lava from fits the definition of mollic epipedon.
Barranca Blanca agrees well with the Pliocene-Pleistocene -Moderate clay content and occasional presence of
age of the underlying diatomites (Vilaclara et al., 1997). thin illuvial clay coatings in B horizon (however never
These authors report normal polarity for this lava, that ac- reaching the requirements for an Argic horizon).
cording to our K/Ar dating we interpret as belonging to the -Presence of pedogenic carbonates. Although calcite
Gauss Chron. Formation of the overlying tephra-paleosol concretions do occur in the TX1 paleosol below modern A
sequence should have begun after some considerable delay and B horizons, the AMS age (1310 14C yr BP) indicates
following the termination of diatomite deposition and lava these features are the result of recent pedogenesis. It should
ejection. This delay is justified by 1–1.5 Ma lag between be also taken into account that the TX1 groundmass is
the K/Ar dates of andesite and Red Unit tephra as well as free of carbonates and that this paleosol has clay illuvial
by geomorphological evidence. The orientation of tephra pedofeatures. It means that this paleosol had primarily
and paleosol strata conforms to the configuration of the been subjected to leaching and clay illuviation, whereas its
major landforms of erosional relief of the Tlaxcala block. recalcification occurred later.
We conclude that the development of the studied sequence These features point to the following set of pedog-
took place after the block uplift, which finished with the enetic processes: dark humus accumulation in the topsoil,
lacustrine environment and gave rise to the denudation weak weathering, leaching and clay illuviation in the mid-
geomorphic processes. dle part of the profile and carbonate precipitation below.
In the WRB system (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006)
this profile corresponds to Molli-Calcic Cambisol. The
Decoding soil memory: pedogenetic and evidences of deep long-term human impact (artifacts of
paleoenvironmental interpretation of paleosols different age, agrocutans, etc.) found in the study area are
common for majority of surface soils of the Central Mexican
The set of pedogenetic processes in the modern soil and Highlands.
buried paleosols Buried paleosols of the Tlalpan sequence differ signifi-
Decoding of the paleopedological record implies first cantly from the modern soil. None of them have evidence
the pedogenetic interpretation of the soil and paleosol prop- of carbonate neoformation or dark humus accumulation
460 Sedov et al.
Table 4. K/Ar dating of the lowest paleosol of the Tlaxcala section and underlying rocks.

Sample/location Analysis Technique Weight K 40

Ar* 40
Ar* Age
number (mg) (wt. %) moles/g x10-12 % (Ma)

TLX-1, gn170 spikeless 29.607 0.342 0.542 38.8 0.9 ± 0.3

Tlalpan
19°27´54´´N
98°18´37.2´´W

TLX-2, gn167 spikeless 14.50 0.924 2.16 37.0 1.35 ± 0.14

Tlaxco
sp1063 spiked 35.87 2.24 40.8 1.39 ± 0.21
19°31´46.8´´N
98°07´45.9´´W

TLX-3, gn168 spikeless 16.80 0.937 4.23 18.4 2.60 ± 0.26

Barranca Blanca
sp1070 spiked 20.12 4.67 31.3 2.87 ± 0.40
19°23´36.1´´N
98°17´42.5´´W

sufficient for the development of Mollic horizon. The main content indicates higher amounts of amorphous minerals.
processes, clearly detectable in all these paleosols are: In this unit Poetsch (2004) detected micromorphologically
-weathering of primary minerals, documented mi- minor amounts of chemically precipitated opal.
cromorphologically, together with the accumulation of the Clay illuviation is best expressed in the Brown Unit,
alteration products – pedogenic clay (mostly halloysite and decreasing in the Grey and Red Units. However, we propose
kaolinite) and iron oxides; that in the Red Unit, the morphological results of illuviation
-illuvial clay pedofeatures including: coatings and are less abundant not because of the lower intensity of this
infillings, observed macromorphologically and in the thin process, but rather due to their partial destruction by pedo-
sections; turbation. Besides fragmented clay pedofeatures (papules)
-gleization (redoximorphic processes) also detected this process is evidenced by excremental aggregates.
morphologically by the presence of ferruginous nodules, Gleization is strongest in the Grey Unit. In addition to
mottles, coatings. numerous ferruginous pedofeatures, gleization is detected
Although the set of these pedogenetic processes was by color parameters and larger values of Feo/Fed that are
rather uniform throughout the Tlalpan sequence, their rela- known to increase in soils affected by redoximorphic proc-
tive development differed greatly among the units. esses. These results agree with the rock magnetic data of
Weathering as well as clay and iron oxide neoforma- Ortega-Guerrero et al. (2004), who explain the minimum
tion is most pronounced in the Red Unit, decreasing in the of magnetic susceptibility found in the Grey Unit by the
Brown and Grey Units. Micromorphological observations destruction of magnetic minerals due to redoximorphic
show that mineral alteration in the Red Unit paleosols processes.
extends over a thicker layer, affecting not only Bt, but also Morphological data from the Mamut sequence show
BC horizon (tepetate). The highest accumulation of pedog- clear variations of the set of pedogenetic processes within
enic iron oxides is also registered in these paleosols. The the Grey Unit. Gleization is pronounced in all Grey Unit
neoformed iron oxides in the Red Unit have a high grade of paleosols with the strongest development in TX1a, which
crystallinity (lowest Feo/Fed ratio) and a larger proportion contrasts with its incipient weathering and clay illuviation.
of haematite which gives the red color (highest a* values) The latter processes are well expressed in TX1b and mod-
to the soil mass. However, while the weathering grade of erately expressed in TX1 and TX2. In the TX2 paleosol
the Red Unit is highest of all these paleosols, it does not strong cracking, stress cutans and deformation of illuvial
reach the advanced ferrallitic stage because there remain pedofeatures point to argillipedoturbation due to shrink-
too many weatherable components and too little pedogenic swell phenomena (Nettleton et al., 1969).
iron oxide accumulated to qualify as a Ferralic horizon of We propose that the differences in pedogenetic char-
IUSS Working Group WRB (2006). Alteration of primary acteristics observed within the Tlaxcala paleosol sequence
minerals and accumulation of neoformed components in the demonstrate the response of local pedogenesis to certain
Brown Unit is weaker compared to the Red Unit, however trends of global climate evolution as well as to regional scale
the differences are rather quantitative than qualitative, be- natural and human-induced landscape processes.
cause in the Brown Unit the principal weathering products
are also kaolinitic clay and crystalline iron oxides. The Grey Comparing surface soil and buried paleosols: the
Unit demonstrates quite different weathering status. The al- problem of the late Holocene aridity
teration products are less mature than in other units, with less Comparing the surface soil and all buried paleosols
crystallized halloysite dominant over kaolinite, elevated Sio we observe contrasting qualitative differences in their
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 461

pedogenesis that imply distinct bioclimatic conditions of and human-induced environmental evolution trends.
soil formation. In the surface soil the set of the described
pedogenetic processes fits well with the actual semihumid Grey Unit paleosols: reconstructing the paleo-
to semiarid seasonal climate. environmental dynamics during the Last Glaciation
In the buried paleosols, weathering and illuviation A conspicuous feature of the Grey Unit when consid-
required a moist leaching soil environment whereas a pre- ered as a whole is its strong gleization despite the apparent
requisite for redoximorphic processes is a period of water well drained geomorphic position. Thus the reason for the
saturation. We conclude that during the whole middle and redoximorphic processes is likely an excess of surface
late Pleistocene and early Holocene soil development oc- moisture, not groundwater saturation. Taking into account its
curred under conditions much more moist than during the low weathering status and immature neoformed components
late Holocene. Within the Central Mexican Highlands, a compared to the Brown and Red units, the most plausible
similar trend was found in the volcanic paleosol sequence reason for surface saturation is not an increase of precipita-
of the Teotihuacan Valley (Solleiro-Rebolledo et al. 2006) tion but considerable decrease of evapotranspiration due to
where late Pleistocene-early Holocene Luvisols are replaced climate cooling. The domination of cool temperate forest
by modern Kastanozems and Calcisols. ecosystems is a probable paleoecological scenario for the
This pedological evidence could be correlated with period of formation of the Grey Unit. This hypothesis is
the signals of pronounced late Holocene dry periods (or a supported by the expression of the illuvial pedofeatures in
set of droughts) in the interval 1400 to 800 14C yr BP (late the lower paleosols of the Grey Unit, namely the joint depo-
Classic – early Postclassic period) and in the 17th to 19th sition of clay and dark humus in the Bt horizon, which is
centuries A.D. (coinciding with the Little Ice Age), which characteristic for Grey Forest soils (Greyic Luvisols in IUSS
Metcalfe and Davies (2007) identified in a number of Working Group WRB [2006]), formed in the mixed forest
Central Mexican lacustrine records. Lozano-García et al. and forest-steppe zones of Eurasia under mean annual tem-
(2007) also detected a similar record in cores of Lago Verde peratures 7 – 8 °C lower than that of Tlaxcala (Gerasimova et
in eastern Mesoamerica. The 14C date from the pedogenic al., 1996; Miedema et al. 1999). Further evidence in favor of
carbonates at the top of the Tlaxcala sequence falls in the this scenario is provided by the palynological spectra from
first interval. the Central Mexican Highlands which, despite the large
Anthropogenic landscape transformation could also scale fluctuations, demonstrate the domination of coniferous
contribute to the development of “drier” pedogenesis in trees throughout MIS3-MIS2. Among them, besides Pinus
the late Holocene soils. The decline of trees and increase and Abies, also Picea is recorded for different intervals
of herbs (Chenopodeacea and Amaranthacea) detected in within the period 50,000–10,000 yr BP (Lozano-García and
the palynological spectra from the lake cores of Mexico Ortega-Guerrero, 1998; Caballero et al. 1999); the latter is
(Lozano-García and Xelhuanzti-López, 1997) and Lerma a typical component of the coniferous boreal forests and is
basins (Lozano-García et al., 2005) together with high val- absent in the actual central Mexican flora.
ues of charcoal particles and presence of Zea mays pollen The differences of pedogenesis within the Grey Unit
during the last ~3000 years are indicative of deforestation, allow tracing paleoclimatic changes during the upper late
frequent fires and land cultivation. In agreement with these Pleistocene – early Holocene. The climate of the early-
data and with the archaeological reconstructions of popu- middle MIS3 (paleosol TX2) is believed to be drier, with
lation densities, Heine (2003) established human-induced the strongest seasonal variations of precipitation. These
acceleration of soil erosion and related downslope colluvial conditions could limit weathering and clay illuviation and
sedimentation in Puebla-Tlaxcala region. Large areas were promote vertic processes due to shrink-swell phenomena,
eroded as early as 2000 years ago, whereas one of the major which are linked to alternation of soil drying and wetting.
erosion maxima took place during the Texcalac and early In the Nevado de Toluca tephra-paleosol sequence, located
Tlaxcala archaeological period, between 700 and 1300 yr some 100 km to the west of Tlaxcala at similar altitudes and
AD, that coincide with the aridity interval proposed by corresponding to the same interval, well developed paleosols
Metcalfe and Davies (2007). (PT2 and PT3) are present (Sedov et al., 2001). Although
Strong soil erosion in the region should affect the soil showing predominantly features of humid pedogenesis,
moisture regime of the slopes and even watersheds through these paleosols also have signs of wet/dry fluctuations re-
the following mechanisms: 1) sheet erosion producing loss corded in the clay mineral assemblages and stable carbon
of upper horizons, reduction of soil water holding capac- isotope composition of humus (Sedov et al., 2003). Most
ity, increasing surface runoff; 2) linear erosion causing the lacustrine records demonstrate moderate to high lake levels
development of gullies (barrancas) which should increase and dominance of arboreal vegetation before 27,000 yr BP
the drainage and lowers the groundwater level. Both mecha- (Lozano-García and Ortega-Guerrero, 1998; Caballero et al.
nisms will decrease soil moisture and thus promote “drier” 1999) – again in good agreement with the paleopedological
pedogenesis. The observed differences between the late proxies. Regarding the regional glacial history, the TX2
Holocene soil and earlier paleosols in Tlaxcala sequence paleosol formation period includes the M1 glacier advance
could be a result of a cumulative effect of natural climatic (35,000 cal. yr BP) registered in various high volcanoes.
462 Sedov et al.

Heine (1984, 1994b) proposed an extensive (~ 32–36 ka BP) dry episodes.

period of geomorphic activity (accelerated erosion, defla- 3) Ambiguity of lacustrine records: some elements of
tion and eolian sedimentation) hampering soil formation at the lacustrine records in central Mexico are not uniformly
altitudes below 3000 m, associated with M1. Our observa- interpreted. For example, earlier studies of lake cores within
tions apparently do not conform to this hypothesis. On the the TMVB reported a lower ratio of arboreal to non-arbo-
contrary, well developed Luvisol TX2 provides evidence real (AP/NAP) pollen as an important argument in favor of
of an extensive period of landsurface stability. However “drier” LGM (e.g., Ortega-Guerrero et al., 2000). However
Poetsch (2004) reports in the BC horizon of TX2 a thin layer in a recent paper about the vegetation history of the Upper
with micromorphological characteristics of sedimentation Lerma basin, although referring to LGM in central Mexico
of “aquatic nature” at the base of the Grey Unit. According as being relatively dry, Lozano-García et al. (2005) state that
to the proposed chronostratigraphic scheme, these features “altitudinal fluctuation of the plant communities during the
could present a signal of enhancement of geomorphic proc- local glacial advances could explain the high percentages of
esses corresponding to M1, perhaps rather short-term. grass pollen”. They acknowledge that the increase of grass
The TX1b paleosol displays major development of pollen in late Pleistocene strata could be due to the lower-
weathering and clay illuviation and absence of the vertic ing of the tree line to about 3000 m.a.s.l. (currently close to
features during the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS2), which 4000 m.a.s.l.) and the expansion of alpine meadows, thus
supports the concept of more uniform humidity than in the presenting a temperature rather than humidity signal.
previous period. Other paleosols of the Central Mexican
Highlands, formed during MIS2 at similar altitudes also Red Unit paleosols – a record of the Mid Pleistocene
demonstrate signs of humid forest pedogenesis. Paleosol Climatic Transition?
fBo1 on the slopes of La Malinche (Heine, 1975), which The Tlalpan sequence presents a proxy for the last
yielded several 14C dates in the range 18,000 – 20,000 14C ~ 900,000 years; the available sequence timescale is not
yr BP (Heine 1994a), is a thick Andosol that indicates moist sufficiently detailed to identify the local paleopedological
climate and landsurface stability for several thousands years responses to the periodic global climate fluctuations (i.e.,
(Miehlich, 1991). In the Nevado de Toluca tephra-paleosol glacial-interglacial cycles) within this period. However,
sequence, this period is documented by PT1 paleosol level, it provides an opportunity (until now, unique) to trace
presented by Andosols and Cambisols (Sedov et al., 2001), the general tendency of regional environmental change
which also show mostly signs of humid pedogenesis. In throughout the middle and late Pleistocene and correlate
Teotihuacan (Solleiro-Rebolledo et al., 2006) in the upland it with the slow climatic transition registered within this
positions, Luvisols were formed during this period, which period at the global scale.
are indicative of humid forest ecosystems. Luvisols of the Red and Brown units demonstrate a
These paleopedological proxies should be consid- set of soil forming processes typical for warm temperate to
ered in connection with the existing controversy in the subtropical humid or subhumid forest ecosystems. However
reconstruction of Last Glacial Maximum paleoclimate in the higher weathering status of the Red Unit paleosols is not
Central Mexico. In a number of recent papers “cool and reproduced in the overlying soil units and must be reflecting
dry” conditions are attributed to this period based on the some specific environmental conditions that favored mineral
lacustrine and palynological records (e.g., Lozano-García transformation and accumulation of secondary products.
and Ortega-Guerrero, 1998; Ortega-Guerrero et al., 2000). The age of the tepetate at the base of the lowest TX7
On the other hand Bradbury (1997b, 2000) proposed that paleosol allows us to link the beginning of Red Unit pedo-
this period was rather moist, with considerable winter rains genesis to the Mid Pleistocene Climatic Transition (MPT)
and a predominantly Pacific source of atmospheric moisture. – a pronounced global climate change, which is character-
The data from the Tlaxcala sequence as well as the whole ized by an increase of global ice volumes and the onset of
set of other paleopedological results (Sedov et al., 2001, the 100 ka cyclicity of glacial-interglacial cycles (Berger
2003; Solleiro-Rebolledo et al., 2003, 2006) support the and Jansen, 1994) which were fully established around 650
hypothesis of Bradbury. ka (Mudelsee and Stattegger, 1997).
Our explanation for the apparent discrepancies be- We hypothesize that the Red Unit paleosols reflect
tween paleopedological and lacustrine records for the Last the environmental conditions of the MPT interim period in
Glacial Maximum consists of three main points: the Central Mexican Highlands. Their higher weathering
1) patial variability of the paleoenvironments: status could be related not to much warmer and moister
Paleosols provide a highly site-specific record of local climate, but rather to the amplitude and intensity of climatic
environmental conditions at elevated landforms (volcanic fluctuations. Low amplitude cyclicity of MPT provided
plateaus and higher slopes) with higher rates of humidity a more stable environment and continuous uninterrupted
than in the valley bottoms. pedogenesis over longer time intervals in the Red Unit. On
2) Temporal variability of paleoenvironments: Soil the contrary the contrasting glacial/interglacial cycles with
memory has relatively low temporal resolution and often extensive cold phases would have promoted more dynamic
is not able to register short-term (below millennial scale) environmental conditions that should break the continuity of
 The Tlaxcala basin paleosol sequence 463

pedogenetic processes during pedogenesis of the overlying Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 163,
younger paleosols. This change of the paleoclimate cyclicity 69-95.
Bryan, K., 1948, Los suelos complejos y fósiles de la altiplanicie de
is expected to especially effect weathering processes which México, en relación a los cambios climáticos: Boletín de la
are known to be one of the slowest pedogenetic processes, Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 13, 1-20.
with a characteristic time of 105 – 106 yr (Targulian and Bullock, P., Fedoroff, N., Jongerius, A., Stoops, G., Tursina, T.,
Krasilnikov, 2007) – more than the duration of the 100 Babel, U., 1985, Handbook for Soil Thin Section Description:
Wolverhampton, Waine Research Publications, 152 p.
ka cycle. This implies that the advanced weathering stage Bush, M.B., Colinvaux, P.A., 1990, A pollen record of a complete glacial
needs environmental stability intervals longer than one cycle from lowland Panama: Journal of Vegetation Science 1,
glacial/interglacial cycle, which is why it was achieved 105-118.
during the MPT interim period and not reproduced within Caballero, M., Lozano-García, S., Ortega-Guerrero, B., Urrutia, J., Macías,
J.L., 1999, Environmental characteristics of Lake Tecocomulco,
the post-MPT time. northern basin of Mexico, for the last 50,000 years: Journal of
Paleolimnology, 22, 399-411.
Caballero, M., Ortega-Guerrero, B., Valadez, F., Metcalfe, S., Macías, J.L.,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sugiera, Y., 2002, Santa. Cruz Atizapan: a 22-ka lake level record
and climatic implications in the Upper Lerma Basin, Central
Mexico: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology,
This work was partially funded by several grants: 186, 217-235.
DGAPA-PAPIIT IN104600 and IN110107; CONACyT Cornwall, I.W., 1968, Outline of a stratigraphical “bridge” between the
32337T, Conacyt-DFG MX00/014, and ICSU grant pro- Mexico and Puebla basins, part I: University of London, Bulletin
of the Institute of Archaeology, 7, 89-140.
gram 2003, project “Polygenetic models for Pleistocene Cornwall, I.W., 1969, Outline of a stratigraphical “bridge” between the
paleosols”. We thank E. Vallejo and A. González, for Mexico and Puebla basins, part II: University of London, Bulletin
laboratory analyses; T. Pi for XRD data, J. Gama for field of the Institute of Archaeology, 8, 1-54.
work assistance; M. Frechen and K. Heine for radiocarbon Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B. (eds.), Minerals in soil environments: Madison,
Wisconsin, USA, Soil Science Society of America, Book series,
dating. We acknowledge the participation in the field work 2nd edition, 89 p.
and fruitful discussions of all ICSU project participants. We García-Cook, A.G., 1976, El proyecto arqueológico Puebla-Tlaxcala:
are indebted to P. Jacobs for correcting English and for his Puebla, México, Fundación Alemana para la Investigación
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García, E., 1988, Modificaciones al sistema de clasificación climática de
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helped a lot to improve the paper. Instituto de Geografía, 217 p.
Gerasimova, M.I., Gubia, S.V., Shoba, S.A., 1996, Soils of Russia and
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