TDUEX 2013 Ordiales Rey PDF
TDUEX 2013 Ordiales Rey PDF
TDUEX 2013 Ordiales Rey PDF
DEPARTAMENTO DE PRODUCCIÓN
ANIMAL Y CIENCIA DE LOS ALMENTOS
INFORMA:
DEPARTAMENTO DE PRODUCCIÓN
ANIMAL Y CIENCIA DE LOS ALMENTOS
Alberto Martín González, Profesor Titular del Área de Nutrición y Bromatología del
Departamento de Producción Animal y Ciencia de los Alimentos de la Universidad
de Extremadura
INFORMA:
DEPARTAMENTO DE PRODUCCIÓN
ANIMAL Y CIENCIA DE LOS ALMENTOS
INFORMA:
Tras haber recorrido el camino que tiene su primer parada en la defensa de mi trabajo de tesis,
y con el que he satisfecho las inquietudes y motivaciones que me llevaron a emprenderlo,
pongo el conocimiento generado y recogido en esta tesis a disposición del sector quesero de
Extremadura, en especial a aquellos que se dedican a elaborar la “Torta del Casar”, por si les
resulta útil para mejorar su conocimiento sobre el cuajo y su procedencia, su manejo y la
influencia que ejerce en el producto final. Aprovecho para, desde aquí, despertar la consciencia
en los productores, que deben proteger el patrimonio natural que constituye el cardo en
Extremadura, ya que es un ingrediente fundamental para ellos, y ellos deben ser los más
interesados en conservarlo y controlarlo.
A todas las personas que me han ayudado a llevar a cabo este trabajo de Tesis Doctoral:
A mis directores de tesis, Prof. Dr. Alberto Martín, Prof. Dra. Mª José Benito y Prof. Dra. Mª de
Guía Córdoba, por vuestra disponibilidad, por vuestra generosidad, por adaptaros a mi horario,
por vuestro tiempo, por todo lo que he aprendido con vosotros, por el apoyo, por ayudarme en
todo y más de lo que he necesitado en todo este tiempo, por todo lo que me habéis aportado a
nivel profesional y personal.
Al resto de miembros del grupo de investigación CAMIALI, Prof. Dr. Alejandro Hernández, Prof.
Dr. Emilio Aranda, Prof. Dr. Francisco Pérez, por vuestro apoyo y asesoramiento, por vuestra
disponibilidad, simpatía y amabilidad en todo momento.
Al Dr. Santiago Ruíz - Moyano, por todas las horas de laboratorio desde que empezamos con la
beca de colaboración, por venir a trabajar en fin de semana para ayudarme a hacer los quesos,
por traerme cuajo de su tierra, por la búsqueda de artículos en Davis, por su apoyo
incondicional incluso desde California, por sus palabras de ánimo, por entenderme, por ser mi
amigo.
A todos los compañeros con los que he compartido horas y horas en el laboratorio, protocolos,
reactivos, material, etc. desde que empecé este proyecto, muchos de ellos ya Doctores o a
punto de serlo, Dr. Julio, Vita, Guti, Alejandro, Dra. Rocío, Marga, Mª José, Nieves, Malu y el
resto de compañeros, en especial al Dr. Manuel Serradilla, que es el mejor reviewer y a la Dra.
Alicia Rodríguez, por nuestra amistad.
A Cándido Cebrián, allí donde esté, por ponerme en marcha la planta piloto y evitarme tener
que leer las instrucciones de los aparatos, y porque nunca me regañó aunque le quedara
muchas cosas para fregar.
A Mª de Guía, por la confianza que depositó en mí desde el principio para poner en marcha
este proyecto y porque gracias a ti se ha convertido en realidad, por el tiempo que me has
dedicado aún cuando no tenías tiempo, por no dejar que me conforme ni me rinda, por las
palabras de ánimo de cada día, por enseñarme a ser mejor profesional y por la confianza a
nivel personal.
A la DOP Torta del Casar, y en especial al Director Técnico, Javier Muñoz, por su colaboración
en la ejecución de este trabajo, por enseñarnos a elaborar el producto y por hacernos llegar los
problemas del sector. Por los datos proporcionados sobre producción, certificación, etc.
A los maestros queseros de Torta del Casar, Jesús Moreno, Diego Lindo y David Franco, por
aguantar mis entrevistas, contarme los trucos, prestarme moldes, y estar siempre dispuestos a
ayudarme.
A la DOP Queso de la Serena por facilitarme los datos de producción e invitarme a sus
queserías.
A Arturo por confiar en que no le iba a quitar el negocio y enseñarme las localizaciones donde
recoge el cardo.
Al Prof. Dr. Abelardo García, por creer en mí, por enseñarme que la tesis sería una carrera de
obstáculos, por las recogidas de cardo en el campo, por los consejos, por estar siempre ahí.
Al Dr. Jerónimo González, de la Finca La Orden-Valdesequera, por prestarme su ayuda y por las
muestras de Cynara cardunculus que recogimos de su plantación.
A Juan Labrador, Raúl Labrador y Arturo Hernández por acompañarme a buscar los cardos en
el campo.
A mis compañeros de CTAEX, Patricia, Abel, Raquel, Isa, Rosa y Carmen, que me han ayudado
con algunos análisis de laboratorio. A mis compañeros del área de Agricultura de CTAEX, y
Aurori y Ángela, por todo lo que me han enseñado estos años, por su cariño, por su apoyo, y
por nuestros desayunos.
A mis amigos, porque siempre estáis cuando os necesito, por vuestras muestras de cariño,
apoyo y comprensión, por alegraros de mis triunfos y acompañarme en mis derrotas. En
especial a Verónica por sus correcciones y consejos.
A toda mi familia, por estar en los buenos y malos momentos, por todos los ratos que
compartimos, por todo lo que he aprendido de cada uno de vosotros, por el camino que nos
queda recorrer juntos, en especial a mi abuela Brígida.
A mis padres, Juan y Maxi, y mis hermanos, Juan Antonio y Prado, por vuestro apoyo y
entusiasmo con este proyecto, por ser mi fuente de inspiración, por recargarme las pilas, por
ayudarme a levantar cada vez que caigo, por escucharme, por dejarme elegir, por corregirme
cuando me equivoco, por enseñarme que nunca me iban a regalar nada en la vida, por ser mi
refugio.
Hay una fuerza motriz más poderosa que el vapor,
Albert Einstein
A Juan, Maxi, Juan Antonio y Prado
I.-INTRODUCCIÓN
Introducción
I.1. EL QUESO
3
Introducción
La DOP Torta del Casar certificó más de 500000 unidades de queso tipo torta en
2010. Desde su constitución la producción de quesos amparados bajo esta marca de
calidad ha pasado de 156000 kg de queso en 2002 a 381716 kg de queso en 2010, es
decir, la producción se ha duplicado. En este tiempo el nº de ganaderías inscritas a la
DOP ha disminuido de 39 a 28, sin embargo, la producción no se ha visto
comprometida, dado que estas ganaderías han aumentado su capacidad, con un mayor nº
de cabezas inscritas a la DOP. Unido a ello el nº de industrias inscritas a la DOP
también ha experimentado un aumento desde 2002, como se observa en la Tabla I.1.
Tabla I.1. Evolución del nº de ganaderías, cabezas e industrias inscritas a la DOP Torta del
Casar.
2002 39 19100 8
2003 45 21650 9
2004 51 23600 9
2005 58 25300 12
2006 52 28800 13
2007 50 27650 13
2008 41 26416 13
2009 30 26632 14
2010 28 24656 14
4
Introducción
3500000
3000000
2500000
2000000
L
1500000
1000000
500000
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Figura I.1. Cantidad de leche (L) certificada por la DOP Tota del Casar.
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
kg
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
kg queso certificados formato M kg queso certificados formato L
Figura I.2. Cantidad de queso (kg) certificado por la DOP Torta del Casar.
5
Introducción
a fabricar quesos tipo torta de 0,5 kg, en lugar de las piezas de 1 kg. De modo que se
observa que la cantidad de queso de 0,5 kg ha ido aumentando en los últimos años, en
detrimento de la cantidad de queso de 1 kg de peso (Figura I.2). Desde 2010 la DOP
Torta del Casar también certifica piezas de torta de 0,25 kg de peso, para satisfacer las
demandas del consumidor.
Tabla I.2. Datos de ventas de quesos, en t de queso, en los ámbitos nacional e internacional.
Ventas (t) 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Nacional 154 212,4 264 301,1 389,5 397,9 369,3 339,1 369,3
Las ventas de Torta del Casar en el ámbito nacional han aumentado de forma
progresiva desde 2002 a 2010, alcanzando el máximo en 2007, con 397984 kg de queso
vendidos. La evolución de las ventas a nivel internacional difiere de la tendencia al alza
del terreno nacional, ya que aumentaron hasta 2005, cuando alcanzaron su mayor valor,
pero disminuyen desde entonces de forma progresiva hasta 2010, cuando se destinaron
al mercado internacional poco más de 12000 kg de queso Torta del Casar. El 87 % de
las ventas internacionales se produjeron en los países europeos en 2006, y un 81 % en
2010. El continente americano absorbió un 12 % de estas ventas en 2006 y un 17 % en
2010. Entre el 1 y 2 % de las ventas internacionales se realizaron a países del resto del
mundo. (Datos proporcionados por la DOP Torta del Casar).
6
Introducción
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
L
600000
400000
200000
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Figura I.3. Producción de leche (L) para la elaboración del “Queso de La Serena” desde 2006.
250000
200000
Piezas de queso certificadas
150000
100000
50000
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Figura I.4. Piezas de queso certificadas por la DOP “Queso de La Serena” desde 2006.
7
Introducción
Entre los quesos franceses elaborados con leche de oveja se destacan el queso
Roquefort, Ossau-Iraty y Broccio, que representan el 40 % de todos los quesos
producidos en Francia, con este tipo de leche.
8
Introducción
Kopanisti es otro queso blando griego, producido con leche de vaca, oveja o
cabra, o mezcla de ellas. La leche se coagula a 28 – 30º C en 2 horas. La cuajada
desuerada es salada, distribuida en recipientes, y se mantienen en un lugar fresco con
alta humedad relativa para favorecer el crecimiento de moho en la superficie. Presenta
una textura blanda, untuosa, con sabor salado y picante.
Kasseri es un queso griego semiduro de leche de oveja, que puede llevar hasta
un 20 % de leche de cabra, pudiendo utilizarse leche cruda o pasterizada. La cuajada se
calienta a 38 – 40º C, se desura hasta que el pH baja a 5,2. La cuajada se corta en
lonchas, que se extienden en agua a 70-80º C durante 15 minutos y se introducen dentro
de moldes durante 2 – 3 días. Maduran en sal, a 18º C durante no menos que 3 meses.
9
Introducción
propiónica, que aporta al queso un sabor ligeramente dulce. La leche se calienta a 70º C,
y la cuajada se corta y se escalda a 50 – 52º C. Los quesos tienen un diámetro de 40 cm
y pesan entre 14 y 16 kg. Se maduran durante 90 días a una temperatura entre 15 – 16º
C.
Entre los quesos italianos se destacan por su importancia los tipos Pecorino
Romano, Pecorino Siciliano, Pecorino Toscano y Pecorino Sardo.
Pecorino Siciliano es otro de los quesos de pasta dura de Italia, se elabora con
leche de oveja, empleando cuajo animal. Se consume en diferentes estados de
maduración, fresco, salado durante 1 semana o curado tras 4 meses. Su composición y
propiedades físico – químicas fueron descritas por Gattuso y col. (1995) y sus
características microbiológicas por Giudici y col. (1997).
10
Introducción
estárter y a veces se añaden enzimas lipolíticas. La coagulación con cuajo animal tiene
lugar a 35-38º C en 20 – 25 minutos. Los quesos se salan durante 24 horas, y se
maduran por un periodo mínimo de 20 días para el queso blando y 4 meses para el
queso semiblando. Su sabor es aromático y ligeramente picante. Sus características y
tecnología fueron descritas por Neviani y col. (1998).
El queso Serpa presenta también una textura semi – blanda, con pocos o ningún
agujero en su pasta, y se elabora en la región de Serpa, con leche de oveja Merino
(Freitas y col., 2000). Se caracterizan por su fuerte sabor, bastante picante. Su
maduración se produce en dos etapas, a 6-10º C y 95 – 100 % de HR y 7-11º C y 75-90
% de HR durante 30 – 40 días.
11
Introducción
España se caracteriza por ofrecer una gran variedad de quesos, entre ellos se
destacan Afuega L’Pitu, Cebreiro, Arzúa-Ulloa, San Simón Da Costa, IGP Valdeón,
Garrotxa, Tronchón, Rondeño, Monte Enebro, Peñamellera, Sierra de Cazorla,
Gamonedo. Muchos de los quesos españoles están amparados bajo la marca de caidad
Denominación de Origen Protegida, como Palmero, Manchego, Idiazábal, Roncal,
Zamorano, La Serena, Torta del Casar, Tetilla, Mahón, Cantabria, Alt Urgell, Quesucos
de Liébana, Ibores, Majorero, Murcia al vino, Cabrales y Picón de Bejes-Tresviso.
12
Introducción
13
Introducción
firme y compacta y color blanco amarillento. Se elabora a partir de leche de oveja, vaca
y cabra.
La DOP Torta del Casar fue aprobada por Orden de 9/10/2001 de la Consejería
de Agricultura y Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Extremadura (DOE del 13/10/2001).
La Torta del Casar es un queso español con DOP a nivel europeo por el Reglamento
(CE) 1491/2003 de la Comisión Europea.
14
Introducción
La materia prima con la que se elabora la Torta del Casar es la leche de oveja, de
las razas merina y entrefina, las cuales se caracterizan por su rusticidad, su capacidad de
adaptación a entornos naturales extremos, y su baja producción lechera, en torno a 75
l/oveja y año. Este ganado ha estado vinculado al sistema de explotación tradicional de
la zona, extensivo o semiextensivo, alimentándose de los pastos del ecosistema típico
del área que abarca la DOP, si bien en determinadas épocas del año necesita una
suplementación alimenticia, a base de forrajes o piensos.
15
Introducción
cardo (C. cardunculus) en agua. El uso de la leche cruda de oveja Merina y del
coagulante vegetal le dan las características del ligero amargor y la textura blanda
(Delgado y col., 2010).
16
Introducción
17
Introducción
Casar de otros quesos en el mercado. Este flavor típico y diferencial del queso Torta del
Casar puede deberse a la alta concentración de etil ester, encontrada por Delgado y col.
(2010), dado su bajo umbral de percepción.
Descriptores del olor asociados con el aroma típico del queso Castelo Branco
son acídico, olor a oveja y notas picanes (Ferreira y col., 2009).
El hecho de que la Torta del Casar se elabore a partir de leche cruda de oveja,
permite a la microflora indígena o autóctona, principalmente bacterias ácido lácticas,
LAB, jugar un importante papel durante la elaboración del queso, principalmente
durante la maduración. Sin embargo, esta es también la mayor causa de variabilidad en
las características organolépticas y calidad global del producto final, debido a la falta de
entendimiento (y por tanto difícil control) de los cambios bioquímicos producidos por
los microorganismos en la matriz del queso. Por tanto, urge algún grado de
estabilización en las prácticas de elaboración del queso, lo cual requiere que los
productores del queso elijan cultivos starter bien definidos y específicos, basados en su
comportamiento tecnológico (Pereira y col., 2010).
18
Introducción
dextranicum, Leuc. mesenteroides subs. mesenteroides, Lb. curvatus, Lb. plantarum and
E. faecalis (Poullet y col., 1993).
19
Introducción
20
Introducción
respectivamente, al final de la maduración. Por otra parte, gran parte del conocimiento
existente se deriva de estudios que engloban el crecimiento de cultivos puros testados en
medios sintéticos, pero más atención se pone en las cepas autóctonas de cada ambiente.
Además, debe tenerse en cuenta que las matrices de los quesos actuales albergan células
de microorganismos en diversos estados fisiológicos, crecimiento, latente, muerto y
autolizados (Fleet, 1999).
21
Introducción
22
Introducción
2002, Marino y col., 2000). Entre los métodos citados, la fase reversa (RP)-HPLC se
considera el más adecuado (Moret y Conte, 1996).
I.1.4.6. Proteólisis
La proteólisis es uno de los mecanismos más importantes que ocurren durante la
maduración de los quesos, en el que las enzimas del cuajo juegan un papel vital,
especialmente en las primeras fases de la maduración, y afectan al rendimiento, la
textura, así como en el flavor del queso (Silva y Malcata, 2005), lo cual ha sido objeto
de estudio en numerosas revisiones. La proteólisis contribuye a los cambios de la
textura de la matriz del queso, debido a la hidrólisis de la red de proteínas, el descenso
de la actividad de agua, mediante el secuestro del agua por grupos carboxyl y amino
liberados, y un incremento del pH (en particular en la superficie de los quesos
madurados con moho), lo cual facilita la liberación de compuestos sápidos (sabrosos)
durante la masticación. Ello contribuye directamente al flavor y al mal sabor (como el
amargor) del queso, mediante la formación de péptidos y aminoácidos libres, así como
la liberación del sustrato (aminoácidos) para los cambios catabólicos secundarios, como
la transaminación, deaminación, decarboxilación, el catabolismo de los aminoácidos
aromáticos y reacciones de aminoácidos con otros compuestos (Sousa y col., 2001).
23
Introducción
Proteinasas
de LAB y cultivos
Coagulante residual secundarios
Péptidos
gran Péptidos
Caseínas
tamaño pequeños
Proteinasas
de la leche
Peptidasas de LAB
y de no starter
Amino
ácidos
libres
Figura V.6. Agentes que intervienen en la proteólisis del queso durante la maduración.
I.1.4.7. Lipolisis
La lipolisis es un importante mecanismo bioquímico que ocurre durante la
maduración del queso, ya que es una de las vías de generación del flavor del queso. Los
ácidos grasos libres son importantes precursores de reacciones catabólicas, que
producen compuestos volátiles y contribuyen al flavor (McSweeny y Sousa, 2000).
24
Introducción
25
Introducción
Para hidrolizar la grasa de la leche en queso las bacterias ácido lácticas (LAB)
poseen enzimas esterolíticas y lipolíticas, capaces de hidrolizar un rango de esteres de
ácidos grasos libres y sustratos tri-, di- y monoacilglicéridos (Chich y col., 1997; Fox y
Wallace, 1997). A pesar de la presencia de estas enzimas, LAB, especialmente
Lactococcus y Lactobacillus spp. son generalmente considerados débilmente lipolíticos
en comparación con especies como Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter y Flavobacterium
(Fox y col., 1993; Chich y col., 1997). Sin embargo, debido a que están presentes en el
queso en números muy altos a lo largo de la maduración, se considera que LAB son
probablemente los responsables de la liberación de significativos niveles de ácidos
grasos libres.
26
Introducción
cuajo vegetal presenta una mayor capacidad para capturar componentes grasos en la
cuajada. Este mayor contenido en grasa puede explicar la textura más fina y mayor
untuosidad descritos para los quesos producidos con cuajo vegetal cuando fueron
evaluados sensorialmente.
27
Introducción
28
Introducción
Microextracción en Fase Sólida (SPME) requiere solo una pequeña cantidad de muestra
y permite el aislamiento de analitos volátiles a partir de matrices tanto en estado sólido,
como líquido, en poco tiempo. Por esta razón, hoy en día esta técnica se usa
comúnmente en la extracción de compuestos de flavor del queso (Coda y col., 2006;
Guillén y col., 2004; Lecanu y col., 2002; Lee y col., 2003).
Según Delgado y col. (2010), para el queso Torta del Casar, durante la
maduración del queso, los ácidos carboxílicos pueden originarse a partir de las tres
principales rutas bioquímicas, lipolisis, proteólisis y fermentación de la lactosa (Curioni
y Bosset, 2002). Las enzimas con actividad lipolítica (esterasas, lipasas) pueden causar
la liberación de ácidos de cadena lineal (ácidos butanoico, pentanoico, hexanoico,
heptanoico, octanoico, decanoico y dodecanoico), mientras las enzimas proteolíticas son
las responsables de la formación de ácidos de cadena ramificada (ácidos 2-
methylpropanoico y 3 – methylbutanoico) mediante la desaminación de aminoácidos
como valina y leucina (Curioni y Bosset, 2002). Finalmente, el ácido acético y
propiónico pueden tener origen microbiano, resultado de la fermentación de la lactosa,
debido a los cambios en estos ácidos que han sido asociados al crecimiento de bacterias
acéticas y propiónicas (Zino y col., 2005). El origen del ácido 2,4-hexadienoico (E, E)
no está claro. Los microorganismos involucrados en la formación de los esteres son
principalmente levaduras (Molimard y Spinnler, 1996), aunque también pueden ser
responsables algunas bacterias lácticas y Micrococaceas, así como reacciones químicas
(Gripon y col., 2001). La acción de estos dos últimos factores parece ser más probable
en el queso Torta del Casar (Cáceres y col., 1997; Poullet y col., 1991; 1993).
Encontraron alta cantidad de etil ester, lo que contribuye probablemente al flavor
general del queso Torta del Casar, dado su bajo umbral de percepción.
29
Introducción
Parece que los esteres no han sido anteriormente aislados en otros tipos de
quesos, por ello es posible que aporten notas aromáticas características al queso Torta
del Casar (Delgado y col., 2010).
I.2. EL CUAJO
30
Introducción
La mayoría de los sustitutos del cuajo animal son más proteolíticos y menos
activos en cuanto a su actividad coagulante. Es bien conocido que estos aspectos no solo
disminuyen el rendimiento del queso y la retención de proteína y grasa por la cuajada,
sino que también afectan a la maduración del producto y a algunas características
sensoriales (Campos y col., 1990).
Las proteasas son las enzimas más importantes por su uso en industrias
alimentarias, farmacéuticas o de detergentes, así como en la preparación de cuero o lana
(Mantell y col., 1985). Las proteasas más ampliamente utilizadas son papaína,
bromelaína y ficina, extraídas de Carica papaya, Ananas comosus y Ficus glabra
31
Introducción
respectivamente. Las flores secas al aire de varias especies vegetales han sido usadas en
las regiones mediterráneas para elaborar quesos desde la época romana. Los altos
niveles de enzimas proteolíticas en las flores son responsables de la efectiva
coagulación de la leche (Heimgartner y col., 1990).
Notable son las proteasas extraídas de las flores del cardo silvestre (Cynara
spp.), las cuales han sido aisladas, purificadas y parcialmente caracterizadas (Faro,
1991). Las diferentes especies de Cynara han sido consideradas efectivos coagulantes:
C. cardunculus (más abundante), C. humilis y C. scolymus (Barbosa, 1983; Sousa,
1993; Sousa y Malcata, 1997a, b, 1998a, b, Sousa, 1998). Aunque se ha visto que la
mayoría de las preparaciones de coagulantes vegetales presentan un ratio de actividad
coagulante/actividad proteolítica excesivamente bajo, lo que resulta en péptidos
amargos en el queso maduro, o una actividad coagulante muy baja, que da lugar a bajos
rendimientos queseros. Las dificultades experimentadas con estas preparaciones
provienen de la composición única de los extractos de plantas, que contienen un
complejo cóctel de enzimas, cuya actividad es difícil de controlar (Sousa y col., 2001).
Las proteinasas vegetales que contienen las flores secas de C. cardunculus, han
sido empleadas con éxito durante muchos siglos para elaborar quesos tradicionales en la
Península Ibérica (Sousa y col., 2001) y otros países del área mediterránea, a partir de
leche de oveja (Barbosa y col., 1976), como por ejemplo los quesos portugueses Serra
da Estrela y Sherpa (Macedo y col., 1993; Vieira de Sá y Barbosa, 1972) o los quesos
españoles Los Pedroches, La Serena y Torta del Casar, así como Los Ibores (a partir de
leche de cabra) y el queso de Flor de Guía (a partir de una mezcla de leche de vaca y
oveja) (Fernández – Salguero y col., 1991). Los quesos obtenidos con los extractos de
las flores son altamente apreciados. Debido a la alta calidad de estos quesos, existe una
demanda creciente de este tipo de proteínas coagulantes (Heimgartner y col., 1990). Las
flores de C. cardunculus son económicamente importantes en Portugal y España, debido
a su tradicional uso en la elaboración de quesos de oveja altamente apreciados (Duarte y
col., 2006).
Como alternativa al cuajo animal y otros tipos de cuajo, se usa el extracto crudo
de los estigmas y estilos de las flores de C. cardunculus, siendo probablemente el cuajo
vegetal de mayor éxito hasta la fecha (Lamas y col., 2001). Vieira de Sá y Barbosa
(1972) fueron los primeros en estudiar las características físico – químicas y los usos
32
Introducción
Agboola y col. (2009) compararon el efecto del cuajo vegetal respecto al cuajo
animal en quesos elaborados a partir de leche de vaca y comprobó, en primer lugar, que
los quesos elaborados con cuajo vegetal de cardo mostraron niveles de Nitrógeno
soluble en agua más altos comparado con quesos elaborados con cuajo animal. Tras 60
días de maduración se observó un gran incremento en TCASN/TN para quesos
elaborados con leche normal y cuajo vegetal, aumentando a más del doble del nivel
registrado a los 7 días. Estos quesos presentaron mayor nivel de N soluble en ácido
fosfotungstico, al cabo de los 60 días de maduración. La coagulación con cuajo vegetal
de cardo dio lugar a una pasta más blanda y cremosa y un color más amarillo
significativamente, aunque también fueron más amargos. Los quesos con cuajo animal
fueron más duros y más adhesivos que los elaborados con cuajo vegetal de cardo. El uso
de extracto de cardo conllevó a una mayor lipolisis, debido a la actividad lipolítica
inherente de las enzimas proteolíticas del extracto. La hidrólisis de proteínas en quesos
coagulados con cardo fue más intensa.
33
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34
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Las plantas de cardo silvestre (C. cardunculus, L. var. sylvestris (Lamk) Fiori)
son perennes, no domesticadas y robustas, completamente adaptadas a las condiciones
climáticas Mediterráneas. Presenta altos y erectos tallos y hojas espinosas, agrupadas en
la base de cada planta. Es una planta alógama y presenta un ciclo anual de desarrollo, en
el cual su ciclo reproductivo termina en verano. La parte superior de la planta se seca en
el verano, mientras que la parte enterrada en el suelo permanece viva, al igual que
35
Introducción
ocurre en otras plantas vivaces (Fernández y col., 2006). Cuando las condiciones
climáticas son más favorables las yemas de la parte basal de la planta brotan, dando
comienzo a un nuevo ciclo. Esta sucesión de ciclos anuales de crecimiento puede durar
varios años, más de 15 años, según Fernández y Curt (2006). La floración ocurre en el
segundo año del ciclo de la planta. Las inflorescencias están organizadas como
compactos capítulos, formados por numerosos floretes individuales y hermafroditas
(flores). Los floretes están protegidos por un involucro ovoide – globoso, con brácteas
acabadas en una espina erecta. Los floretes maduros tienen pétalos coloreados,
generalmente lilas, así como un cáliz modificado en un vilano, necesario para la
diseminación de las semillas. La corola se compone de 5 pétalos fusionados por sus
extremos (simpétala), formando un tubo alrededor de estambres sin anteras que
encierran el estigma y estilo (Sampaio, 1947; Tutin y col., 1976).
Los floretes de C. cardunculus poseen estigmas papilados muy largos del tipo
seco. Estos estigmas muestran dos ranuras longitudinales, señal de la fusión de dos
carpelos, que ocurrió a lo largo de la evolución de las Asteraceae (Raven y col., 1999).
Se distinguen cuatro regiones estructurales diferentes en los estigmas del cardo: la
epidermis papilada externa, la región subepidérmica con varias capas parenquimáticas,
un área con tejido de apoyo, rodeando los haces vasculares, y más internamente, el
tejido de transmisión. La epidermis papilada externa, densamente colocada y con forma
de cerilla, es unicelular y compone la epidermis uniseriada de este órgano. En las
últimas etapas de maduración, el estigma se alarga, la epidermis papilada se expande y
los tejidos de apoyo y vasculares se diferencian completamente (Duarte y col., 2006).
Los estilos de las flores de C. cardunculus son del tipo sólido. A diferencia del
estigma, se trata de una estructura cilíndrica fusionada, sin ranuras. El estilo está
formado por una única capa de epidermis con una cutícula espesa, rica en lípidos y
azúcares, rodeando varias capas de células vacuoladas del parénquima cortical. Las
células prismáticas de la epidermis presentan grandes vacuolas, que no acumulan
grandes cantidades de proteínas. El centro de esta estructura está ocupado por haces
vasculares y tejido de transmisión (Duarte y col., 2006).
36
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Al igual que la alcachofa, las cabezas inmaduras del cardo, así como los peciolos
y las raíces, adecuadamente preparados, son comestibles. Estudios previos han mostrado
que el cardo silvestre es también una prometedora fuente de aceite de semillas para la
alimentación animal. Tanto el cardo silvestre como el cultivado, son una fuente de
biofármacos. Las raíces contienen inulina, un mejorador de la flora intestinal, mientras
que las hojas son una fuente de compuestos antioxidantes y poseen actividad
antibacteriana (Portis y col., 2005), debido a su composición fenólica, pero también
surge como una buena fuente de polifenoles saludables por su actividad antioxidante
(Falleh y col., 2008). Recientemente se ha incrementado el uso de sus compuestos
polifenólicos en cosmética (Lupo, 2001; Peschel y col., 2006).
37
Introducción
col., 2004b). Los frutos de las plantas pueden ser usados de diferentes formas, como por
ejemplo para alimento de rumiantes o para producción de aceite (Raccuia y col., 2007).
Esta última posibilidad se debe al hecho de que este aceite se caracteriza por un ratio
óptimo de ácidos insaturados (5,7), un ratio equilibrado linoleico/oleico (en torno a 1,8)
y la ausencia de ácido erúcico. El aceite contiene altos niveles de α-tocoferol, lo que
aporta estabilidad frente a la oxidación. Estas características hacen que este aceite sea
adecuado para el consumo humano. Tras la extracción del aceite de la semilla, la harina
residual puede ser empleada como alimento animal, debido a la cantidad y calidad de
sus proteínas (Maccarone y col., 1999).
38
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39
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40
Introducción
mercaptoetanol, que disocian las moléculas proteicas, rompen los puentes disulfuro y
cargan las subunidades negativamente. Esta técnica se basa, en la aplicación de un
voltaje alto sobre el capilar relleno de un gel de poliacrilamida. Las matrices sólidas
más utilizadas son las discontinuas, en las que hay dos geles, uno concentrador con gran
tamaño de poro (normalmente con un 4% de acrilamida) y otro separador con menor
tamaño de poro (Laemmli, 1970). Esta técnica se caracteriza por la pequeña cantidad de
muestra necesaria para su realización, así como la posibilidad de un análisis cuantitativo
directo de los componentes de la muestra. En contraposición, esta técnica requiere
muchos pasos manuales, preparación del gel, colocación del gel en el aparato de la
electroforesis, inyección de la muestra, retirar los geles de los moldes, teñir y desteñir
los geles, etc. (Bietz, 1994). Además para cuantificar las proteínas teñidas se necesitan
otros pasos manuales para la densitometría o análisis de imagen del gel teñido.
La electroforesis capilar (CE) puede ser un método alternativo, dado que ofrece
una serie de ventajas sobre la técnica SDS-PAGE, como que es un método de análisis
más rápido, detección, cuantificación en columna, y una mayor eficiencia y resolución
(Cancalon, 1995; Manabe, 1999). Además, el método CE conlleva un método de
extracción de proteínas sencillo y necesita pequeñas cantidades de solventes orgánicos
en comparación con la técnica RP-HPLC. Una categoría de la electroforesis capilar
(CE) es la electroforesis capilar en zona (FZCE), que ha sido aplicada en el análisis de
sistemas complejos de proteínas. Hernández y col. (2006; 2007) utilizaron y
optimizaron la técnica FZCE para la detección de pimentón fraudulento (adulterado)
elaborado a partir de las variedades de pimiento Papri Queen, Sonora y Papri King. Así
mismo, esta técnica fue eficaz para determinar el proceso de secado en la elaboración
del pimentón, a partir de las variedades de pimiento autóctonas. Como consecuencia de
estos estudios, esta técnica se propuso como herramienta para el control de calidad
rutinario del “Pimentón de la Vera”. Por su parte, Serradilla y col. (2008) utilizaron la
técnica FZCE como método de autentificación de variedades de cereza tipo “Picota” del
Valle del Jerte, que además proporcionaba información acerca de los parámetros físico-
químicos más relevantes relacionados con la calidad sensorial del fruto. De modo que
este método se propuso como técnica a emplear en los controles de calidad rutinarios
que lleva a cabo la DOP “Cereza del Jerte”.
41
Introducción
proteínas de la leche en particular (Recio y col., 1997). Esta técnica, CE, ha sido
empleada para monitorizar la proteólisis en quesos (Otte y col., 1999), principalmente
en quesos de vaca, pero también en quesos de oveja y cabra (Cattaneo y col., 1996).
También ha sido utilizada para estudiar la proteólisis en quesos elaborados con cardo
vegetal (Cynara L.) (Roseiro y col., 2003).
42
Introducción
también conocidas como porteasas ácidas o aspartil proteinasas, constituyen una de las
4 subfamilias de enzimas proteolíticas, pertenecen a la familia de las endopeptidasas,
muestran un pH óptimo ácido para la actividad enzimática (5,1), son inhibidas por la
pepstatina A, y están ampliamente distribuidas en variedad de organismos como
algunos vertebrados, plantas, virus y retrovirus, algunas bacterias, hongos y levaduras
(Barros y col., 2004). Están involucradas en un número de procesos fisiológicos y
patológicos, como digestión (pepsina y quimosina) (Chow y Kassell, 1968; Foltmann,
1992), infección retroviral (proteinasa del virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana) (Huff,
1991), proteólisis intracelular y degradación de la matriz extracelular (Dingle y
Leaback, 1975) y la liberación del péptido β-amiloide del precursor amiloide en la
enfermedad de Alzheimer (Vassar, 2004), entre otras.
En el tejido del callo se detectó cardosina A (31 kDa), junto con una banda de 45
kDa y otra de 55 kDa. La banda de 45 kDa parece ser una cadena no disociada de la
enzima. Por su parte, cardosina B fue detectada mediante una banda de 64 kDa,
correspondiendo al precursor, y otra banda de 55 kDa. La banda de 55 kDa de cardosina
A no ha sido descrita en la literatura aún y no se ha detectado en flores de cardo
(Ramalho – Santos y col., 1997; Vieira y col., 2001), semillas o hojas (Pereira y col.,
2008). La banda de 55 kDa puede ser una forma intermedia de cardosinas sin el
prosegmento, hipótesis que se apoya por el documentado lugar de hidrólisis de
43
Introducción
La forma madura de cardosina B (34 kDa) fue detectada desde las primeras
etapas, tras la imbibición hasta la emergencia de la radícula, lo que sugiere que se
44
Introducción
originó de los tejidos ováricos, por lo que parece que esta enzima es resistente a la
proteólisis a lo largo de la maduración y desecación de las semillas. La cardosina B está
también presente en semillas desarrolladas, y tras la rehidratación, es activada y actúa
relajando las estructuras antes de la emergencia de la radícula (Pereira y col., 2008). En
los sacos embrionarios completamente maduros, la localización de cardosina B está
relacionada con el programa de muerte celular en la nucela de C. cardunculus, lo que
sugiere su implicación en el desarrollo del óvulo y el saco embrionario (Figuereido y
col., 2006).
45
Introducción
contiene un tema Afg-Gly-Asp (RGD), una secuencia bien conocida, a través de la cual
ocurre la interacción de los receptores del polen. Por otra parte, la acumulación de
cardosina A en las flores maduras de C. cardunculus puede indicar la participación de
esta proteinasa aspártica en la senescencia de este órgano (Ramalho – Santos y col.,
1997; Simôes y Faro, 2004). En cuanto a cardosina B, debido a su localización
específica a lo largo del tejido de transmisión del estilo durante la maduración de la flor,
podría ser responsable del proceso de ensanchamiento o relajación del tejido de
transmisión de ECM para facilitar el crecimiento del tubo polínico. Es posible, por
tanto, que las cardosinas estén implicadas en la reproducción sexual de C. cardunculus.
El hecho de que las cardosinas estén localizadas en diferentes partes de la flor de C.
cardunculus apoya la idea de que estas proteinasas tienen funciones biológicas
diferentes (Duarte y col., 2006).
Oliveira y col. (2010) especularon que en el tejido calloso podría existir otro tipo
de cardosina B, una proteinasa como la cardosina B (cardosin B-like), aunque no está
bien descrita. De igual forma, Pimentel y col. (2007) aislaron dos nuevos genes de las
flores de C. cardunculus que codifican para las cardosinas C y D, las cuales comparten
gran similitud con cardosina A, siendo por ello denominadas cardosin A-like. No es
sorprendente la existencia de muchos tipos de cardosinas, dado que están codificados
por una familia multigénica, y es probable que en diferentes órganos o tipos de células
existan diferentes tipos de cardosinas, en función de las necesidades celulares.
46
Introducción
Las cardosinas y las proteinasas aspárticas presentes en Cynara humilis son las
únicas proteinasas aspárticas vegetales conocidas hasta la fecha, que no contienen estos
residuos en la estructura primaria, una característica que puede explicar la actividad
enzimática que exhiben las procardosinas recombinantes (Oliveira y col., 2010).
47
Introducción
Merece la pena resaltar que las proteinasas de C. cardunculus escinden todos los
enlaces de ciertas regiones extremadamente hidrofóbicas de αs1-caseína (Ala163-Trp-
Tyr-Tyr-Val167) y de β-caseína (Ala189-Phe-Leu-Leu-Tyr193), mientras que quimosina
solo hidroliza el enlace Trp164-Tyr165 en esta región de αs1-caseína y en los vínculos
Ala189-Phe190 y Leu192-Tyr193, en estas regiones de β-caseína. Esto sugiere que las
proteinasas de C. cardunculus manifiestan una mayor preferencia por enlaces entre
voluminosos residuos hidrofóbicos que la quimosina (Macedo y col., 1996). La
hidrólisis de β-caseína bovina por quimosina (Fox y Walley, 1971) y por las proteinasas
de C. cardunculus (Sousa, 1993) es fuertemente inhibida al 5 % NaCl y completamente
inhibida al 10 % de NaCl, pero el efecto es debido a un cambio de sustrato más que a la
48
Introducción
enzima, lo cual demostraron algunos autores (Kelly y col., 1996; Kristiansen y col.,
1999) en queso, de modo que los quesos no salados presentaban menos cantidad de β-
caseína intacta que los quesos salados, y que el fragmento C-terminal de β-caseína, β-
CN (f193-209), el cual es amargo y producido por quimosina, se formó solo en los
quesos no salados.
Roa y col., (1999) encontraron que las degradaciones primarias que afectan a las
caseínas en quesos elaborados con los extractos de C. cardunculus, como el queso de La
Serena, son principalmente debidas a la acción residual de este cuajo, produciendo
péptidos de medio tamaño a partir de las primeras caseínas, estos después se degradan
en péptidos más pequeños y finalmente en amino ácidos, en un proceso conocido como
segunda proteólisis. La primera proteólisis juega un papel esencial en el desarrollo de la
textura del queso, mientras que la segunda proteólisis está implicada con el flavor del
queso, de ahí la gran importancia de asegurar un equilibrio en la rotura de las caseínas,
con el fin de prevenir el desarrollo de indeseables atributos en el queso, como baja
viscosidad y alto amargor (Visser, 1993).
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Introducción
asignada a cardosina B, dado que es la enzima con la actividad proteolítica más fuerte
en la flor del cardo. Dicho proceso por tanto, afecta a la actividad proteolítica global del
cuajo.
Según Veríssimo y col. (1995) se establece una relación inversa entre actividad
proteolítica y actividad coagulante. Alta actividad proteolítica del extracto corresponde
generalmente a tiempos bajos de actividad coagulante (Sales-Gomes y Lima-Costa,
2008).
50
Introducción
Según Irigoyen y col. (2000) la actividad coagulante del cuajo empleado es uno
de los factores que tiene mayor importancia en la degradación de las caseínas,
similarmente el origen de la enzima coagulante usada (animal, microbiana o vegetal)
puede condicionar el nivel de proteólisis, de modo que las enzimas vegetal y
microbianas rompen β- caseína más rápido que las enzimas animales.
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52
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o actividad coagulante (RS) como el número de volúmenes de leche coagulada por cada
volumen de cuajo en 40 minutos a 35º C.
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Este hecho implica por un lado que se desconozca el material genético empleado
(a conservar), que ese material se pueda perder por construcciones sobre las tierras
abandonadas, carreteras, etc. Por otro lado, este material se perpetúa o reproduce
libremente, originando gran variabilidad genética en la población de cardos, Cynara
cardunculus, de Extremadura, así las flores procedentes de estas plantas presentan
características diferentes en su aptitud como cuajo vegetal. Con esta situación, los
queseros se conforman con el material que la naturaleza les ofrece, en lugar de poder
controlar este recurso y utilizarlo para mejorar sus producciones. Unido a ello, las
personas que se dedican a la recolección de las flores de cardo no tienen en cuenta la
existencia de dicha variabilidad genética de la población de Cynara cardunculus, ni las
repercusiones que ello tiene en la elaboración del queso, ya que esto hasta ahora se
desconocía. Por lo tanto la trazabilidad de este producto queda en entredicho, por más
que el cuajo que se suministra a las queserías hoy en día debe tener Registro Sanitario.
54
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55
Introducción
56
II. OBJETIVOS
Objetivos
4. Ceder a la DOP “Torta del Casar” el cardo más adecuado para la obtención de
las mejores tortas.
59
III. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS
Material y Métodos
III.1. Material
Los reactivos utilizados para las extracciones de ADN fueron de las marcas TIB-
MOLBIOL, Roche, Pharmacia Biotech, Finnzyme y Sigma.
Los reactivos utilizados para la PCR fueron de las marcas TIB-MOLBIOL, Biotools,
Roche, Pharmacia Biotech, Finnzyme y Sigma.
III.1.2. Aparatos
Las incubaciones se realizaron en una estufa de hibridación HYBAID mod. Shake “n”
Stock, mientras que el secado de los precipitados de ADN se realizó en un bloque térmico
SELECTA modelo Tembloc.
63
Material y Métodos
Para preparar los geles de agarosa y como tampón de carrera se utilizó el tampón
TAE 1X. Este TAE 1X se elaboró disolviendo 20 ml de TAE 50X (Tris Base 2 M;
5,71% de ácido acético glacial (v/v); EDTA 0,05 M (pH 8)) en 980 ml de agua
desionizada.
El tampón de carga se elaboró con 40% (p/v) de sacarosa y 0,25% (p/v) de azul
de bromofenol.
64
Material y Métodos
Para la cuantificación del ADN se empleó el programa informático Gene Tools versión
3.06 (SynGene; a Division of Synoptics Ltd., Beacon House, Nuffield Road, Cambridge CB 4
1 TF, England).
65
Material y Métodos
66
Material y Métodos
Para las pesadas rutinarias se utilizó una balanza METTLER TOLEDO mod. B2002-S
con precisión de 0,01g y para las pesadas de mayor precisión se utilizó una balanza
METTLER TOLEDO mod. AB54-S de precisión 0,0001g.
67
Material y Métodos
69
Material y Métodos
Tabla III. 3. Muestras de cardo de las diferentes especies muestreadas para la realización de este estudio.
70
Material y Métodos
71
Material y Métodos
72
Material y Métodos
A. B.
Figura III.6. Plantas de las especies A. Silybum marianum (L) Goertner, y B. Onopordum
nervosum, L.
C. D.
73
Material y Métodos
E.
III.2. Métodos
74
Material y Métodos
76
Material y Métodos
77
Material y Métodos
Después de realizar las PCR con las condiciones optimizadas para cada cebador,
se procedió a una evaluación y cuantificación de los productos obtenidos mediante
electroforesis horizontal submarina en gel de agarosa con bromuro de etidio. De manera
similar a como se realizó tras la extracción de ADN, las muestras fueron preparadas
añadiendo 4 l de tampón de carga y 20 l de disolución de ADN. Los geles se
prepararon hirviendo un 2% de agarosa en tampón TAE 1X. En este caso, las
electroforesis se realizaron con voltaje constante inferior a 75 voltios. Para la
determinación del peso molecular se cargó en un pocillo 2 l de marcador DNA
Molecular Weight Marker VI (2,1 kpb-0,15 kpb) disuelto en 2 l de tampón de carga.
78
Material y Métodos
Una vez realizada la disolución con los anteriores componentes, se realizó una
primera desnaturalización a 94 ºC durante 3 minutos, posteriormente se añadió 1 l de
una solución de DNA polimerasa (1U/l) (Biotools) y se adicionó 20 l de aceite
mineral estéril para evitar la evaporación.
Desnaturalización 94 0,5
Hibridación 45 1
35
Extensión 72 1
Extensión final 72 5
79
Material y Métodos
ADN µl 1 2 2,5 3 5 10
Cebador µl 1
dNTPs µl 0,7
Polimerasa µl 1
80
Material y Métodos
Desnaturalización inicial 94 3
Desnaturalización 94 30
40 1
Hibridación
45 1
Extensión 72 1
Extensión final 72 5
81
Material y Métodos
Una vez realizada la disolución con los anteriores componentes, al igual que con el
RAPD-PCR, se realizó una primera desnaturalización a 94 ºC durante 3 minutos y
posteriormente se añadió 1 l de una solución de DNA polimerasa y se adicionó 20 l
de aceite mineral estéril para evitar la evaporación.
Las condiciones de amplificación empleadas fueron las mismas que las descritas en
la tabla 2 para el desarrollo del RAPD-PCR.
82
Material y Métodos
TCATGGCATTTATGAATGTT DIRECTO
CMAFLP-01
ATAAATATTTTGATTGTTTTCT REVERSO
CGATAGCTCTTTCCCTTT DIRECTO
CMAFLP-04
ATGGGTGAGATTGGTTTAC REVERSO
GGCTCCACCGTACTCCTA DIRECTO
CMAFLP-07
TCTCTCGTCAGTAAACCC REVERSO
AGGTGTGAAGGCTTCATC DIRECTO
CMAFLP-08
TCCCGAGATCCTTGACTCAG REVERSO
TTTGATCTTGTCCCTATATATATA DIRECTO
CMAFLP-13
TCGGCTTTTCTGAATATC REVERSO
TTGAGAGGGTTTTCCGAGAG DIRECTO
CMAFLP-15
TAGGATGAGTCCTGAGTAAT REVERSO
AAGTGTTGCATAATAACTTACC DIRECTO
CMAFLP-18
CCGAACAAATTGCTTACAA REVERSO
83
Material y Métodos
Tampón 10X µl 3
Cl2Mg µl 2 2,5 3
ADN µl 0,5 1 2 5
Cebador µl 2
dNTPs µl 0,7
Polimerasa µl 1
84
Material y Métodos
Desnaturalización inicial 94 3
Desnaturalización 94 30
45 1
Hibridación 50 1
55 1
Extensión 72 1
Extensión final 72 5
III.2.6. Extracción de proteínas del cuajo vegetal para análisis mediante SDS-
PAGE.
85
Material y Métodos
El tampón utilizado para la carrera fue Tris 25 mM, glicina 192 mM, SDS al
0,1%, pH 8,3. Las electroforesis se realizaron a 100 w los primeros 20 min y a 150 w
hasta el final de la carrera. Una vez finalizado el desarrollo electroforético, los geles
fueron tratados con una solución de tinción constituida por 0,25 g de azul de Comassie
R-250 en una solución 1:1 metanol-agua al 90 % y ácido acético al 10 % durante 15
minutos, transcurrido los cuales fueron desteñidos en una solución de metanol al 30 % y
ácido acético al 10 %.
86
Material y Métodos
III.2.8. Extracción de proteínas del cuajo vegetal para análisis mediante FZCE.
Para conseguir un mejor resultado en la extracción de proteínas, se incluyó un
paso previo, que consistía en mezclar 1 g de flor de cardo con metanol (3:10 p/v)
durante 5 min a temperatura ambiente, según el método descrito por Hernández y col.
(2006). Mayor tiempo de extracción no mejoró la efectividad de la extracción. La
suspensión homogeneizada periódicamente, se centrifugó a 5800 g durante 5 min y se
recogió el sobrenadante. A partir de una alícuota de 0,5 ml, las proteínas solubles en
metanol fueron parcialmente precipitadas (excepto la mayor parte de la fracción
proteica apolar) con cloroformo (1:2 v/v) y centrifugadas a 24000 g durante 5 min. Los
pellets se lavaron dos veces con cloroformo y después se disolvieron en 100 µl de
acetonitrilo (30 % v/v) según el protocolo descrito por Hernádez y col. (2007).
87
Material y Métodos
diode array PACE (Beckman Instrument Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA). Para la
determinación de los parámetros analíticos, se visualizó un pico negativo de
acetonitrilo, a 254 nm, empleado para normalizar las áreas de los picos y calcular los
correctos tiempos de migración (CMT) de los picos. Los picos de las proteínas se
identificaron mediante el correcto tiempo de migración y el espectro de absorbancia
UV. El programa Beckman P/ACE Station (Versión 1.21) fue empleado para almacenar,
procesar y comparar los electroferogramas.
88
Material y Métodos
Los extractos de las flores secas se prepararon macerando 0,25 g de flores secas
en 5 ml de agua (que corresponde a la proporción 50 g/L agua), a temperatura ambiente,
durante 4 horas. El homogenado se filtró a través de papel de filtro Whaman nº 4. El
sustrato empleado para la degradación por parte de los extractos consistió en una mezcla
de caseínas bovinas (Sigma Aldrich, Co., St. Louis, MO, USA (α, β and κ) a una
concentración de 0,5 mg/ml de cada caseína, disueltas en 5 ml de agua destilada. Los
extractos de flores secas se maceraron con la mezcla de caseínas, a 2,5 % de extracto
(v/v) durante 2 horas, a temperatura ambiente, para permitir la degradación de las
caseínas. Después de este tiempo, los extractos junto con las caseínas degradadas fueron
desnaturalizados mediante adición de 30 µl de buffer de carga PAGE (Tris-HCl 6,25
mM, pH 6,8, glicerol 20 % (p/v), SDS 2 % (p/v), β-mercaptoetanol 5 % (p/v), azul
bromofenol 0,025 % (p/v)) e incubación a 99º C durante 5 min. Las condiciones de
electroforesis y el método de análisis empleados se describieron en el apartado III.2.7.
89
Material y Métodos
Dado que las hojas de Cynara cardunculus muestran una interesante actividad
contra varias bacterias patógenas para los humanos, probamos si el extracto obtenido de
las flores de cardo, empleado como cuajo, muestra el mismo efecto inhibitorio sobre
siete cepas de bacterias patógenas y sobre seis cepas de bacterias lácticas: Listeria
monocytogenes CECT 934, Listeria monocytogenes CECT 911, Salmonella enteritidis
(1263) (cedida por Centro Tecnológico Nacional Agroalimentario Extremadura,
CTAEX), Escherichia coli CECT 4267, Staphylococcus aureus CECT 976, Bacillus
cereus CECT 131, Yersinia enterocolitica CECT 559, Lactobacillus plantarum CECT
223, Lactobacillus brevis CECT 216, Lactobacillus sakei ssp. carnosus CECT 5766,
Lactobacillus curvatus CECT 904, Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides
CECT 394, Pediococcus pentosaceus CECT 923.
Las cepas fueron cultivadas en caldo (BHI para las bacterias no lácticas y MRS
para las bacterias lácticas) durante 48 h a 30º o 37º C según la cepa. Las cepas utilizadas
para este ensayo y las condiciones de cultivo de las mismas se muestran en la Tabla
III.9:
90
Material y Métodos
Tabla III.11. Cepas usadas como indicadores en el estudio de la actividad antimicrobiana y sus
respectivos medios para su crecimiento.
Lactobacillus sakei ssp. carnosus CECT 5766 Caldo MRS Agar MRS
Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides CECT 394 Caldo MRS Agar MRS
91
Material y Métodos
92
Material y Métodos
Romper la cuajada
Moldeado, Desuerado
Figura III.10. Proceso de elaboración de los quesos tipo Torta del Casar.
93
Material y Métodos
Tabla III.12. Muestras de cardos utilizadas para la elaboración de los diferentes lotes de quesos.
1
a: las flores se están abriendo, solo algunos estigmas y estilos son visibles; b: las flores están totalmente
abiertas, incluso con polen; c: las flores empiezan a secarse, los estilos y los estigmas son de color
marrón.
2
Coordenadas geográficas: L138º 54' 8,82" N 6º 43' 59,9" W, L2: 38º 50' 34,8" N 6º 57' 39,73" W, L3:
38º 45' 6,73" N 6º 48' 10,42" W, L4: 38º 57' 0,30" N 6º 16' 53,03" W, L5: 38º 53' 59,94" N 6º 51' 12,43"
W, L6: 38º 56' 32,78" N 6º 20' 23,16" W, L7: 38º 54' 23,54" N 6º 47' 37" W.
94
Material y Métodos
95
Material y Métodos
96
Material y Métodos
97
Material y Métodos
Los análisis físico – químicos se realizaron sobre la leche con la que se elaboraron
los quesos, sobre los cuajos empleados, y sobre todas las muestras de queso recogidas
durante el proceso de maduración (a los 2, 30 y 60 días).
Determinación del pH
Las medidas del pH se realizaron según se describe en la Norma ISO 2917: 1999,
introduciendo el electrodo del pHmetro calibrado en un homogenizado de cuajo, leche o
queso.
Acidez
La acidez de la leche se mide mediante una valoración ácido-base, con NaOH 0,1 N,
utilizando fenolftaleína como indicador. Se expresa en grados Dornic (º D) o en % de
ácido láctico.
Mermas
98
Material y Métodos
Las mermas se midieron por diferencia de pesada de 3 quesos de cada lote, desde el
principio del período de maduración hasta el final. Para realizar este análisis se
utilizaron siempre los mismos quesos. Se considera merma la diferencia entre el peso
inicial del queso y el peso del queso a los 60 días de maduración, y se expresa en %.
Humedad
Actividad de agua
99
Material y Métodos
En una bolsa con filtro para StomacherTM modelo 400, previamente tarada, se
pesaron 10 g de muestra (en el caso del queso, y 10 ml en el caso de la leche y del
cuajo). Añadimos un volumen de diluyente, agua de peptona (1%), igual a nueve veces
la muestra para obtener la dilución 10-1 (90 ml). Se colocó la bolsa en el StomacherTM
durante 60 segundos. A continuación, se prepararon diluciones seriadas para la siembra
en los medios de cultivos utilizados.
III.2.16.2. Recuentos
Para los recuentos, se eligieron las placas que presentaron entre 30 y 300 colonias.
Se contó todas las colonias de la placa con el contador de colonias y se multiplicaron
por el factor de dilución. El resultado se expresó en logaritmos de unidades formadoras
de colonias por gramo (log ufc/g).
100
Material y Métodos
recuento de lactobacilos (MRS), acidificado con una solución de ácido acético al 10%.
A partir de las diluciones decimales se añadió con pipetas 100 µl sobre la superficie
bien seca de agar MRS. El inóculo se extendió con ayuda de varillas de vidrio estériles
hasta quedar completamente absorbido por el medio. Las placas se incubaron en
posición invertida a 37 ºC durante 48 horas en condiciones de anaerobiosis (10% CO2).
Para el recuento, se eligieron las placas que presentara entre 30 y 300 colonias. Se
contaron todas las colonias de la placa con el contador de colonias y las multiplicamos
por el factor de dilución. El resultado se expresó en logaritmos de unidades formadoras
de colonias por gramo (log ufc/g).
Enterobacteriaceae totales
101
Material y Métodos
varillas de vidrio estériles hasta quedar completamente absorbido por el medio. Las
placas se cubrieron con 10-15 ml adicionales del mismo medio (doble capa), a fin de
evitar el crecimiento excesivo y la extensión de las colonias, lo que facilita su recuento.
Las placas se incubaron en posición invertida a 37 ºC durante 24 horas.
Se eligieron las placas que presentaban entre 30-300 colonias de color violeta rojizo
por fermentación de la glucosa con formación de ácido rodeadas de un precipitado
también de color violeta por fermentación de los ácidos biliares del medio y se calculó
el número de unidades formadoras de colonias por el factor de dilución correspondiente.
Los resultados se dieron en logaritmos de unidades formadoras de colonias por gramo
(log ufc/g).
Las sales biliares y el cristal violeta del medio inhibe la población microbiana Gram
positiva, apareciendo colonias (>0,5 mm de diámetro) de color rojo púrpura rodeadas de
una zona de precipitación de color violeta, debido a la fermentación de la lactosa y a la
precipitación de las sales biliares. Para el recuento se eligieron las placas que contenían
entre 30-300 colonias típicas, expresando los resultados en logaritmos de unidades
formadoras de colonias por gramo (log ufc/g). Para la confirmación se transfirieron
cinco colonias típicas de cada placa a tubos que contenían un 2% de caldo verde
brillante lactosa bilis (BGBL), se incubaron a 32 ºC durante 24 horas. La reacción se
consideró positiva cuando se observó presencia de gas en la campana de fermentación,
por lo menos en 1/10 parte de su volumen como consecuencia de la fermentación de la
lactosa con formación de ácido y gas en presencia de sales biliares.
102
Material y Métodos
Escherichia coli
Las colonias de E. coli sobre agar levine miden 2-3 mm de diámetro, son planas o
ligeramente cóncavas, con centro oscuros, casi negros y en un elevado número de casos,
al reflejarse la luz sobre ellas se observa un brillo metálico verdoso. Las muestras que
presentaban crecimiento en agar Levine las considerábamos positivas de E. coli.
Mohos y Levaduras
Clostridium sulfito-reductores
103
Material y Métodos
Salmonella spp.
Listeria spp.
104
Material y Métodos
105
Material y Métodos
Finalmente, las caseínas secas se guardaron en un desecador a - 80º C hasta que fueron
analizadas.
106
Material y Métodos
separador. Las proteínas se visualizaron mediante tinción con azul brillante Comassie
R-250 (0,25 % p/v) en metanol 50 % (v/v) y ácido acético (10 %) (v/v). El exceso de
tinción se eliminó destiñendo con una solución de metanol 20 % (v/v) y ácido acético 5
% (v/v). Como patrón de utilizó la mezcla de caseínas bovinas (Sigma Aldrich, Co., St.
Louis, MO, USA (α, β and κ) a una concentración de 0,5 mg/ml de cada caseína,
disueltas en 5 ml de agua destilada. El análisis densitométrico de los geles se llevó a
cabo con un programa informático de análisis de imágenes (Genetools, SynGene,
Cambridge, United Kingdom).
Por último, una vez terminado el proceso de destilación se llevó a cabo una
valoración HCl 0,1 N.
107
Material y Métodos
108
Material y Métodos
Por último se realizaron dos lavados con 3 ml de dietil éter, se recogió la fase
superior y se evaporó mediante corriente de nitrógeno, resuspendiendo los residuos en
400 l de metanol-agua (1:1 v/v).
109
Material y Métodos
110
Material y Métodos
111
Material y Métodos
112
Material y Métodos
Para la obtención del espectro de los distintos compuestos volátiles las condiciones
del detector selectivo de masas fueron las siguientes:
Impacto electrónico: 70 eV
Electrón multiplicador voltio (emv): 1756 V
113
Material y Métodos
minutos. El último buffer fue empleado como buffer de separación. Después de cada
carrera, la columna capilar fue condicionada con lavados de agua desionizada durante 5
minutos y con buffer de separación durante 5 minutos. Las muestras fueron inyectadas
durante 20 segundos a una presión de 0,5 psi y separadas a 474 V/cm (27 kV) durante
20 minutos a 20 ºC. Las carreras fueron monitorizadas a 200 nm con un detector diode
array. Los diferentes aniones fueron identificados mediante su tiempo de retención.
Por otra parte se midió la untuosidad de los quesos elaborados a los 60 días de
maduración. Para ello se utilizó una probeta fija TTC de untuosidad. La parte inferior
del cono de la probeta se llenó con la muestra de queso con una espátula. Las curvas se
produjeron a una velocidad de 3 mm/s y una distancia de 25 mm. La firmeza (g) y el
trabajo de corte (g s) se corresponden con el pico máximo y el área bajo la curva,
respectivamente. El máximo pico negativo indica la pegajosidad (g) de la muestra y el
área máxima negativa es el trabajo de adhesión (g s).
Estas medidas se realizaron por triplicado, utilizando los tres quesos por lote
elaborados.
114
Material y Métodos
115
Material y Métodos
Para llevar a cabo el análisis sensorial se realizaron las distintas pruebas: test
triangular, descriptivo y hedónico. Las pruebas del test triangular y el descriptivo se
realizaron con 15 jueces entrenados a los que se les presentaron lonchas finas (0,5 cm)
de los diferentes lotes de quesos al final de la maduración (60 días). Para las catas
hedónicas, se utilizó un panel compuesto por 17 catadores no entrenados.
116
Material y Métodos
Las percepciones de los catadores fueron señaladas en una escala con un rango
de 0 a 12. Los datos fueron integrados automáticamente para su posterior análisis
estadístico.
Se va hacer una serie de preguntas sobre las características del queso. Indique su
intensidad sobre la línea continua.
Nombre
Fecha
Número de muestra
Análisis visual
De la Pasta
Color amarillo
Poco Mucho
Cerrada
Poco Mucho
Elástica
Poco Mucho
Untabilidad
Poco Mucho
117
Material y Métodos
Olor
“Leche de oveja”
Poco Mucho
Ácido
Poco Mucho
Firmeza
Poco Mucho
Cremosidad
Poco Mucho
Viscosidad
Poco Mucho
Jugosidad
Poco Mucho
Gusto
Salado
Poco Mucho
Amargo
Poco Mucho
Picante
Poco Mucho
Ácido
Poco Mucho
Astringente
Poco Mucho
118
Material y Métodos
Rancio
Poco Mucho
Poco Mucho
Intensidad
Poco Mucho
Persistencia
Poco Mucho
Otros aromas
Regusto
Poco Mucho
Desagradable
Poco Mucho
Rancio
Poco Mucho
Otros
Poco Mucho
TIPO
Queso Torta
119
Material y Métodos
ACEPTABILIDAD
Poco Mucho
120
IV. RESULTADOS
IV.1. CAPÍTULO I
IV.1.1. DNA typing methods for differentiation of wild cardoon used in the elaboration
of “Torta del Casar” cheese.
123
IV.1.1. DNA typing methods for differentiation of wild cardoon used in the
elaboration of “Torta del Casar” cheese.
Enviado a la revista “Journal of Food Science”
Journal of Food Science
5
a
6 Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de
9 Villafranco a Balboa Km. 1.2, Villafranco del Guadiana, 06195 Badajoz, Spain
r
10
Pe
11
12 *Corresponding author
er
15 http://eia.unex.es
16
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17 SUMMARY
18 The purpose of this work was to develop a PCR method for the identification of
19 Cynara cardunculus used in the elaboration of “Torta del casar” cheese. 106
20 specimens were collected from different parts of the Extremadura region (Spain).
23 Different genetic profiles were obtained using 7 random primers with the RAPD
24 technique. The best results for differentiation were obtained with the primer
Fo
25 OPAE10. For the SSR technique, 10 microsatellites were used, the best genetic
r
26 profiles being obtained with the microsatellite CMAFLP-24. All the specimens
Pe
27 were analyzed with both primers, showing that the method provided a fast and
29 Protected Designation of Origin "Torta del Casar" as a tool for traceability and
30 control in the process of elaboration of the cheese. This is the first molecular
Re
32
vi
34
35 Introduction
37 rosette of large spiny leaves, branched flowering stems, and blue-violet flowers. It
39 Mediterranean basin, where it colonizes dry and undisturbed areas (Portis and
42 lesser degree, Cynara humilis) called ‘cynarases’ or ‘cyprosins’ are among the
Fo
43 few plant-origin enzymes that have been used as a rennet in cheese making in
r
44 some Mediterranean countries. Some Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian
Pe
45 varieties of ewes’ milk cheese (Barbosa and others 1976) are made with aqueous
47 normally used in the making of Portuguese “Serra” and “Serpa” cheeses (Vieira
48 de Sá and Barbosa 1972; Macedo and others 1993) and Spanish “Los
Re
49 Pedroches”, “La Serena”, and “Torta del Casar” cheeses (from ewes' milk) as
50 well as “Los Ibores” cheese (from goats' milk) and “Flor de Guía” cheese (from a
vi
52 Other Cynara species, such as C. humilis L., are more abundant and also used in
54 cardunculus (Vioque and others 2000). These species are distinguished by their
55 conventional morphological descriptors (Valdés and others 1987), but when the
57 The enzymes in these species vary in activity (Pires and others 1994; Fernández-
58 Salguero and Gómez, 1997). High levels of proteolytic enzymes in the flowers of
59 these cardoons are responsible for the effective clotting of the milk (Cordeiro and
60 others 1992).
63 Spain). It is manufactured from raw Merino ewes’ milk coagulated with vegetable
64 rennet extracted only from Cynara cardunculus L. (cardoon) flowers. This cheese
65 is ripened for about 2 months. During that period, various physical, chemical,
67 creamy flavour (particularly due to the use of the appropriate vegetable rennet)
r
68 that is highly appreciated in the region. The great heterogeneity of the rennet
Pe
69 used in “Torta del Casar” manufacture has a negative influence on the cheese’s
71 factors between batches, etc., that can lead to significant economic losses. In this
74 species.
vi
75 Techniques based on nucleic acids are a quick, economic, and safe method for
ew
80 polymorphism (AFLP) (Lanteri and others 2004b; Pagnotta and others 2004;
81 Sonnante and others 2004a,b), simple sequence repeats (SSRs) (Acquadro and
82 others 2003; Sonnante and others 2004b; Acquadro and others 2005a,b), and
83 inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) (Lanteri and others 2004a; Pagnotta and
4
84 others 2004) have been developed for the genetic mapping of globe artichoke
85 species.
86 Diversity assessments based on ISSR, RAPD, and AFLP have been described
87 for the globe artichoke types “Romanesco” (Pagnotta and others 2004; Trionfetti
88 Nisini and others 2007), “Spinoso sardo” (Lanteri and others 2001), “Violeto di
89 Sicilia” (Raccuia and others 2004; Portis and others 2005a), and “Spinoso di
90 Palermo” (Portis and others 2005a), and in both the cultivated and the wild
91 cardoon (Sonnante and others 2004a; Portis and others 2005b,c). Where AFLP
Fo
92 and ISSR have been used to generate DNA fingerprints from single plants
r
93 (Lanteri and others 2004a), a substantial level of variability has been
Pe
96 populations.
97
Re
98 In this sense, PCR techniques have the potential of being an appropriate method
100 production of “Torta del Casar" cheese. The aim of the present work was to apply
ew
101 the PCR methods RAPD and SSRs for a rapid and accurate differentiation of
102 Cynara cardunculus to avoid the problems with the conventional morphological
103 descriptors of the flowers used to obtain the rennet, and to be used as an
104 effective tool for traceability by the authorities of the Protected Designation of
106
108
5
110 A total of 106 specimens of different species from Asteraceae family were
111 collected in different places of the Extremadura region (Spain). They were
113 time of sampling (Table 1). Photographs were taken of the plants, and the
114 classification was done according to Valdés and others (1987) for the
116 Leaf materials of each sample were put into plastic bags, and kept under dry
Fo
119 Technological Development, Finca ‘La Orden’, (Badajoz, Spain), for Cynara
120 cardunculus (CQ3-08, CQ4-08, CQ5-08), Cynara humilis (08), and Onopordum
er
121 nervosum (07). These were the reference plants used in this work.
122
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124 The thistles’ flowers were triturated in a mincer followed by grinding in a mortar.
vi
125 DNA was isolated according to the method which includes CTAB as detergent in
ew
126 the extraction buffer described by Porebski and others (1997) with the
127 modifications of Hernández and others (2010). The samples were incubated at
128 65ºC for 30 min with 10 ml of extraction buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 20 mM
130 (v/v) of β-mercaptoethanol. The concentration and purity of the extracted DNA
133
6
135 The amplification of the RAPD-PCR was carried out under the following
137 Tris-HCl, pH 9.0, 3 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM each of dATP, dCTP, dGTP, and dTTP,
138 200 ng of primer, and 1 U DNA polymerase (Biotools, Madrid, Spain). A total of 7
139 RAPD-PCR primers were used (Table 2). Reaction without template DNA was
140 used as the negative control in all amplifications. Amplification was performed in
141 a MyCycler thermal cycler (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA) with the following
Fo
142 cycling conditions: one cycle of 94ºC for 3 min; 35 cycles of 94ºC for 30 s,
r
143 annealing temperature of 45ºC for 1 min and 72ºC for 1 min; and a final extension
Pe
144 of 72ºC for 5 min. The amplification products were separated by electrophoresis
145 in 2% (w/w) agarose gels and detected by staining with ethidium bromide (0.5
er
146 µg/ml). A DNA molecular size marker VI of 2.1-0.15 kbp (Roche Farma, IN, USA)
147 was used to determine the size of the PCR products. Electrophoretic patterns
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150
ew
152 Ten SSR primers (Table 2) were used to amplify the DNA of the thistle species
153 studied. PCR reactions were performed in a final volume of 30 µl reaction mixture
155 each of dATP, dCTP, dGTP, and dTTP, 0.2 µM of each primer, and 1 U DNA
156 polymerase (Biotools, Madrid, Spain). Reaction without template DNA was used
157 as the negative control in all amplifications. PCR was performed in a MyCycler
158 thermal cycler (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA), programmed for a hot start of 3 min at
7
159 94ºC; 35 cycles of 30 s at 94ºC, 1 min at the average of the melting temperatures
160 (Tm) of two flanking primers, and 1 min at 72ºC; plus a final extension of 5 min at
162 agarose gels and detected by staining with ethidium bromide (0.5 µg/ml). A DNA
163 molecular size marker VI of 2.1-0.15 kbp (Roche Farma, IN, USA) was used to
164 determine the size of the PCR products. Electrophoretic patterns were compared
166 Kingdom).
Fo
167
r
168 Data analysis
Pe
169 Each sample was amplified at least five times to verify reproducibility. RAPD-PCR
172 matrix of individual markers containing the band scoring information was
Re
173 constructed. Similarities among isolates were estimated using the DICE
174 coefficient, with clustering based on the unweighted pair group method using
vi
175 average linkage (UPGMA) (NTSYS-PC version 2.0, Applied Biostatistics, Inc.).
ew
176
179 After performing the in situ morphological classification according to Valdés and
180 others (1987), it was found that 1 Sylibum marianum, 1 Cirsium arvense, 9
183
8
185 Seven primers were used in this study (Table 2). These primers have previously
186 been employed for the characterization of different plant species (Sonnante and
187 others 2002; Lanteri and others 2003; Portis and others 2004; Hernández and
188 others 2010). The samples used to verify the accuracy of the primers were:
190 standard, CQ38 sample, Cynara humilis 07 standard, and CQ12 sample.
194 approximately 168 to 1406 bp. The primers OPB07 and OPG12 used in this study
195 did not show profiles of bands in the Cynara cardunculus plants.
er
196 The OPB06, OPE19, and OPF08 primers showed profiles of different bands for
197 the species studied except for Cynara cardunculus for which there were only 3
Re
199 Amplifications with the OPF05 primer showed similar profiles in the different
vi
200 samples amplified and the profiles presented low band intensity. Again, this
ew
202 In contrast, it is interesting that other authors (Lanteri and others 2003; Portis and
203 others 2004; Hernández and others 2010), report adequate profiles with a greater
204 number of bands using some of these primers in their studies with pepper
205 samples.
206 With the primer OPAE10, band profiles were obtained with a large number of
207 bands of appropriate intensity, obtaining different profiles for each species
208 studied. It was found that there were differences between samples belonging to
9
209 the species Cynara cardunculus (Figure 1). The bands ranged from
210 approximately 208 to 1193 bp, with a total of 14 polymorphic bands being
211 obtained.
212 Due to this success, the other primers were discarded and the analysis of all
214
217 employed by Acquadro and others (2005a,b) for the characterization of natural
r
218 populations of Cynara cardunculus L. The samples used to verify the accuracy of
Pe
219 the primers were: Onopordon nervosum 08 standard, CQ18 sample, Cynara
220 cardunculus CQ3-08 standard, CQ38 sample, Cynara humilis 07 standard, and
er
222 Analysis of 10 SSR reactions produced a total of 73 different bands among the 3
Re
223 thistle species studied: Onopordum nervosum, Cynara cardunculus, and Cynara
224 humilis (Table 3). The bands ranged from approximately 140 to 1523 bp. Six
vi
226 CMAFLP-18, CMAFLP-21, and CMAFLP-110 did not show profiles of bands in
227 the Cynara cardunculus and Cynara humilis species. These results are in
228 disagreement with those obtained by Acquadro and others (2005a) since in their
229 study with Cynara cardunculus L. these primers amplified between 10 to 5 bands
231 The primers CMAFLP-11 and CMAFLP-15 did not show good results for the
232 amplification of DNA obtained from Cynara cardunculus or Cynara humilis (Table
233 3). These results also disagree with those obtained by Acquadro and others
10
234 (2005 b) who obtained 5 amplification products for Cynara cardunculus L. with
235 primer CMAFLP-11 (Acquadro and others 2005b) and 6 with primer CMAFLP-15
236 (Acquadro and others 2005a). In the case of the samples belonging to the
238 produced profiles of 8 to 9 total bands with molecular weights between 839 to 193
239 bp.
240 The results obtained using primer CMAFLP-08 showed that the band profiles of
242 polymorphic bands ranging between 842 and 270 bp. In the case of Cynara
r
243 cardunculus, the profiles consisted of 3 polymorphic bands, while Cynara humilis
Pe
244 only included 2 polymorphic bands, although the Cynara cardunculus and Cynara
245 humilis profiles were very similar. The present results with the primer CMAFLP-08
er
246 for Cynara cardunculus were very similar to those obtained by Acquadro and
248 Finally, the primer CMAFLP-24 amplified all the samples, resulting in different
249 band profiles for each species. There even appeared different bands between
vi
250 samples belonging to the same species (Table 3, Figure 2). The bands ranged
ew
251 from approximately 1120 to 140 bp, and a total of 11 polymorphic bands were
252 obtained. Similar results were obtained by Acquadro and others (2005b) with
254 Therefore, the analysis of the specimenes collected was carried out with the
256
257 Analysis of collected thistle Asteraceae species by the RAPD-PCR and SSR
258 techniques
11
259 After analyzing the results obtained with the RAPD and SSR techniques, it was
260 found that the best profiles with largest numbers of total and polymorphic bands
261 were obtained with OPAE10 and CMAFLP-24 primers, respectively. For this
262 reason, these primers were chosen for the characterization of the 106 collected
263 samples.
264 The RAPD-PCR comparing the DNA band profiles of the 106 isolates and the 5
265 reference species yielded three main clusters (Figure 3, Table 4) on application of
266 the UPGMA dendrogram analysis. These groups corresponded to the results
Fo
267 obtained from the morphological characterization: one containing the samples
r
268 belonging to the species Onopordon nervosum (cluster I), another Cynara humilis
Pe
269 (cluster II), and the third Cynara cardunculus (cluster III). The CQ1 and CQ5
271 Cirsium arvense, respectively, were not grouped in any of these clusters. They
272 were very close genetically with percentages of similarity of 85%, and close to
Re
274 Cluster I grouped 9 of the collected samples with the Onopordum nervosum 07
vi
276 subgroups were distinguished by differences in the secondary bands (Table 4).
277 Samples from clusters I.2 and I.3 showed similar profiles with 6 common bands of
278 molecular weights of 887 to 208 bp, but in cluster I.2 there was no 540 bp band,
280 Cluster II grouped 17 samples with the Cynara humilis 08 reference, with
281 percentages of similarity of 40% (Figure 3, Table 4). All samples showed similar
282 profiles with 5 bands of molecular weights between 1184 to 314 bp, but
283 differences in the secondary bands which defined four subgroups. Samples in
12
284 cluster II.1 showed two additional amplification bands of 442 and 380 bp.
285 Samples grouped in cluster II.2 showed two secondary bands of 813 and 756 bp.
287 weights 1184 to 314 bp. And finally, cluster II.4 which was the most genetically
288 distant from the rest with percentages of similarity of 40% showed identical
289 profiles of three bands with molecular weights of 442, 380, and 314 bp.
290 Cluster III grouped 78 samples with the Cynara cardunculus references (CQ3-08,
291 CQ4-08, CQ5-08), with a 90% percent difference from the other two clusters.
Fo
292 Samples showed profiles of 7 common bands and several differences in the
r
293 secondary bands. Three subgroups with more than 60% similarities were found.
Pe
294 A greater genetic variation was thus present within this population. This is
295 consistent with the conclusions of Portis and others (2005a,b) and Sonnante and
er
297
Re
298 Very similar trees were obtained from distance measurements calculated from
299 the SSR data (Figure 4). In this figure one observes three major clusters each
vi
300 containing one of the species studied: Onopordon nervosum (cluster I), Cynara
ew
301 humilis (cluster II), and Cynara cardunculus (cluster III). The CQ1 and CQ5
302 samples were not grouped into any of these clusters, and showed greater
304 The distribution of each of the samples in different subclusters with the SSR
305 technique was also due to differences in secondary bands of low intensity, and
306 was very similar to that obtained with the RAPD study (Table 5).
307
13
308 In conclusion, both techniques have allowed all the thistle species from
310 Both marker systems showed that the studied species possess a remarkable
312 among the Cynara cardunculus populations because there were more RAPD and
314 It has been demonstrated therefore that these techniques can be used as an
315 effective tool for traceability by the authorities of the Protected Designation of
Fo
318 Acknowledgements
319 The authors are grateful to M. Cabrero and C. Cebrián for technical assistance,
er
321
Re
322 References
325
329
333
337
338 Cordeiro M, Jacob E, Puhan Z, Pais MS, Brodelius PE. 1992. Milk clotting and
341
r
342 Fernández-Salguero J, Sanjuán E, Montero E. 1991. A preliminary study of the
Pe
344
er
347
348 Hernández A, Aranda E, Martín A, Benito MJ, Bartolomé T, Córdoba MG. 2010.
vi
352
353 Lanteri S, Di Leo I, Ledda L, Mameli MG, Portis E. 2001. RAPD variation within
356
15
357 Lanteri S, Acquadro A, Quagliotti L, Portis E. 2003. RAPD and AFLP assessment
359 (Capsicum annuum L.) grown in north-west Italy. Genet. Resour. Crop
361
362 Lanteri S, Saba E, Cadinu M, Mallica GM, Baghino L, Portis E. 2004. Amplified
365
r
366 Lanteri S, Acquadro A, Saba E, Portis E. 2004. Molecular fingerprinting and
Pe
368 (Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus L.) ‘Spinoso sardo’. J. Hortic. Sci.
er
370
Re
371 Macedo AC, Malcata FX, Oliveira JC. 1993. The technology, chemistry and
373
ew
374 Pagnotta MA, Carderelli MT, Rey Muñoz NA, Tucci M, Saccardo F. 2004.
377
381
16
382 Porebski S, Bailey LG, Baum BR, 1997. Modification of a CTBA DNA extraction
385
388 (Capsicum annuum L.), grown in North-West Italy. Genet. Resour. Crop
390
r
391 Portis E, Acquadro A, Comino C, Mauromicale G, Saba E, Lanteri S. 2005a.
Pe
393 cardunculus L. var. sylvestris (Lamk) Fiori] detected by AFLPs and SSRs.
er
395
Re
399
400 Portis E, Barchi L, Acquadro A, Macua JI, Lanteri S. 2005c. Genetic diversity
403
406 cultivars and wild types from Sicily. Plant Breeding. 123:280-284.
17
407
411
413 cultivars and some related wild taxa based on AFLP markers. Plant
415
r
416 Sonnante G, Ippedico M, De Paolis A. 2004b. Microsatellite and AFLP markers in
Pe
418
er
421 genetically cohesive taxa and wild allies. Genet. Resour. Crop Ev.
422 55:1029–1046.
vi
423
ew
424 Trionfetti Nisini P, Crinò P, Pagnotta MA, Tavazza R, Ancora G. 2007. Recovery
427
430
18
433
438
Fo
439
r Pe
er
Re
vi
ew
19
440 Figure 1. RAPD amplification patterns generated by the primer OPAE 10. Lane 1,
442 cardunculus CQ3-08 standard; lane 4, CQ38 sample; lane 5, Cynara humilis 08
443 standard; lane 6, CQ12 sample; lane M DNA molecular size marker VI of 2.1-0.15
445
446 Figure 2. SSR amplification patterns generated by the primer CMAFLP 24. Lane
448 cardunculus CQ3-08 standard; lane 4, CQ38 sample; lane 5, Cynara humilis 08
r
449 standard; lane 6, CQ12 sample; lane M DNA molecular size marker VI of 2.1-0.15
Pe
451
er
453 the primer OPAE 10 from cardoon species used as standards and collected in the
Re
454 field.
455
vi
457 the primer CMAFLP 24 from cardoon species used as standards and collected in
459
20
No. of
samples Morphological identification Samples
1 Sylibum marianum CQ1
17 Cynara humilis CQ4 - CQ6 - CQ11 - CQ12 - CQ13 - CQ14 - CQ15 - CQ16 - CQ23 - CQ24
- CQ25 - CQ62 - CQ63 - CQ64 - CQ65 - CQ66 - CQ71
78 Cynara cardunculus CQ20 - CQ21 - CQ22 - CQ26 - CQ27 - CQ28 - CQ30 - CQ31 - CQ32 -
CQ33 - CQ34 - CQ36 - CQ37 - CQ38 - CQ39 - CQ40 - CQ41 - CQ42 -
CQ43 - CQ45 - CQ46 - CQ47 - CQ48 - CQ49 - CQ50 - CQ51 - CQ52 -
Fo
CQ53 - CQ54 - CQ55 - CQ56 - CQ57 - CQ58 - CQ59 - CQ60 - CQ61 -
CQ67 – CQ75 - CQ78 - CQ80 - CQ82 - CQ83 - CQ84 - CQ85 - CQ86 -
CQ87 - CQ88 - CQ89 - CQ103 - CQ104 - CQ108 - CQ109 - CQ110 -
CQ111 - CQ112 - CQ113 - CQ114 - CQ115 - CQ116 - CQ117 - CQ118 -
CQ119 - CQ120 - CQ121 - CQ122 - CQ123 - CQ124 - CQ125 - CQ126 -
r
CQ127 - CQ128 - CQ129 - CQ130 - CQ131 - CQ132 - CQ133 - CQ134 -
CQ135
Pe
461
462
er
Re
vi
ew
21
Table 2. Primers, range of molecular weight, total and polymorphic bands, and species differentiation bands (characterized by molecular weight in bp)
amplified with RAPD primers.
OPB06 TGCTCTGCCC
Fo
Range of mol. wt.
(bp) bands
912 to 280
Total bands
10
Polymorphic
bands
9
Onopordon nervosum Cynara cardunculus Cynara humilis
rP
728, 631, 557, 438, 348 806, 590, 280 806, 590, 377, 280
OPG12
OPAE10
CTCCCAGGGT
CTGAAGCGCA
1114 to 445
1193 to 208
4
17
4
14
iew
1114, 1033, 472, 445
22
Table 3. Primers, range of molecular weight, total and polymorphic bands, and species differentiation bands (characterized by molecular weight in bp)
amplified with SSR primers.
Fo
Primers Primer sequence (5'-3') (bp) bands Total bands bands Onopordon nervosum cardunculus Cynara humilis
CGATAGCTCTTTCCCTTT
CMAFLP-04 614 to 197 5 5
ATGGGTGAGATTGGTTTAC
rP
614, 478, 355, 285, 197 --- ---
GGCTCCACCGTACTCCTA
CMAFLP-07 839 to 387 4 4
TCTCTCGTCAGTAAACCC 839, 622, 489, 387 --- ---
ee
AGGTGTGAAGGCTTCATC
CMAFLP-08 842 to 248 10 9 842, 703, 600, 474, 352, 314,
TCCCGAGATCCTTGACTCAG 270 539, 430, 314 539, 430
rR
GAAGGAGAAGCTTGATATCTG
CMAFLP-11 744 to 278 10 9
CATCCTCACGAGGACATC 744, 517, 383, 330, 306, 278 581, 420, 281 581, 420, 281
TTTGATCTTGTCCCTATATATATA
CMAFLP-13 436 to 314 2 2
CMAFLP-15
TCGGCTTTTCTGAATATC
TTGAGAGGGTTTTCCGAGAG
839 to 193 9 7 ev --- 436, 314 ---
iew
TAGGATGAGTCCTGAGTAAT 740, 548, 433, 268, 236, 193 839, 433 548
AAGTGTTGCATAATAACTTACC
CMAFLP-18 1523 to 388 10 9 1523, 1365, 1127, 915, 849, 730,
CCGAACAAATTGCTTACAA 501, 466, 388 --- 915, 730, 501
TAAATAGTTAGTGTTCTCGTTTG
CMAFLP-21 513 to 228 6 4
TGGGGTTGTATTGGTTG 513, 282, 228 357 ---
GCCCGTTCACACACAACA
CMAFLP-24 1120 to 140 13 11 955, 835, 731, 605, 319,
CAGGTTCTTTTTATACAGCAG 1120, 835, 731, 520, 402, 369 520, 369, 192 192, 140
AGTGGGTAAGTGGGGATG
CMAFLP-110 628 to 235 4 2
ATCTCCACATTTTCTCCTCC 628, 313 313 ---
23
1 Table 4. Samples collected grouped into clusters by RAPD with OPAE 10 primer.
Identification
Cluster I (9) I.1 (4) CQ8, CQ9, CQ10, CQ68 Onopordon nervosum
I.2 (4) CQ17, CQ18, CQ19, CQ69 Onopordon nervosum
I.3 (1) CQ29 Onopordon nervosum
Cluster II (17) II.1 (5) CQ4, CQ6, CQ11, CQ62, CQ63 Cynara humilis
II.2 (5) CQ12, CQ13, CQ14, CQ64, CQ66 Cynara humilis
II.3 (5) CQ23, CQ24, CQ25, CQ65, CQ71 Cynara humilis
II.4 (2) CQ15, CQ16 Cynara humilis
Cluster III (78) III.1 (44) CQ20, CQ21, CQ22, CQ26, CQ27, CQ28, CQ34, Cynara cardunculus
Fo
CQ37, CQ38, CQ39, CQ47, CQ48, CQ49,
CQ50,CQ53, CQ56, CQ103, CQ104, CQ108,
CQ109, CQ110, CQ111, CQ112, CQ113, CQ114,
CQ115, CQ117, CQ118, CQ119, CQ120, CQ121,
CQ122, CQ123, CQ125, CQ126, CQ127, CQ128,
CQ129, CQ130, CQ131, CQ132, CQ133, CQ134,
r
CQ135
III.2 (21) CQ33, CQ51, CQ52, CQ54, CQ55, CQ40, CQ41, Cynara cardunculus
Pe
III.3 (13) CQ30, CQ31, CQ32, CQ36, CQ45, CQ46, CQ58, Cynara cardunculus
er
2
Re
3
vi
ew
24
5 primer.
Identification
Cluster I (9) I.1 (4) CQ8, CQ9, CQ10, CQ68 Onopordon nervosum
I.2 (4) CQ17, CQ18, CQ19, CQ69 Onopordon nervosum
I.3 (1) CQ29 Onopordon nervosum
Cluster II (17) II.1 (6) CQ4, CQ6, CQ15, CQ16, CQ62,CQ63 Cynara humilis
II.2 (6) CQ11, CQ23, CQ24, CQ25, CQ65, CQ71 Cynara humilis
II.3 (5) CQ12, CQ13, CQ14, CQ64,CQ66 Cynara humilis
Fo
Cluster III (67) III.1 (14) CQ20, CQ21, CQ22, CQ26, CQ27, CQ28, CQ57, Cynara cardunculus
CQ109, CQ110, CQ111, CQ113, CQ119, CQ121,
CQ134
r
III.2 (44) CQ33, CQ34, CQ37, CQ38, CQ39, CQ40, CQ41, Cynara cardunculus
CQ42, CQ43, CQ47, CQ48, CQ49, CQ50, CQ51,
CQ52, CQ53, CQ54, CQ55, CQ56, CQ88, CQ89,
Pe
7
vi
ew
25
OPAE10
M 1 2 3 4 5 6 M
pb pb
2.176
2.176
1.766
1.766
1.230
1.033 1.230
1.033
653
653
517
453 517
394 453
394
298
298
234
234
220
220
Fo
FIGURE 1
r Pe
er
Re
vi
ew
CMAFLP-24
M 1 2 3 4 5 6 M
pb pb
2.176
1.766 2.176
1.766
1.230
1.033 1.230
1.033
653
653
517
453 517
394 453
394
298
234 298
234
220
220
Fo
FIGURE 2
r Pe
er
Re
vi
ew
CQ1
CQ5
I.1
Onopordum nervosum 07
Cluster I
I.2 (9 samples)
I.3
II.1
Cynara humilis 08
II.2
Cluster II
(17 samples)
II.3
Fo
II.4
r Pe
er
III.1
Re
III.2
ew
Cluster III
(78 samples)
III.3
10 25 50 75 100
r=0.29
Correlation coefficient
Figure 3. RAPD
FIGURE 3
CQ1
CQ5
I.1
Onopordum nervosum 07
Cluster I
I.2
(9 samples)
I.3
II.1
Cynara humilis 08
II.2
Fo
Cluster II
(17 samples)
II.3
r Pe
III.1
Cynara cardunculus CQ5-08
er
Re
Cluster III
(78 samples)
III.2
vi
ew
III.3
10 25 r=0.33 50 75 100
Correlation coefficient
FIGURE 4
4 making
6 Ordiales, E.2; Martín, A.1; Benito, M.J.1; Ruiz –Moyano, S.1, Aranda, E.1, Córdoba, M. G.1*
1
7 Nutrición y Bromatología. Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, University of Extremadura, Ctra. de
8 Cáceres s/n, 06071 Badajoz, Spain.
2
9 Agricultura, Centro Tecnológico Nacional Agroalimentario Extremadura, CTAEX. Ctra.
10 Villafranco a Balboa, km 1.2. 06195 Villafranco del Guadiana, Badajoz, Spain.
11
12
13
14
17 http://eia.unex.es/
18
19
20
159
21 ABSTRACT
22 The purpose of this work was to develop a procedure based on protein analysis by Sodium
23 Dodecyl Sulphate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) that can be used in the
24 determination of Cynara cardunculus dried flowers adulteration with other thistle species from
25 Asteraceae family, which dried flowers could be confused with, giving laid to a fraud in the
26 Torta del Casar cheese-making. Samples of flowers of different thistle’s species were collected
27 in Extremadura, in the southwest of Spain. Both methods, SDS-PAGE and FZCE (free zone
29 other thistle species properly. In addition, 172 samples of cardoon flowers (Cynara
30 cardunculus) grouped according to location, harvest year, and ripening stages were used in the
31 study. The SDS-PAGE method showed higher effectiveness in discriminating the technological
32 properties, milk-clotting and casein degradation activities, of vegetal rennets used in this study.
33 The SDS–PAGE technique allowed group aqueous extracts from flowers of C. cardunculus in
34 five different groups, which exhibited different ability to degrade the milk caseins.
35
36
37
38
39 Keywords: Cynara cardunculus, SDS-PAGE, protein profile, proteolitic activity, milk clotting
40 activity.
41
42
43
160
44 1. Introduction
46 Spain. It is made from raw ewe’s milk “Merino” and “Entrefina” in Cáceres province. It was
47 labeled with PDO (Protected Denomination of Origin) in accordance with the Regulations (CE)
48 1491/2003 of the European Commission. This cheese is characterized by a soft and spreadable
49 texture, a slightly bitter taste and strong aroma, due to the vegetable rennet used as coagulant,
50 an aqueous extract of Cynara cardunculus L. dried flowers. No starter culture is added and the
51 minimum time for ripening is 60 days. It is a well-known cheese with an increasing production
52 every year, since it is much appreciated by consumers for its high quality and unique flavor
54 The extracts of the flowers of others Cynara species, C. humilis and C. scolymus, have
55 also been claimed to be effective as rennet (Silva and Malcata, 2000; Veríssimo et al., 1996).
56 Extracts from C. humilis were also used in the manufacture of ewe’s milk cheeses in Portugal
57 (Serra and Sherpa) and Spain (Los Pedroches, La Serena and Torta del Casar), especially when
58 C. cardunculus is scarce (Fernández –Salguero et al., 1999; Vioque et al., 2000). Also, milk
59 clotting activity was also found in flowers of Centeurea calcitrapa, Onopordum turcicum and
60 Sylibum marianum (Domingos et al., 1998; Tamer, 1993; Vairo Cavalli et al., 2005). All these
61 species belong to the Asteraceae family, and furthermore lie in the same tribe: Cardueae Cass.
63 The milk clotting activity of these species is due to their content in aspartic proteinases,
64 named cardosins or cynarases (Heimgartner et al., 1990; Brodelius et al., 1995; Cordeiro et al.,
65 1998; White et al., 1999; Silva et al., 1999). These enzymes are similar, in terms of specificity
66 and activity, to chymosin and pepsin (Pires et al., 1994; Veríssimo et al., 1995), although the
67 proteolytic activity of cynarases appears to be less specific than of chymosin. This aspect is
68 suited to the manufacture of soft-bodied cheeses often associated with bitter tastes and relatively
69 low yields, such as “Torta del Casar” (Tavaria et al., 2001). The use of flowers with different
161
70 protease content due to the natural variability and seasonal climatic variations is responsible for
72 Moreover the dried flowers of the thistle species studied can be confused with dried flowers of
73 C. cardunculus, which contributes to the lack of homogeneity in cheese making process, and it
74 involves a fraud in “Torta del Casar” cheeses labeled with PDO. In order to get high
75 homogeneity between cheese batches, enhance the cheese yield and its sensorial quality, it is
76 desirable to know the Cynara cardunculus plants collected in Extremadura. Thus, the
77 development of a method for the quality control of the aqueous extracts used as rennet would be
79 A protein profile study is suitable for such a purpose. Various works have described
80 methods based on protein patterns to control food quality (Barnwell et al., 1994; Toorop et al.,
81 1997; Skarpied et al., 2001; Bietz, 1994; Cancalon, 1995). Analyses of proteins in these
82 complex mixtures are presently performed mainly by SDS-PAGE methods. Sodium dodecyl
84 offers the advantages of being fairly fast and easy and, when performed under highly
86 level. SDS-PAGE protein profile analysis has been used successfully to identify LAB isolated
87 from wines and musts (Patarata et al., 1994), Italian ewe’s-milk cheeses (De Angelis et al.,
88 2001), and eggplants (Sánchez et al., 2003), to identify paprika varieties (Hernández et al.,
89 2006), to visualized cynarasas purified from Cynara scolymus and to monitor the hydrolysis of
90 caseins by the extracts from C. scolymus (Chazarra et al., 2007), from sunflower and albizia
91 seeds (Egito et al., 2007). SDS-PAGE methods has been defined as an efficient taxonomic tool
92 for rapid differentiation of the most common lactic acid species (Benito et al., 2008a) and
93 Staphylococcus species (Benito et al., 2008b) in dry fermented meat products. Capillary
95 Manabe, 1999; Ordiales et al., 2012). CE methods involve a simple extraction of proteins and
96 small quantities of organic solvents in comparison with RP-HPLC. A subset of CE called free
162
97 zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE) has been applied to the analysis of complex protein
98 systems. Numerous papers have reported the potential of FZCE to discriminate, or fingerprint,
99 foodstuffs such as cereals, paprika, cherries (Hernandez et al., 2007; Serradilla et al., 2008). In
100 last decade, CE has proved to be an efficient separation technique for the analysis of food
101 proteins in general (Frazier et al., 1999, 2000; Recio et al., 2001) and milk proteins in particular
102 (Recio et al., 1997). In fact, CE has been applied to monitoring proteolysis in cheese (Molina et
103 al., 1998; Otte et al., 1999), mainly in bovine cheese, but also in ewe and goat cheeses (Cattaneo
104 et al., 1996; Irogoyen et al., 1996; Molina et al., 2000; Ordiales et al., 2012). Moreover this
105 technique has been used to study the proteolysis of cheese produced with Cynara L. as
106 coagulant (Roseiro et al., 2003). Thus, both techniques FZCE and SDS-PAGE could be used for
107 the quality control of the extract used as rennet in “Torta del Casar” manufacture.
108 The aim of this work was to develop a procedure based on protein profile analysis that
109 can be used to control the technological quality of aqueous extracts used as rennet in ‘‘Torta del
111
114 Several thistle species belonging to Asteraceae family were sampled. Leaves and flowers were
115 collected from different plants grown in field, in several parts of Extremadura region.
116 Morphological characterization was carried out in situ, in accordance with the guidelines of
117 Valdés et al. (1987) (Table 1). Flowers were collected individually from each thistle plant in
118 order to analyze the variability among plants within the same species. A total of 65 samples
119 were collected in 2006, from C. cardunculus, L., C. humilis, L., C. scolymus, L., Silybum
120 marianum (L) Goernt., and Onopordum nervosum, Boiss. species and 140 samples of C.
121 cardunculus during the seasons of the years 2007, 2008 and 2009 in the most representative
122 areas of Extremadura region (Table 2). They were grouped into 3 different ripening stages in
163
123 accordance with the cardoon flower’s phenological characteristics, ripening stage a (flowers
124 opening, only some styles, and stigmas are visible), b (flowers fully open, even with pollen) and
125 c (flowers begin to dry, so they are brownish, instead of violet colour). The collected samples
126 were transported to the laboratory to be dried and analyzed and there the flowers were separated
127 from the rest of the involucre. They kept at room temperature until they were dried and then
129
130 2.2. Extraction of coagulant extracts of proteins for SDS-PAGE and CE analysis
131 For the SDS-PAGE analysis an aqueous crude extract from dried flowers of different
132 Asteraceae species was prepared with 1 g of dried flowers in 5 mL of water and kept for 4 h at
133 room temperature. The homogenate was filtered through a Whatman filter No. 4.
134 Direct extraction of dried flowers from Asteraceae species with water may lead to components
135 other than proteins being removed and, consequently, poor resolution of FZCE. In fact, these
136 extracts may also contain compounds such as polysaccharides, polyphenols, anthocyanin,
137 tannins, DNA, free amino acids, and sugars that can potentially bind the inner walls of the silica
138 capillaries (Bean and Lookhart, 2001). Hence, a pre-extraction step was included, mixing 1 g of
139 the dried flower with methanol (3:10 w/v) for 5 min at room temperature, according Hernández
140 et al. (2006) method. Longer extraction time did not improve the effectiveness of the extraction.
141 The suspension vortexed periodically, centrifuged at 5800 g for 5 min and the supernatant was
142 collected. From an aliquot of 0.5 mL, methanol-soluble proteins were partially precipitated
143 (except for the most of the apolar protein fraction) with chloroform (1:2 v/v) and centrifuged at
144 24000 g for 5 min. The pellets were cleansed twice with chloroform, and then suspended in 100
145 µL of 30% (v/v) acetonitrile according to the protocol described by Hernandez et al. (2006).
146 Cardosins standars have been purified from C. cardunculus flowers according to Sidrach et al.
147 (2005) with some modification. Stigmas (100 g) were ground in a food mixer and
148 homogeneized in 800 mL 50 mM aqueous citrate buffer (pH 3.0), containing 1 M NaCl to
164
149 prevent non-specific proteinase binding to the filter membrane in the following ultrafiltration
150 step. The ground homogenate was filtered through muslin to remove most of the solid residue.
151 After centrifugation of the homogenate at 24000 rpm for 20 min, the supernant was filtered
152 through a Whatman 4 filter paper. The resulting solution constituted the crude extract, which
153 was concentrated and dialyzed by ultrafiltration (Pellicon XL PXB010A50, Millipore) against
154 25 mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.6 coupled to FPLC system equipped with a UV detector at 214
155 nm and a fraction collector FRAC-950 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Uppsala, Sweden).
156 After sample application, the enzymes were displaced with step gradients of 0.30, 0.35 and 0.5
157 M NaCl in the previous buffer. The fractions that contain the cardosins were collected. Before
158 FCZE analysis, cardosin fractions were concentrated and dialyzed by ultrafiltration (Pellicon-2
160
162 The proteins for SDS-PAGE, extracted as described above, were mixed with 30 µL of PAGE
163 loading buffer (62,5 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6,8, 20% (w/v) glycerol, 2% (w/v) SDS, 5% (w/v) β-
164 mercaptoethanol, 0.025% (w/v) bromophenol blue) and incubated at 99º C for 5 min for protein
165 denaturing. The electrophoresis conditions were those described by Laemmli (1970), and the
166 concentrations for acrylamide (29:1 acrylamide/bisacrylamide) in the gels were 4% (w/v) for
167 staking gels, and 15% (w/v) for separating gels. Gels were cast and run in a Miniprotean III
168 device (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, CA). The molecular mass marker kits (Sigma
169 Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) contain proteins from 6.5 to 205 kDa. The gels were
170 subsequently stained with 0.5% (w/v) Coomassie blue (G-250) dissolved in 45% (v/v) water,
171 45% (v/v) methanol, and 10% (v/v) glacial acetic acid for 30 min and destained with a solution
172 consisting of 20% (v/v) methanol, 10% (v/v) glacial acetic acid, and 70% (v/v) distilled water
173 for 4 h. A computer image analysis program (Genetools, Synoptics Ltd., Cambridge, U.K.) was
165
175
177 The protein extracts were previously filtrated through a 0.2 µm filter and analyzed by FZCE.
178 The separations were done on an automated PACE 5500 device (Beckman Instruments, INC.,
179 Palo Alto, CA). To minimise the interaction of proteins with the column wall, basic pH values
180 were chosen to make the run buffer. Run buffer was prepared with HPLC-grade water obtained
181 from a Mili-Q water purification system, and consisted of 8.75 mM phosphate 20.6 mM
182 tetraborate at a nominal pH of 9. This buffer has been successfully used for the determination of
183 vegetable proteins by FZCE (Flurer et al., 2000; Hernández et al., 2006, 2007). Uncoated fused
184 silica capillaries of 75 µm i.d. and 57 cm total length (50 cm to window detector) were used
185 (Supelco, Tecknocroma, Barcelona, Spain). The capillaries were initially conditioned with 100
186 mM NaOH for 10 min, and then with de-ionized water for 5 min. They were rinsed between
187 separations for 2 min with 100 mM NaOH, for 2 min with de-ionized water, and then with
188 separation buffer for 2 min. When not in use, the capillaries were rinsed with 100 mM NaOH
189 for 10 min, followed by water for 10 min, and finally dried by nitrogen gas for 10 min. The
190 separation voltage was 263 V/cm (15 kV) and the separation temperature was 23º C. The
191 wavelength used to monitor the assays was 254 nm. Samples were injected under pressure (0.5
192 psi) for 5 s and the protein spectra were monitored from 190 to 300 nm with a PACE diode
193 array detector (Beckman Instrument Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA). Protein peaks were identified
194 using correct migration times and UV absorbance spectra. The Beckman P/ACE Station
195 (Version 1.21) software package was used to store, manipulate and compare the
196 electroferograms.
197
199 The dried flowers extracts were prepared by macerating 0.25 g of dried flowers in 5 mL of
166
201 homogenate was filtered through a Whatman filter No. 4. The substrate used for degradation by
202 extracts consisted of a mix of bovine caseins (Sigma Aldrich, Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) ( , ,
203 y k), at a concentration of 0.5 mg/mL of each casein, dissolved in 5 mL of distilled water. The
204 dried flowers extracts were macerated with the casein mix, at 2.5% of extract (v/v), for 2 h at
205 room temperature, to allow the casein degradation. After this time the extracts with degraded
206 caseins were denatured by adding 30 µL of PAGE loading buffer (62.5 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8,
207 20% (w/v) glycerol, 2% (w/v) SDS, 5% (w/v) β-mercaptoethanol, 0.025% (w/v) bromophenol
208 blue) and incubated at 99º C for 5 min. The electrophoresis conditions and the analysis method
210
212 This assay was performed only for C. cardunculus samples. For milk-clotting assays, 0.5 g of
213 each cardoon sample was softened in 75 mL of ultrapure water for 1 and 24 h. The rennet
214 clotting time of these coagulant extracts was measured according to a standard method
215 (NILAC™; NIZO, Ede, The Netherlands) described by Tavaria et al. (2001). The substrate was
216 prepared by dissolving 12 g of low-heat bovine skimmed milk powder in 100 mL of 0.01 M
217 CaCl2 (pH 6.5) at 30 ºC. The enzymatic assay was performed using 0.2 mL of coagulant extract
218 added to 2 mL of reconstituted skim milk, and the clotting time was determined by visual
219 inspection. One rennet unit (R.U.) was defined as the amount of crude enzyme extract needed to
221 157/1992). Determinations were quadruplicated, and the mean of each set of four data was taken
224 The culture collection strains used as standards to develop this method were: Listeria
225 monocytogenes CECT 934, Listeria monocytogenes CECT 911, Escherichia coli CECT 4267,
167
226 Staphylococcus aureus CECT 976, Bacillus cereus CECT 131, Yersinia enterocolitica CECT
227 559, Lactobacillus plantarum CECT 223, Lactobacillus brevis CECT 216, Lactobacillus sakei
228 ssp. carnosus CECT 5766, Lactobacillus curvatus CECT 904, Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp.
229 Mesenteroides CECT 394, Pediococcus pentosaceus CECT 923. Strain Salmonella enteritidis
230 (1263) from Centro Tecnológico Nacional Agroalimentario Extremadura (CTAEX) were also
231 used as standard. The strains were grown in broth (BHI for non-lactic bacteria and MRS for
232 lactic bacteria) for 48 h at 30 or 37º C according to the strain. The C. cardunculus flower
233 extracts were prepared by macerating 50 g of dried flowers in 1 L of water for 24 h at room
234 temperature, adjusted to 6.5 pH, using NaOH as neutralizer, and then were filter-sterilized (0.22
235 µm). The ability of C. cardunculus flower extracts to avoid the growth of pathogenic bacteria
236 and lactic acid bacteria was evaluated by following the microbial growth at 37º C for 1 day with
237 an automated turbidometer Bioscreen C. Analysing System (Labsystems, Findland). The optical
238 density was measured with a wide band filter (OD 420-580 nm). Inocula of 5% in a total
239 volume of 210 µL. MRS and BHI broth without supplements, and adjusted to 6.5 pH, were used
240 as control media. The inhibition of the flower extracts was determined by comparing the growth
241 rates with those obtained with controls. Optical densities below 200, 400 and 600 arbitrary
242 absorbance units (AAU) respect to control were considered as low, moderate and high
244
246 Statistical analysis of the data was carried out using SPSS for Windows, 15.0. (SPSS Inc.,
247 Chicago, Illinois, USA). Mean values of the technological and analytical parameters (FZCE
248 peaks or SDS–PAGE bands) were studied by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
249 separated by Tukey’s honest significant differences test (P < 0.05). The relationships between
250 the technological parameters and FZCE peak area or SDS–PAGE band intensity values were
251 evaluated by Pearson correlation coefficients. A principal component analysis (PCA) was
168
252 performed on the analytical parameters to study the relationships between the protein profiles of
253 the vegetable rennet and the proteolytic activity against caseins.
254
257 Table 3 shows the polypeptide bands profiles obtained for each thistle species belonging to
258 Asteraceae family. Protein profile determined by SDS-PAGE analysis showed a total of 15
259 polypeptide bands with an approximate molecular mass range of 13–67 kDa. As seen in Table
260 3, quantitative differences were detected by comparing the densitograms of the thistle species.
261 Cynara cardunculus protein profile presents 9 bands. The bands more intense, 16.7 and 28.3
262 kDa, and 13.5 and 30.2 kDa, corresponded to cardosin A and cardosin B, respectively. The rest
263 of the bands of this species belong to procardosin A (45 and 55 kDa) and procardosin B (60.2
264 kDa), as was described by Ramalho Santos et al. (1997). The mature form of cardosin A (31
265 kDa) was detected, in callus tissue cells along with a band of 45 kDa and one of 55 kDa. The
266 band of 45 kDa is frequently observed and has been described as corresponding to non-
267 dissociated chains of the enzyme (Ramalho Santos et al., 1998). Regarding cardosin B it was
268 detected the 64 kDa band (60.2 kDa in our survey), corresponding to the precursor and the 55
269 kDa band, similar to what was observed for cardosina A. Also, these authors have reported that
270 the band of 55 kDa may correspond to an intermediate form of cardosins without the
271 prosegment, hypothesis supported by the already documented cleavage sites for cardosin A,
272 Arg68-Asp69, Asn309-Gly310 and Ser414-Thr415, although the 55 kDa band was not detected
273 in thistle flowers (Ramalho – Santos, et al., 1997; Vieira, et al., 2001), but in the seeds or leaves
275 The specie Cynara scolymus shows a protein profile composed of 10 polypeptide bands with an
276 approximate molecular mass range 13.5 to 60.2 kDa. Bands corresponding to cardosin A and
277 cardosin B show the same intensity than C. cardunculus, while the 60.2 kDa band was
169
278 significantly less intense than that of C. cardunculus (Sidrach et al., 2005). On the other hand,
279 Cynara humilis protein profile is defined by 6 polypeptide bands corresponding to the
280 characteristic bands of cardosin A (16.7 and 28.3 kDa), and other less intense bands (55, 60.2
281 and 66.2 kDa), which would correspond to procardosin forms (Ramalho Santos et al., 1998).
282 However, the species C. humilis no polypeptide bands corresponding to the enzyme cardosina B
283 (Esteves et al., 1995). Cardosins A and B represent the best characterized floral Aspartic
284 Proteases, together with cyprosins (Brodelius et al., 98; Cordeiro et al., 94). Regarding the
285 specie Silybum marianum, this profile shows 3 proteins SDS-PAGE bands, two of them, of
286 approximately 35 and 64 kDa, were not present in the rest of the studied species and Onopodum
287 nervosum showed a protein SDS-PAGE profile formed by bands of approximately 30, 32, 59
288 and 67 kDa, which were different from the protein profile of the rest of the studied species. In
289 this sense, the different protein profile observed allowed us to differentiate among the 5 thistle
290 species from Asteraceae family studied. Therefore, the analysis of proteins by SDS-PAGE
291 could be considered as a potentially useful tool for characterizing thistle species belonging
293
294 3.2. FZCE protein profile to identify C. cardunculus from other thistle species
295 To explore the potential of the FZCE method to distinguish thistle Asteraceae species, the inter-
296 species differences were evaluated. The electropherograms obtained by FZCE under the
297 optimized conditions had a total of 24 well-defined peaks for all of the species analyzed (Figure
298 1). As seen in Table 4, qualitative and quantitative differences were detected by comparing the
299 electropherograms of the thistle Asteraceae batches. The analysis of methanol-soluble proteins
300 from the Silybum marianum species showed of the peaks 8, 9, 12 and 14, not detected in the
301 other species studied. Onopordum nervosum shows peaks 1, 4, 6, 22 and 24 not detected in the
302 other thistle batches. Likewise, peaks 11 and 15 showed significant differences between batches
303 of the O. nervosum and Cynara species. C. humilis species showed of the peaks 3, 5, 7 and 23
304 absent in the other Cynara species. Peak 15 was significantly greater for C. humilis and C.
170
305 scolymus respect to C. cardunculus. The area of the peak 16 was greater in the C. cardunculus
306 and C. scolymus than for C. humilis, whereas, peak 21 was significantly greater in the C. humilis
307 samples. On the other hand, C. cardunculus and C. scolymus showed similar profiles, in fact,
308 both species show the same peaks defining their profiles, except for peak 15, which was
309 significantly greater for C. scolymus than for C. cardunculus. This similarity between C.
310 cardunculus and C. scolymus is justified by these species had a common ancestor (Foury, 1989;
311 Rottenberg and Zohary, 1996; Raccuia et al., 2004). The peak 11 of C. cardunculus, C.
312 scolymus and C. humilis could be included the purified cardosins A and B (Ordiales et al.,
313 2012). However, other peaks such as 15, 16 and 17 could correspond to cardosins with different
314 charge due to the different glycosylation levels (Sidrach et al., 2005). In fact, these mentioned
315 peaks showed both symmetries and absorbance spectra similar to the purified cardosins.
316 Therefore, these results showed that the FZCE method is able to discriminate thistle species
317 from Asteracea family. The effectiveness of this technique the FZCE in discriminating of
318 vegetable varieties have been previously described for authentication of the smoked paprika and
319 the “Picota” type sweet cherry varieties (Hernández et al., 2007; Serradilla et al., 2008).
320 Therefore thistle Asteraceae species studied can be distinguished by their FZCE protein profile,
321 as much for the migration time peaks, as for the area of the peaks. This analytical method could
322 be used to identify the origin of the dried flower batches bought by cheese factories, in order to
323 avoid fraud, and guarantee the authenticity of vegetable rennet used in the PDO “Torta del
325
326 3.3. Proteolytic activity of different Asteraceae species and their relationship with the
328 In Figure 2 appear the proteolytic activity of the aqueous extracts from the thistle samples
329 studied of each Asteraceae species on α, β and κ-casein. The value α-casein degradation, C.
330 cardunculus hydrolyzed this casein in an 89.83%, which was a stronger proteolytic activity than
171
331 the rest of the species, except for C. scolymus (80.56%). In concern to κ-casein degradation, C.
332 scolymus, C. humilis and C. cardunculus could degrade it almost totally, 100%, 89.38% and
333 99.74%, respectively, and this proteolytic activity was significantly higher than O. nervosum
335 and O. nervosum was slightly higer than the rest of the species, but no significant differences
336 were found. Tavaria et al. (2001) reported that C. cardunculus a higher proteolytic activity on α-
337 than on β-casein, but the values of the degradation percentage were generally lower than those
338 found in our study. Cavalli et al. (2005) reported that S. marianum extract produced extensive
339 degradation of αs-caseins but only a slighter degradation of β-casein, but we observed that the
340 most degraded casein by this species was β-casein. In this sense, Sousa and Malcata (1998)
341 found similar rates of hydrolysis on α- and β-casein by dry flowers of C. cardunculus. In our
342 study, proteolytic activity observed for C. cardunculus was higher, than the rest of the thistle
343 species from Asteraceae family, for the three caseins studied.
344 The PCA analysis of the FZCE and SDS-PAGE profiles and proteolytic activity on α, β and k-
345 caseins showed major differences between Asteraceae species (Figure 3). The first axis
346 accounted for 22.38 % of the variance and was mainly defined by proteolytic activity on α and
347 κ-caseins, SDS-PAGE bands of 16.7, 28.3, 30.2 and 60.2 kDa, and the FZCE peaks 10, 11, 13,
348 15, 16, 17 and 20. These variables would be strongly correlated between them. The second axis
349 (PC2, 16.29 % of the variance) includes FZCE peaks 3, 5, 21 and 23, SDS-PAGE bands of 45
350 and 55 kDa and the proteolytic activity on β-casein (% degradation). These parameters FZCE
351 peaks 8, 9, 12 y 14, and SDS-PAGE bands 35 y 64 kDa were clearly associated with samples of
352 S. marianum, whereas FZCE peaks 1, 4, 6, 7, 22 y 24, and SDS-PAGE bands of 30, 32, 59 y 67
353 kDa were related to O. nervosum. Proteolytic activity on α, β and κ-caseins were explained by
354 the positive axis of PC1 and were associated with samples of C. cardunculus and C. humilis,
355 which could indicate the increased proteolytic activity of these varieties
356 3.4. Proteolytic activities and milk-clotting activity of the aqueous extracts of C.
172
358 Table 5 lists the milk-clotting and proteolytic activities of the aqueous extracts from the cardoon
359 samples studied at different stages, locations, and years of harvest. The value ranges of milk-
360 clotting are 0.120–0.235 and 0.148–0.282 RU/ml for 1 and 24 h of maceration, respectively.
362 R.U./ml, when prepared 15 times more concentrated (Tavaria et al., 2001). In our study to the
363 factor investigated maduration stage, no significant differences were found in milk-clotting
364 values or in proteolytic activities on the casein fractions. Nevertheless, as for the factor
365 investigated location, the samples of location 16 showed the highest mean values (P < 0.05)
366 after 1 h maceration, while considering milk-clotting values for extracts prepared after 24 h
367 maceration, samples from location L6 showed the highest mean values (P < 0.05). Respect to
368 the proteolytic activity, samples collected in L19 showed the highest degradation values (%)
369 against the three caseins studied. Similar results were found for samples collected in locations
370 L14 and L16 against α-casein (P<0.05). Cordeiro et al. (1994) studied the proteolytic and milk-
371 clotting activities of mature flower extracts collected at 8 different locations in Portugal, which
372 showed some variation in proteolytic activity while the milk-clotting activity was essentially the
373 same for all extracts. With respect to the factor investigated year of harvest, samples harvested
374 in 2009 showed higher proteolytic activity on β an k-casein than samples collected in 2007 and
375 2008.
376 Table 6 lists the correlations between the analytical parameters (SDS-PAGE band intensities)
377 and the milk-clotting and proteolytic activities. The intensities of SDS-PAGE bands were not
378 correlated with clotting activities. Bands 6 and 7, of 32 and 30.2 kDa respectively were strongly
379 and positively correlated with all caseins degradation. Moreover, 55 kDa and 13.5 kDa bands
380 were positively correlated with β- and k-casein degradation. Positive correlations were also
381 found between intensities of the bands of 60.2 and 20.7 kDa and proteolytic activity against β-
382 casein.
383 The proteolityc ativity on α, β and k-casein by SDS-PAGE comparing the protein
384 patterns of the 140 Cynara cardunculus plants harvested in 2007, 2008 and 2009 yielded five
173
385 clusters (Figure 4). The cardoon cluster or group number 1 is characterized by a strong
386 degradation of α (72.13%) and k (83.33%) -casein and a very slight degradation of β-casein. A
387 total of 9.3% of the samples belonged to this first group, with an average of clotting activity of
388 0.115 RU after 1 hour of maceration, and 0.142 RU after 24 hours of maceration. A 69.23 % of
389 the samples of this group were harvested in 2007, and a 69.23 % of samples were collected in
390 the flower ripening stage “c”. The most of the samples belonging cluster 1 was picked up in
391 localization L14. The second cluster, on the other hand, includes a 49.3% of the C. cardunculus
392 samples, which are able to degrade both caseins in an 88.02%, 65.98% and 91.76%
393 respectively, so these samples could be considered the most proteolytic plants. They showed the
394 highest values of clotting activity, 0.182 and 0.227 RU after 1 hour and 24 hours of maceration,
395 respectively. A 53.6% of these samples were collected in 2007, and a 47.8% of them belonged
396 to flower ripening stage “b”. The most of these samples were harvested in localizations L2 and
397 L6. With respect to cluster 3, the samples grouped (8.6%) can’t degrade the caseins more than
398 50% in all cases. These samples showed a clotting activity of 0.132 RU (1 hour of maceration)
399 and 0.186 RU (24 hours of maceration). The most of these samples were picked up in 2008,
400 while a 50% of them were corresponded with flower ripening stage “c”. A third part of the
401 samples of this cluster was harvested in the location L1, other third in L6 and last third between
402 L2 y L19. The samples in the cluster 4 (25.7%) showed a high degradation of α (85.35%) and β
403 (70.38%)-casein and a lower capacity to degrade k-casein (38.85%). Its clotting activity of
404 0.156 RU and 0.180 RU after 1 hour and 24 hours of maceration. The 55.6% of the samples
405 were harvested in 2007, and a 52.8% of the samples were picked up in flower ripening stage
406 “b”. The most of these samples (41.7%) were grown in localization L2. Lastly, samples in
407 cluster 5 (7.1%) showed very low degradation of β (4.25%) and k (8.31%)-casein, and slight
408 degradation of α-casein (51.22%). The average clotting activity for these samples was 0.158 RU
409 and 0.194 RU after 1 hour and 24 hours respectively. The most of these samples (70%) were
410 harvested in 2007, and a 50 % of them belonged to flower ripening stage “b”. A 30% of the
411 samples of cluster 5 were collected in the location L3 and the same percentage in L5.
174
412
414 The aqueous extracts from dried flowers of C. cardunculus, used as vegetable rennet in the
415 Torta del Casar cheese-making, don’t showed an inhibitory effect on selected microorganisms
416 studied.
417
418 Conclusions
419 It is possible to distinguish between Asteraceae species applying FZCE and SDS-PAGE
420 analysis, as each species is defined by a FZCE and SDS-PAGE characteristic protein profile,
421 which allows us differ these species. These different protein profiles are involved in the
423 These results show that there is high variability among Cynara cardunculus populations,
424 concerning its ability to degrade milk caseins in the cheese-making of Torta del Casar, therefore
425 it would be necessary to know which of the plants have a desirable influence on the whole
426 process and the sensory attributes of Torta del Casar cheese, with the aim of growing this plants
427 under controlled conditions and cheese factories, associated to PDO, could have available the
428 best C. cardunculus plants for producing the vegetable rennet with the desirable technological
429 quality.
430
431 Acknowledgements
432 The authors are grateful to M. Cabrero and C. Cebrián for technical assistance and PDO “Torta
434
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537 cynarases from artichoke (Cynara scolymus, L.): enzymatic properties of cynarase A.
179
539 Silva, S.V.; Malcata F.X. (1999). On the activity and specificity of cardosin B, a plant
541 Silva, S.V., Malcata, F.X. (2000). Comparative catalytic activity of two plant proteinases upon
543 Sousa, M.J.; Malcata, F.X. (1998). Proteolysis of ovine and caprine caseins in solution by
544 enzymatic extracts from flowers of Cynara cardunculus. Enzyme and Microb. Technol,
546 Skarpied, H-J.; Moe, R.E.; Indahl, U.G. (2001). Detection of mechanically recovered meat and
547 head meat from cattle in ground beef mixtures by multivariate analysis of isoelectric
549 Tamer, I. M. (1993). Identification and partial purification of a novel milk clotting enzyme from
551 Tavaria F.K.; Sousa, M.J.; Malcata, F.X. (2001). Storage and lyophilization effects of extracts
552 of Cynara cardunculus on the degradation of ovine and caprine caseins. Food Chem.,
554 Toorop, R.M.; Murch, S.J.; Ball, R. O. (1997). Development of a rapid and accurate method for
555 separation and quantification of myofibrillar proteins in meat. Food Res. Int., Vol. 30,
557 Valdés, B., Talavera, S. y Fernández-Galiano, E. (1987). En: Flora Vascular de Andalucía
559 Veríssimo, P.; Esteves, C.; Faro, C.; Pires, E. (1995). The vegetable rennet of Cynara
560 cardunculus L. contains two proteinases with chymosin and pepsin-like specificities.
562 Vieira, M., Pissarra, J., Veríssimo, P., Castanheira, P., Costa, Y., Pires, E. and Faro, C. (2001).
180
564 proteinase accumulating extracellularly in transmitting tissue of Cyanra cardunculus, L.
566 Vioque, M., Gómez, R., Sánchez, E., Mata, C., Tejada, L., and Fernández – Salguero, J. (2000).
567 Chemical and microbiological characteristics of ewe’s milk cheese manufactured with
568 extracts from flowers of Cynara cardunculus and Cynara humilis as coagulants. J.
570 White, P.C.; Cordeiro M.C.; Arnold, D.; Brodelius, P.E.; Kay, J. (1999). Processing, activity,
571 and inhibition of recombinant cyprosin, as aspartic proteinase from cardoon (Cynara
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
181
580 Figure 1. FZCE protein profiles of different species. 1. Silybum marianum; 2.
582 Figure 2. Proteolytic activity of flower extracts of different thistle Asteraceae species
583 studied on milk caseins by SDS-PAGE. A2: Silybum marianum; A6: Cynara humilis;
584 A61, A19: Onopordum nervosum; A33, A45, A28: Cynara cardunculus; A64: Cynara
585 scolymus (A). Proteolytic activity of flower extracts of different thistle Asteraceae
587 Figure 3. Principal component analysis of the FZCE and SDS-PAGE profiles and
588 proteolytic activity on α, β and κ-caseins of extracts from Asteraceae species: plane 1–2
589 of variable plot (A); Distribution of thistle Asteraceae species samples according to
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
182
602 Table1. Morphological characterization of thistle species studied from Asteraceae
603 family.
Pyramid,
Ovoid, smooth tetragon with
Obovoid (6-7 Obovoid,
with an apical four winged
Obovoid, mm), smooth, smooth, gray
collar white ribs in the
pink or with 2-4 ribs. color.
colored. Pappus upper part.
white, Feathery Feathery
(15-22 mm) Feathery
Achenes feathery pappus (25-35 pappus in
with several pappus (30-40
pappus (5,5- mm) in the the base and
hair lines, mm) in the
10 (14)) mm base and rough rough in the
soldered in a base and
in the tip tip
basal ring rough in the
tip
604
605
606
183
607 Table 2. Samples of different thistle species from Asteraceae family studied, according
608 to the maduration stage, year and localization of harvest.
622
184
623 Table 3. Peak areas of proteins determined by SDS-PAGE in the studied species
624 harvested in 2006.
5 30 nd a nd a nd a nd a 16878 b 0.004
7 32 25331 c 28314 c nd a
nd a 9782 b 0.000
8 35 nd a nd a nd a 9123 b nd a 0.000
12 59 nd a nd a nd a nd a 2690 b 0.000
14 64 nd a nd a nd a 7179 b nd a 0.000
16 67 nd a nd a nd a nd a 5948 b 0.003
a, b, c
625 Means in lines without common letters are significantly different (p<0,05).
626
627
628
629
630
631
185
632 Table 4. Analytical parameters and peak areas of proteins determined by FZCE under
633 optimized conditions in different species studied harvested in 2006.
18 15.367 3.460 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c
19 15.540 2.778 0c 0c 0c 0c 0c
634
186
635 Table 5. Clotting and casein proteolysis activities of vegetable rennets obtained from cardoon flowers grouped according to maturation stage,
636 location, and harvest year.
187
638 Table 6. The relevant SDS-PAGE bands of the Cynara cardunculus rennets studied:
639 correlations with technological properties, proteolytic activity and clotting activity.
Correlation
Clotting activity (R.U.) Degradation of caseins (%)
SDS- PAGE bands
after maceration
1 hour 24 hours α-caseins β-casein κ-casein
1 2
b1 66.2 0.238 0.347 0.395 0.043 0.368
b2 60.2 -0.165 -0.072 0.212 0.264(*) 0.210
b3 55 -0.238 0.045 0.100 0.357(*) 0.448(**)
b4 45 -0.105 0.008 -0.323 -0.249 0.387
b5 37.3 -0.306 -0.060 -0.341 0.620(**) 0.369
b6 32 -0.047 0.012 0.264(**) 0.446(**) 0.310(**)
b7 30.2 -0.071 0.017 0.215(*) 0.369(**) 0.327(**)
b8 28.3 -0.244 -0.007 0.079 -0.031 0.282
b9 20.7 -0.414(*) -0.204 0.154 0.458(*) -0.002
b10 16.7 -0.221 -0.038 0.162 0.176 0.073
b11 13.5 -0.126 0.005 0.094 0.386 (**) 0.304 (*)
1 2
band number (PAGE), kilodaltons (PAGE); * P<0.05; ** P<0.01.
640
641
642
188
643 Figure 1.
140000
120000
100000
Sylibum marianum
12
80000 9
60000
40000
8
20000 14
0
140000
-20000
120000
100000
0 Onopordum
5 nervosum
10 15 20
80000
60000
40000
6 11
20000 4 7
1 2 15 22 24
0
-20000
140000
0 5 10 15 20
120000 20
100000
Cynara humilis 21
80000
11
60000
15
40000
130000 5
3 13 16 23
20000 7
110000 17
0
-20000
90000
0 Cynara scolymus
5 10 15 20
70000
13
AAU
11
17
50000 15
2 10 16
30000
20
21
10000
-10000
140000
0 Cynara cardunculus
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
min
120000 11
100000 13 17
80000
15
60000 10
2
40000 16
20
20000 21
0
-20000
0 5 10 15 20
644
645
646
647
189
648 Figure 2.
649 A.
84
66
55
45
36
29
24
20
14,2
6,5
650
651 B.
652
654
655
190
656 Figure 3.
657
658
S. marianum; O. nervosum; C. scolymus; C. humilis; C. cardunculus
659
660
191
661 Figure 4.
662
25 % 20 % 15 % 10 % 5% 0%
Cluster 1
A71, A72, A80, A81, A83, A84, A85,
A87, A88, A89, A92, A93, A94, A101,
A102, A105, A111, A112, A116, A117,
A118, A119, A120, A121, A122, A125,
A126, A127, A128, A129, A130, A131,
A132, A135, A137, A138, A141, A143,
A144, A145, A147, A148, A149, A150,
A151, A152, A153, A154, A160, A161,
A162, A168, A174, A182, A184, A185,
Cluster 2 A186, A187, A189, A191, A192, A195,
A198, A199, A200, A201, A202, A203,
A204, A205
192
IV.1.3. Influencia de la preparación y almacenamiento del extracto de Cynara
cardunculus en su actividad coagulante.
193
1 Influencia de la preparación y almacenamiento del extracto de Cynara cardunculus
2 en su actividad coagulante.
1
6 Agricultura, Centro Tecnológico Nacional Agroalimentario Extremadura, CTAEX.
7 Ctra. Villafranco a Balboa, km 1,2. 06195 Villafranco del Guadiana, Badajoz.
2
8 Nutrición y Bromatología. Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de Extremadura,
9 Ctra. de Cáceres s/n, 06071 Badajoz.
10
12 http://eia.unex.es/
13
14
195
15 Resumen
26
196
27 1. Introducción
42 Según Irigoyen y col. (2000) la actividad coagulante del cuajo empleado es uno
43 de los factores que tiene mayor importancia en la degradación de las caseínas,
44 similarmente el origen de la enzima coagulante usada (animal, microbiana o vegetal)
45 puede condicionar el nivel de proteólisis, de modo que las enzimas vegetal y
46 microbianas rompen β- caseína más rápido que las enzimas animales.
197
58 cuajada, donde provocarán la ruptura de proteínas durante la maduración del queso
59 (Dalgleish, 1987, Fox, 1989) y por tanto, son las responsables de la liberación de varios
60 péptidos con funciones bioquímicas, reológicas y sensoriales en el queso (Dalgleish,
61 1987).
80
81 2. Material y Métodos
198
88 Las flores recolectadas se separan del involucro en uno de los laboratorios de la
89 Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, dejando los estigmas y estilos a secar. Una vez secos,
90 se guardaron las flores de cada muestra por separado, en bolsas de plástico y se
91 mantuvieron en lugar seco, a temperatura ambiente, hasta su utilización.
94
96 Para poner a punto el método descrito por Sousa y Malcata (1998) los extractos
97 de flores de C. cardunculus se prepararon a partir de flores secas, picadas y
98 homogeneizadas. Se pesaron 0,5 g de flores y se dejaron macerando en 0,75 ml de agua
99 destilada durante 24 h, a temperatura ambiente. El extracto que se obtiene es filtrado a
100 través de papel de filtro Whatman nº 4, antes de ser usado. La cantidad de extracto
101 acuoso añadido a la leche para la realización de estos ensayos es del 10 % (0,2 ml de
102 extracto en 2 ml de leche), salvo cuando este parámetro sea la variable del ensayo.
103
104 2.2.1. Concentración de los extractos
105 Para el desarrollo de este ensayo los extractos acuosos se preparan como se
106 describe anteriormente, cambiando las cantidades de flores secas y picadas de cardo, a
107 macerar en 100 ml de agua destilada. Se ensayaron 6 concentraciones de flores, como se
108 muestra en la Tabla 2. El tiempo de maceración fue de 24 horas, y la muestra de cardo
109 empleada fue la misma (A30).
110
111 2.2.2. Tiempo de maceración de los extractos
112 Para evaluar la influencia del tiempo de maceración de los extractos se establece
113 un ensayo, en el que se preparan extractos de dos muestras de cardos, A30 y A49, a tres
114 concentraciones diferentes (P1, P4 y P6: Tabla 2) y se ensayan los tiempos de
115 maceración de 16 h, 4 h, 2 h y 1 h.
116
117 2.2.3. Cantidad de extracto añadida a la leche
118 Para diseñar este ensayo se tienen en cuenta las cantidades utilizadas por otros
119 autores y queserías enmarcadas en la DOP Torta del Casar. Las cantidades se extracto a
199
120 ensayar fueron 0,5 %, 1 %, 3 % y 5 %. La concentración con la que se prepararon los
121 extractos fue P4 (Tabla 2). Se incluyen como variables dos tiempos de maceración para
122 todas las muestras, 30 min y 24 h. Las muestras de cardo empleadas en este caso fueron
123 A30, A206 y A208.
124
125 2.2.4. Comparación entre muestras de Cynara cardunculus
126 Con este estudio se compara la actividad coagulante de las muestras de cardo,
127 estudiando la influencia del estado de maduración de la flor, la localización y el año de
128 recolección. Para ello todas las muestras se prepararon bajo las mismas condiciones, a la
129 concentración P4 (5 g flores secas y picadas/100 mL de H2O), se ensayaron dos tiempos
130 de maceración, 1 h y 24 h, la cantidad de extracto añadida a la leche fue del 3 %.
131
132 2.2.5. Almacenamiento y refrigeración de los extractos
133 Los extractos preparados con la muestra de cardo A30, con las concentraciones
134 P1, P4, P5 y P6 (Tabla 2), macerados durante 24 h, añadidos a la leche a un 3 %, se
135 mantuvieron en condiciones de refrigeración durante 1 y 7 días, tras analizar, recién
136 preparados, su actividad coagulante.
137
149 Una unidad de cuajado (R.U.) se define como la cantidad de extracto acuoso de
150 cuajo que se necesita para cuajar 10 ml de leche descremada reconstituida a 30º C en
200
151 100 s (FIL-IDF 157/1992). Las determinaciones se realizaron por cuadruplicado y la
152 media de cada cuatro datos se consideró como dato.
153
164 Para determinar el peso molecular de las distintas fracciones se utilizó un patrón
165 de proteínas constituido por miosina (205 kDa), β-Galactosidasa (116kDa), Fosforilasa
166 B (97 kDa), albúmina (66 kDa), Glutámico desidrogenasa (55 kDa), ovoalbúmina (45
167 kDa), gliceraldehído-3-fosfato deshidrogenasa (36 kDa), anhigrasa carbónica (29 kDa),
168 tripsinógeno (24 kDa), inhibidor de la tripsina (20 kDa), α-lactoalbúnina (14,2 kDa) y
169 aprotinina (6,5 kDa), suministrado por la casa comercial de SIGMA.
170 El tampón utilizado para la carrera fue Tris 25 mM, glicina 192 mM, SDS al
171 0,1%, pH 8,3. Las electroforesis se realizaron a 100 w los primeros 20 min y a 150 w
172 hasta el final de la carrera. Una vez finalizado el desarrollo electroforético, los geles
173 fueron tratados con una solución de tinción constituida por 0,25 g de azul de Comassie
174 R-250 en una solución 1:1 metanol-agua al 90 % y ácido acético al 10 % durante 15
175 minutos, transcurrido los cuales fueron desteñidos en una solución de metanol al 30 % y
176 ácido acético al 10 %.
201
180 2.5. Actividad proteolítica de los extractos
192
194 Los análisis estadísticos de los datos fueron llevados a cabo con el programa
195 SPSS para Windows, 15.0. (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA). Los valores medios de
196 actividad coagulante fueron estudiados mediante análisis de la varianza (ANOVA) de 1
197 vía, y para evaluar si existen diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos ensayados
198 se utilizó el test de Tukey (P ≤ 0,05).
199
202 La Tabla 3 muestra los resultados obtenidos de actividad coagulante para las
203 diferentes concentraciones ensayadas. Se observa que el valor más bajo de actividad
204 coagulante se encontró para la muestra con la concentración P1, la más baja, con valor
205 de actividad coagulante significativamente inferior al resto de concentraciones
206 ensayadas. Por otra parte, la muestra de cardo A30 a la concentración P6, mostró el
207 mayor valor de actividad coagulante, superior significativamente al resto de las
208 concentraciones ensayadas. Por tanto se observa que un extracto preparado a mayor
202
209 concentración (g flores/ml H2O), tarda menos tiempo en cuajar la leche, es decir,
210 muestra mayor actividad coagulante.
214 En la Figura 1 se observa que las muestras de extracto preparadas con mayor
215 concentración, presentaron un perfil proteico con bandas con mayor intensidad que las
216 muestras de menor concentración. Igualmente, el efecto de la concentración de extracto
217 se refleja en la actividad proteolítica del extracto sobre las caseínas, de forma que los
218 extractos más concentrados degradaron las caseínas con mayor intensidad.
219
221 La Tabla 4 muestra los resultados del ensayo en el que se compara la actividad
222 coagulante de dos extractos, A30 y A49, a tres concentraciones diferentes, en cuatro
223 tiempos de maceración. Para la muestra de cardo A30, a la concentración P1, el mayor
224 valor de actividad coagulante se obtuvo tras 4 horas de maceración, siendo superior
225 significativamente al resto de los tiempos ensayados, mientras que el valor más bajo de
226 actividad coagulante para la concentración P1 se encontró con 2 horas de maceración.
227 Para los extractos preparados a la concentración P4, el mayor valor de actividad
228 coagulante se encontró tras 16 h de maceración, superior significativamente al valor
229 encontrado tras 4 horas de maceración. En cuanto a los extractos preparados a la
230 concentración P6, no se encontraron diferencias significativas para los diferentes
231 tiempos de maceración. Teniendo en cuenta todas las variables, el mayor valor de
232 actividad coagulante para esta muestra de cardo se obtuvo con la concentración P6, tras
233 1 h de maceración, y el menor valor para la concentración P1, tras 2 horas de
234 maceración.
235 Parece que tiene más influencia sobre la actividad coagulante la concentración
236 del extracto que el tiempo de maceración, ya que parece que con alta concentración se
237 obtiene una alta actividad coagulante con menor tiempo de maceración. Para la
238 concentración P4, la actividad coagulante fue la misma con 1, 2 y 4 horas, siendo mayor
239 para 16 h de maceración.
203
240 Para el extracto preparado con la muestra de cardo A49, para la concentración
241 P1, el mayor valor de actividad coagulante se obtuvo tras 4 horas de maceración,
242 superior significativamente al resto de los tiempos ensayados. El mayor valor de
243 actividad coagulante para la concentración P4 se encontró tras 4 horas de maceración,
244 difiriendo significativamente sólo del valor del extracto preparado tras 2 h de
245 maceración. En cuanto a los extractos a la concentración P6, el valor de actividad
246 coagulante fue mayor para el extracto tras 4 h de maceración, diferente de forma
247 significativa al extracto preparado tras 2 h de maceración. Con este extracto,
248 considerando todas las variables ensayadas, se puede decir que el mayor valor de
249 actividad coagulante se encontró para el extracto preparado con la concentración P6 tras
250 4 h de maceración, mientras que el valor más bajo lo presentaron los extractos de P1,
251 tanto a 1 h, como tras 16 h de maceración. Para las tres concentraciones ensayadas, los
252 mayores valores de actividad coagulante se obtuvieron con los extractos preparados tras
253 4 horas de maceración.
254 A la vista de estos resultados se puede afirmar que con 4 horas de maceración de
255 los extractos sería suficiente para obtener alta actividad coagulante, en lugar de 24 h,
256 con lo que se evitan crecimientos microbianos.
265
204
271 Para un mismo tiempo de maceración se observa que a mayor cantidad de
272 extracto añadida, mayor actividad coagulante, con diferencias significativas entre las
273 cantidades de extracto. Esta afirmación se puede aplicar a las tres muestras de cardo y
274 los dos tiempos de maceración. En este caso parece que ejerce más influencia sobre la
275 actividad coagulante la cantidad de extracto añadida a la leche, que el tiempo de
276 maceración del extracto, de forma que la actividad coagulante de los extractos que se
277 añaden a la misma cantidad fue estadísticamente igual entre sí, a pesar de haberse
278 preparado con diferentes tiempos de maceración. Tan solo los extractos añadidos al 5 %
279 de la muestra A208 fueron significativamente diferentes entre sí.
280
283 Tras analizar los resultados de actividad coagulante de las muestras de cardo, recogidas
284 en tres años diferentes, tres estados de maduración y varias localizaciones, no se
285 observan diferencias significativas entre los extractos preparados con las muestras para
286 los diferentes años de recolección, los estados de maduración de la flor, ni considerando
287 la localización donde fueron recogidas. Por tanto la actividad coagulante de un extracto
288 no se influenciada por ninguna de estas tres variables, año de recolección, estado de
289 maduración de la flor y localización.
297
299 Tras mantener los extractos acuosos de la muestra A30 (P1, P4, P5 y P6) en
300 refrigeración durante 1 día y 7 días, se analizó la actividad coagulante y se comparó con
205
301 la actividad coagulante obtenida con el extracto recién preparado. Los resultados se
302 muestran en la Tabla 8.
311 Por tanto parece que la actividad coagulante de los extractos no se reduce al
312 mantenerlos en refrigeración al menos durante 7 días, pudiendo observar incluso un
313 incremento en la actividad coagulante.
314 Tavaira y col. (2001) estudiaron los efectos del almacenamiento y liofilización
315 de los extractos de Cynara cardunculus en la degradación de caseínas ovinas y caprinas.
316 Observaron que la actividad coagulante tiende a disminuir con el tiempo de
317 almacenamiento, de forma que extractos frescos, almacenados a 4º C mostraron una
318 disminución del 65 % de su actividad coagulante tras 4 semanas, con una pérdida del 22
319 % en la segunda semana. Afirman que la actividad proteolítica sobre α- y β-caseína
320 aumentaba tras 1 semana en refrigeración y disminuía entre la semana 1 y 2 de
321 almacenamiento.
322
323 Referencias
324 Barros, R.M. y Malcata, F.X. (2004). A kinetic model for hydrolysis of whey proteins by
325 cardosin A extracted from Cynara cardunculus. Food Chemistry, 88, 351-359.
326 Campos, R., Guerra, R., Aguiar, M., Ventura, O., y Camacho L. (1990). Chemical
327 characterization of proteases extracted from wild thistle (Cynara cardunculus).
328 Food Chem. 35, 89-97.
206
329 Chazarra, S., Sidrach, L., López-Molina, D., Rodríguez-López, J.N. (2007).
330 Characterization of the milk-clotting properties of extracts from artichoke
331 (Cynara scolymus, L.) flowers. International Dairy Journal, 17, 1393-1400.
332 Dalgleish, D. E. (1987). The enzymatic coagulation of milk. In Cheese: Chemistry,
333 Physics and Microbiology, Vol. 1. (Ed. P. F. Fox). Elsevier Applied Science
334 Publishers, London, pp. 63-96.
335 Dalgleish, D. G. (1992). The enzymatic cogulation of milk. In P. F. Fox (Ed.), Advanced
336 dairy chemistry. Proteins (Vol. 1, pp.579-619). London: Elsevier.
337 Fox, P.F. (1989). Proteolysis during cheese manufacture and ripening. J. Dairy Sci. 72,
338 1379-1400.
341 Irigoyen, A., Izco, J. M., Ibáñez, F. C. y Torre, P. (2000). Evaluation of the effect of
342 rennet type on casein proteolysis in an ovine milk cheese by means of capillary
343 electrophoresis.
348 Tavaria F.K., Sousa, M.J., and Malcata, F.X. (2001). Storage and lyophilization effects
349 of extracts of Cyanra cardunculus on the degradation of ovine and caprine
350 caseins. Food chemistry, 72, 79 – 88.
351
352
353
207
354 Figura 25. Perfil proteico y actividad proteolítica sobre caseínas de tres muestras de
355 extracto preparados a partir de la muestra A30, a diferentes concentraciones.
356 Figura 26. Perfiles proteicos de extractos de las muestras de cardos A49 y A30,
357 preparados a dos concentraciones diferentes, P4 y P6, y con dos tiempos de maceración
358 diferentes, 1 y 2 horas.
359 Figura 27. Actividad proteolítica de extractos de las muestras de cardos A49 y A30,
360 preparados a dos concentraciones diferentes, P4 y P6, y con dos tiempos de maceración
361 diferentes, 1 y 2 horas.
362 Figura 28. Actividad coagulante del extracto preparado con las muestras A30, A206 y
363 A208 con diferentes cantidades y tiempos de maceración.
366
208
Tabla 1. Identificación de las muestras de Cynara cardunculus empleadas en este estudio.
209
368 Tabla 15. Concentraciones de flores de cardo en agua empleadas para la preparación de los
369 extractos
P1 0,65
P2 1,5
P3 2,5
P4 5
P5 7
P6 10
370
371 Tabla 16. Actividad coagulante de las muestras de cardo A30, a diferentes concentraciones.
a
372 Valores seguidos de la misma letra no difieren significativamente (P<0,05).
373
374
375
376
377
378
210
379 Tabla 17. Actividad coagulante de dos muestras de cardo, a tres concentraciones diferentes, y
380 con cuatro tiempos de maceración.
381
maceración (h) P1 P4 P6 P1 P4 P6
a
382 Valores en la misma columna seguidos de la misma letra no difieren
383 significativamente (P<0,05).
384
211
385 Tabla 18. Actividad coagulante (R.U./ml) de tres muestras de cardo diferentes, con dos tiempos
386 de maceración distintos, y cuatro cantidades de extracto.
Tiempo Cantidad
A30 A206 A208
maceración (h) (%)
389
390
391 Tabla 19. Actividad coagulante de los extractos recogidos en los diferentes años y en los
392 distintos estados de maduración de la flor.
393
394
395
396
397
398
212
399 Tabla 20. Actividad coagulante de los extractos recogidos en diferentes localizaciones.
Localización RU/ml
400
401 Tabla 21. Actividad coagulante de extractos sin refrigerar y tras refrigeración durante 1 y 7 días.
a
402 Valores en una misma fila, seguidos por la misma letra no difieren significativamente
403 (P<0,05).
404
405
213
406 Figura 1.
20
20
14,2 14,2
6,5 6,5
407
408
409 Figura 2.
45
36
29
24
20
14,2
6,5
410
411
412
413
414
415
214
416 Figura 3.
29
24
20
14,2
6,5
417
418 Figura 4.
419
420
421
215
422
423
424
425
426
216
427 Figura 5.
428
20
20
14,2 14,2
6,5 6,5
429
430
431
432
217
IV.2. CAPÍTULO II
En este capítulo, que aborda el objetivo 2 de este trabajo, se estudia la influencia de los
diferentes años de recolección, y los estados de maduración de la flor de Cynara
cardunculus, en el momento de su recolección, sobre las características sensoriales de
los quesos elaborados. Para llevar a cabo este estudio se emplearon técnicas basadas en
perfiles de proteínas. Se elaboraron quesos tipo “Torta del Casar” con 16 muestras de
cardo (C. cardunculus) seleccionadas por sus características tecnológicas. Este capítulo
consta del arículo:
219
Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235
Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
Analytical Methods
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The purpose of this work was to develop a procedure based on protein analysis by free zone capillary
Received 10 August 2011 electrophoresis (FZCE) that can be used as an alternative to other methods in the determination of the
Received in revised form 2 December 2011 technological quality of vegetable rennet to use in ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ cheese-making. Samples of cardoon
Accepted 10 January 2012
flowers (Cynara cardunculus) grouped according to location, harvest year, and ripening stages were used
Available online 17 January 2012
in the study. For the FZCE, a protocol for extracting the methanol-soluble proteins was tested. This
method was found to give good repeatability of the corrected migration time (CMT), and showed higher
Keywords:
effectiveness in discriminating the technological properties (milk-clotting and casein degradation activ-
Cynara cardunculus
Technological characterisation
ities) of vegetal rennets than the SDS–PAGE technique. In addition, three peaks found in the FZCE electro-
Protein profile pherograms were examined as a good tool to predict the impact of vegetable rennet on the creaminess
FZCE and overall acceptability of the ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ cheese.
Cheese Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.01.012
228 E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235
sample injection, removal of gels from the molds, staining and 2.2. Milk-clotting activity assay
destaining of the gels, etc. (Bietz, 1994). To quantify the stained
proteins, further manual steps are required for the densitometry For milk-clotting assays, 0.5 g of each cardoon sample was soft-
or image analysis of the stained gel. Capillary electrophoresis ened in 75 mL of ultrapure water for 1 and 24 h. The rennet clot-
(CE) may be used as an alternative method since it offers several ting time of these coagulant extracts was measured according to
advantages over SDS–PAGE, such as more rapid analysis, detection, a standard method (NILAC™; NIZO, Ede, The Netherlands) de-
on-column quantification, and increased efficiency and resolution scribed by Tavaria et al. (2001). The substrate was prepared by dis-
(Cancalon, 1995; Manabe, 1999). In addition, CE methods involve solving 12 g of low-heat bovine skimmed milk powder in 100 mL
a simple extraction of proteins and small quantities of organic sol- of 0.01 M CaCl2 (pH 6.5) at 30 °C. The enzymatic assay was per-
vents in comparison with RP-HPLC. A subset of CE called free zone formed using 0.2 mL of coagulant extract added to 2 mL of recon-
capillary electrophoresis (FZCE) has been applied to the analysis of stituted skim milk, and the clotting time was determined by
complex protein systems. In the last decade, CE has proved to be an visual inspection. One rennet unit (R.U.) was defined as the amount
efficient separation technique for the analysis of food proteins in of crude enzyme extract needed to coagulate 10 mL of reconsti-
general (Recio, Ramos, & López-Fandiño, 2001) and milk proteins tuted low-heat processed skim milk at 30 °C in 100 s (FIL-IDF
in particular (Recio, Amigo, & López-Fandiño, 1997). In fact, CE 157/1992). Determinations were quadruplicated, and the mean of
has been applied to monitoring proteolysis in cheese (Otte, Ardö, each set of four data was taken as the datum point.
Weimer, & Sorensen, 1999), mainly in bovine cheese, but also in
ewe and goat cheeses (Cattaneo, Nigro, Toppino, & Denti, 1996). 2.3. ‘‘In vitro’’ casein proteolytic activity
Moreover this technique has been used to study the proteolysis
of cheese produced with Cynara L. as coagulant (Roseiro, The dried flower extracts were prepared by macerating 0.25 g of
Gómez-Ruiz, García-Risco, & Molina, 2003). Thus, FZCE might be dried flowers in 5 mL of water (corresponding to a proportion of
useful for the quality control of the extract used as rennet in ‘‘Torta 50 g in 1 L) at room temperature for 4 h. The homogenate was fil-
del Casar’’ manufacture. tered through a Whatman filter paper No. 4. The substrate used for
The aim of this work was to develop a procedure based on pro- degradation by the extracts consisted of a mix of bovine caseins
tein profile analysis that can be used to control the technological (Sigma Aldrich, Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) (a, b, and j), at a concen-
quality of aqueous extracts used as rennet in ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ tration of 0.5 mg/mL of each casein, dissolved in 5 mL of distilled
manufacture. water. The dried flower extracts were macerated with the casein
mix, at 2.5% of extract (v/v), for 2 h at room temperature to allow
2. Materials and methods casein degradation. After this time the extracts with degraded
caseins were denatured by adding 30 lL of SDS–PAGE loading buf-
2.1. Plant material and rennet extract preparation fer (62.5 mM Tris–HCl, pH 6.8, 20% (w/v) glycerol, 2% (w/v) SDS, 5%
(w/v) b-mercaptoethanol, 0.025% (w/v) bromophenol blue) and
Samples of cardoon (C. cardunculus, L.) used in this study were incubated at 99 °C for 5 min.
identified previously in accordance with the guidelines of Valdés, The electrophoresis conditions were those described by Lae-
Talavera, and Fernández-Galiano (1987). They were collected from mmli (1970), and the concentrations of acrylamide (29:1 acrylam-
six locations during the seasons of the years 2007 and 2008, and ide/bisacrylamide) in the gels were 4% (w/v) for stacking gels and
grouped into 3 different ripening stages in accordance with the 15% (w/v) for separating gels. Gels were cast and run in a Minipro-
cardoon flower’s phenological characteristics (Table 1), ripening tean III device (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, CA). The molecular
stage a (flowers opening, only some styles, and stigmas are visible), mass marker kits (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) contained pro-
b (flowers fully open, even with pollen) and c (flowers begin to dry, teins from 6.5 to 205 kDa. The gels were subsequently stained with
so they are brownish, instead of violet colour). The collected flow- 0.5% (w/v) Coomassie blue (G-250) dissolved in 45% (v/v) water,
ers were dried and kept in a cool dry place until use. 45% (v/v) methanol, and 10% (v/v) acetic acid for 30 min, and de-
stained with a solution consisting of 20% (v/v) methanol, 10% (v/
Table 1 v) acetic acid, and 70% (v/v) distilled water for 4 h. A computer im-
Sample information of cardoon flowers used to prepare the vegetable rennets.
age analysis program (Genetools, Synoptics Ltd., Cambridge, UK)
Sample Maturation stageA Year LocalizationB was used for the densitometric analysis of the gel electrophoreses.
M1 b 2007 L2 Ctra. Mérida – Madrid
M2 a 2007 L3 La Albuera 2.4. Extraction of proteins from coagulant extracts for SDS–PAGE and
M3 b 2007 L2 Ctra. Mérida – Madrid CE analysis
M4 c 2007 L6 Sancha Brava
M5 b 2008 L4 Mérida. Autovia A-V. Cáceres
M6 c 2007 L6 Sancha Brava For SDS–PAGE analysis, the proteins were directly extracted
M7 b 2008 L1 Canal de Balboa after a filtering step from the same coagulant extracts used for
M8 c 2007 L6 Sancha Brava in vitro casein proteolytic activity assays. Direct extraction of car-
M9 c 2007 L3 La Albuera doon samples with water may lead to components other than pro-
M10 c 2008 L1 Canal de Balboa
teins being removed, and the consequent poor resolution of the
M11 c 2007 L3 La Albuera
M12 a 2007 L3 La Albuera FZCE. In particular, plant extracts may also contain compounds
M13 c 2007 L5 Puebla de la Calzada such as polysaccharides, polyphenols, anthocyanin, tannins, DNA,
M14 b 2008 L4 Mérida. Autovia A-V. Cáceres. free amino acids, and sugars that could potentially bind to the in-
M15 a 2007 L3 La Albuera
ner walls of the silica capillaries (Bean & Lookhart, 2001). Hence, a
M16 b 2008 L4 Mérida. Autovia A-V. Cáceres.
pre-extraction step was included, mixing 1 g of cardoon with
A
a, flower is opening, only some styles and stigmas are visible; b, flower fully methanol (3:10 w/v) for 5 min at room temperature. Longer
open, even with pollen; c, flower begins to dry, so some styles and stigmas are
extraction times did not improve the effectiveness of the extrac-
brownish.
B
Geographic coordinates: L1: 38°540 8,8200 N 6°430 59,900 W, L2: 38°500 34,800 N
tion. The suspension vortexed periodically, centrifuged at 5800g
6°570 39,7300 W, L3: 38°450 6,7300 N 6°480 10,4200 W, L4: 38°570 0,3000 N 6°160 53,0300 W, L5: for 5 min, and the supernatant was collected. From an aliquot of
38°530 59,9400 N 6°510 12,4300 W, L6: 38°560 32,7800 N 6°200 23,1600 W, L7: 38°540 23,5400 N 0.5 mL, methanol-soluble proteins were partially precipitated
6°470 3700 W. (except for the most of the apolar protein fraction) with chloroform
E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235 229
(1:2 v/v) and centrifuged at 24,000g for 5 min. The pellets were ewe’s milk to which no starter cultured was added. Each batch
cleansed twice with chloroform, and the pigment-free pellets were was clotted using a C. cardunculus L. rennet, corresponding to the
collected and then suspended in 100 lL of 30% (v/v) acetonitrile samples listed in Table 1. The aqueous extracts from the cardoon
according to the protocol described by Hernández, Martín, Aranda, C. cardunculus L. were prepared from 50 g of dried flowers in 1 L
Bartolomé, and Córdoba (2006). of water, leaving them to macerate for 24 h, and adding 10 mL of
Cardosins standards have been purified from C. cardunculus this extract per litre of milk at 28–30 °C, for each 32 L batch. After
flowers according to Sidrach, García-Canovás, Tudela, and Rodrí- pressing, the cheeses were immersed in a salt solution (16% (w/v)
guez-López (2005) with some modification. Stigmas (100 g) were NaCl) for 4 h. The ripening took place at a temperature of 5–10 °C
ground in a food mixer and homogenised in 800 mL 50 mM aque- and relative humidity of 85–90% throughout the ripening period of
ous citrate buffer (pH 3.0), containing 1 M NaCl to prevent non-spe- 60 days. Three cheeses of each batch were randomly taken for
cific proteinase binding to the filter membrane in the following analysis after 60 days of ripening.
ultrafiltration step. The ground homogenate was filter through
muslin to remove most of the solid residue. After centrifugation 2.7. Sensory evaluation
of the homogenate at 24,000 rpm for 20 min, the supernatant was
filtered through a Whatman filter paper No. 4. The resulting solu- Eighteen panelists previously selected and trained under ISO
tion constituted the crude extract, which was concentrated and dia- standards (UNE-ISO 4121-2006) with samples of ‘‘Torta del Casar’’
lysed by ultrafiltration (Pellicon XL PXB010A50, Millipore) against were asked to characterise the sensory quality of the batches se-
25 mM Tris–HCl buffer, pH 7.6. This concentrated solution was di- lected according to the protein profile of the cardoon used for the
rectly loaded in a Q-Sepharose Fast Flow column equilibrated with clotting stage. The cheeses were cut into slices of approximately
25 mM Tris–HCl buffer, pH 7.6 coupled to FPLC system equipped 5 mm thickness. The slices were equilibrated for 30 min at room
with a UV detector at 214 nm and a fraction collector FRAC-950 temperature before serving. Descriptive analyses were made
(Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Uppsala, Sweden). After sample according to international standard methods. Twenty-four parame-
application, the enzymes were displaced with step gradients of ters related to colour, appearance, texture, taste, odour, and flavour
0.30, 0.35, and 0.5 M NaCl in the previous buffer. The fractions that were assessed using a structured line scale with intensity descrip-
contain the cardosins were collected. Before FCZE analysis, cardosin tors at the end points (1, low; 10, high). Samples were three-digit
fractions were concentrated and dialysed by ultrafiltration (Pell- coded and the order of serving was determined by random permu-
icon-2 PLCGC10, Millipore Corp.) against ultrapure water. tation. Two panel replicates were carried out on each sample. The
response to each indicator was taken as the mean of the panelistś re-
2.5. SDS–PAGE and FZCE analysis of coagulant extract proteins sponses. In addition to the descriptive test, a panel of 17 untrained
consumers evaluated the samples for overall acceptability.
The SDS–PAGE analysis of the rennet extract proteins was per-
formed under the above conditions for the casein proteolytic activ-
2.8. Statistical analysis
ity determination. For the FZCE analysis, the protein extracts were
previously filtered through a 0.2 lm filter. The separations were
Statistical analysis of the data was carried out using SPSS for
done on an automated PACE 5500 device (Beckman Instrument,
Windows, 15.0. (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA). Mean values of
Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA). To minimise the interaction of proteins
the technological and analytical parameters (FZCE peaks or SDS–
with the column wall, basic pH values were chosen to make the
PAGE bands) were studied by one-way analysis of variance
run buffer. Run buffer was prepared with HPLC-grade water ob-
(ANOVA) and separated by Tukey’s honest significant differences
tained from a Milli-Q water purification system, and consisted of
test (P 6 0.05). The relationships between the technological
20.6 mM tetraborate, 8.75 mM phosphate at a nominal pH of 9 with
parameters and FZCE peak area or SDS–PAGE band intensity values
20% of acetonitrile. Uncoated fused silica capillaries of 75 lm i.d.
were evaluated by Pearson correlation coefficients. A principal
and 57 cm total length (50 cm to window detector) were used
component analysis (PCA) was performed on the analytical param-
(Supelco, Tecknocroma, Barcelona, Spain). The capillary was ini-
eters and sensorial data to study the relationships between the
tially conditioned with 100 mM NaOH for 10 min, and then with
protein profiles of the vegetable rennet and the sensory quality
de-ionised water for 5 min. They were rinsed between separations
of the cheeses. The efficiency of the selected analytical parameters
for 2 min with 20 mM NaOH, for 2 min with de-ionised water, and
(FZCE peaks or SDS–PAGE bands) as quality control markers of the
then with separation buffer for 2 min. When not in use, the capillar-
rennet was evaluated by Pearson correlation coefficients, and ver-
ies were rinsed with 100 mM NaOH for 10 min, followed by water
ified by linear regression analysis.
for 10 min, and finally dried by nitrogen gas for 10 min. The separa-
tion voltage was 263 V/cm (15 kV) and the separation temperature
was 23 °C. The wavelength used to monitor the assays was 214 nm. 3. Results and discussion
Samples were injected under pressure (0.5 psi) for 5 s and the pro-
tein spectra were monitored from 190 to 300 nm with a PACE diode 3.1. FZCE and SDS–PAGE comparison
array detector (Beckman Instrument Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA). For
the determination of the analytical parameters, a negative acetoni- To explore the potential of the FZCE method to control the tech-
trile peak visualised at 254 nm was used to normalise peak areas nological quality of aqueous extracts, the analytical parameters
and to calculate the corrected migration times (CMTs) of the peaks. were evaluated and compared with those of the SDS–PAGE
For comparison of CZE profiles, protein peaks were characterised technique.
using corrected migration times and UV absorbance spectra. The Aqueous extract from sample M1 were used to evaluate the
Beckman P/ACE Station (Version 1.21) software package was used FZCE analysis for methanol-soluble proteins. The resolution and
to store, manipulate, and compare the electropherograms. migration times for methanol-soluble proteins were appropriate
for use with the FZCE protocol proposed (Fig. 1). The proteins were
2.6. ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ cheese-making procedure resolved in 20 min and separated into 18–22 well-defined peaks
and shoulders. Only the 10 most relevant peaks were studied. With
A total of 16 different batches of ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ were manu- respect to the analytical parameters, the FZCE method was found
factured, of 10 cheeses each batch, from unpasteurised Merino to give good repeatability of the CMT with coefficients of variation
230 E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235
B Profileheight
140
130
120
110
100
90
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Rf distancedowntrack
Fig. 1. Electropherogram of methanol-soluble proteins (A) and densitogram of aqueous extract proteins of dried Cynara cardunculus flowers (B).
(RSD%; n = 5) of <2% for most of the proteinaceous compounds ana- These results showed that the proposed FZCE protocol for meth-
lysed. According to CMT, the purified cardosins A and B are in- anol-soluble protein assay is a potentially useful method for mon-
cluded in the peak 4 (Fig. 1). However, others peak such as 3, 6, itoring the technological quality of the aqueous extracts used as
and 7 could correspond to cardosins with different charge due to rennet in ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ manufacture.
different glycosylation levels (Sidrach et al., 2005). In fact, these With respect to SDS–PAGE, the densitograms showed a total of
mentioned peaks showed both symmetries and absorbance spectra 9 different polypeptide bands with an approximate molecular
similar to the purified cardosins. mass in the range 13.5–66.2 kDa (Fig. 1). The step of protein
E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235 231
Table 2
Clotting and casein proteolysis activities of vegetable rennets obtained from cardoon flowers grouped according to maturation stage, location, and harvest year.
Sample grouping Clotting activity (R.U./ml) after maceration % Degradation of the SDS–PAGE bands
1h 24 h a-Caseins b-Casein j-Casein
Mean ± SDA Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD Mean ± SD
Maturation stageB
a 0.142 ± 0.032 0.173 ± 0.081 64.92 ± 35.29 41.72 ± 36.71 53.51 ± 38.83
b 0.131 ± 0.025 0.164 ± 0.024 93.16 ± 6.72 77.07 ± 13.85 75.90 ± 23.14
c 0.160 ± 0.027 0.271 ± 0.151 79.06 ± 16.96 44.70 ± 25.02 52.29 ± 38.71
PC 0.188 0.201 0.124 0.055 0.431
LocationB
1 0.141 ± 0.037 0.182 ± 0.036 91.42 ± 4.50 62.28 ± 7.54 89.09 ± 1.65
2 0.133 ± 0.024 0.149 ± 0.019 98.51 ± 2.01 79.63 ± 5.64 99.10 ± 1.40
3 0.158 ± 0.031 0.217 ± 0.119 71.88 ± 27.34 53.22 ± 30.53 41.28 ± 32.17
4 0.118 ± 0.020 0.159 ± 0.009 90.23 ± 6.42 78.53 ± 20.22 55.04 ± 1.45
6 0.169 ± 0.017 0.347 ± 0.171 80.37 ± 17.99 38.33 ± 7.65 77.42 ± 26.14
P 0.303 0.326 0.447 0.203 0.059
Year
2007 0.154 ± 0.026 0.233 ± 0.134 77.60 ± 23.30 49.12 ± 29.30 58.06 ± 38.64
2008 0.127 ± 0.027 0.168 ± 0.023 90.71 ± 5.10 72.03 ± 17.26 68.66 ± 18.69
P 0.076 0.311 0.242 0.130 0.547
A
SD, standard deviation.
B
Maturation stage and location: as in Table 1.
C
P-values.
Table 3
Results of the relevant FZCE peaks and SDS–PAGE bands of the vegetable rennets studied at different maturation stages, and correlations with technological properties.
StageA Correlation
a b c P Clotting activity (R.U.) after maceration Degradation of caseins
1h 24 h a-Caseins b-Casein j-Casein
FZCE
p1 15.82B 11.11 17.52 0.364 0.082 0.28 0.131 0.287* 0.032
p2 63.02 61.50 71.82 0.883 0.029 0.149 0.075 0.238 0.119
p3 + 4 219.59 426.15 420.36 0.420 0.428** 0.211 0.052 0.227 0.299*
p5 23.00 106.09 56.93 0.219 0.278 0.316 0.089 0.232 0.17
p6 111.57 221.18 143.29 0.510 0.419** 0.151 0.227 0.464** 0.018
p7 26.62 57.99 88.12 0.755 0 0.175 0.13 0.191 0.237
p8 13.94 33.83 97.07 0.603 0.007 0.145 0.029 0.097 0.183
p9 23.75b 224.56a 32.40b 0.032 0.134 0.28 0.173 0.473** 0.113
p10 75.22 128.83 100.04 0.913 0.141 0.068 0.234 0.229 0.413**
Total 572.52 1271.23 1027.54 0.355 0.31 0.039 0.234 0.468** 0.375
SDS–PAGE
b1 (66.2 kDa) 0.00C 2.24 0.87 0.282 0.15 0.312 0.302 0.421** 0.229
b2 (60.2 kDa) 6.26 10.62 6.02 0.359 0.34 0.204 0.14 0.25 0.054
b3 (37.3 kDa) 0.00 1.77 1.04 0.599 0.226 0.232 0.142 0.224 0.211
b4 (32.0 kDa) 17.83a 5.92b 3.64b 0.010 0.247 0.044 0.093 0.126 0.079
b5 (30.2 kDa) 33.88 21.98 18.75 0.133 0.284 0.022 0.108 0.161 0.137
b6 (28.3 kDa) 38.14 45.32 37.40 0.560 0.233 0.334 0.297 0.182 0.092
b7 (20.7 kDa) 0.00 5.18 2.14 0.345 0.029 0.283 0.288 0.502** 0.272
b8 (16.7 kDa) 0.00 3.08 5.96 0.254 0.493** 0.486** 0.17 0.001 0.188
b9 (13.5 kDa) 13.10 13.81 9.03 0.357 0.167 0.039 0.196 0.015 0.133
A
Maturation stage: as in Table 1.
B
FZCE peak area.
C
SDS–PAGE band intensity.
*
P < 0.05.
**
P < 0.01.
precipitation by chloroform in the methanol soluble protein also a priori be considered as a potentially useful tool for character-
extraction procedure for the CZE analysis involved a loss of most ising the technological properties of this vegetable rennet.
of the apolar protein fraction with respect to the whole protein ex-
tract used in the SDS–PAGE analysis. Hence, the resolution of more 3.2. Milk-clotting and proteolytic activities of the aqueous extracts and
proteins by CE than by PAGE may be attributed to the method. their relationship with the CE and SDS–PAGE profiles
Although less effectiveness of this technique than the FZCE in dis-
criminating vegetable varieties has been described (Cancalon, Table 2 lists the milk-clotting and proteolytic activities of the
1995; Hernández et al., 2006; Manabe, 1999), in our study there aqueous extracts from the cardoon samples studied at different
were relevant differences in the overall polypeptide profiles of stages, locations, and years of harvest. The value ranges of
the proteins from the 16 samples of aqueous extract studied. milk-clotting are 0.118–0.169 and 0.149–0.347 RU/ml for 1 and
Therefore, the analysis of proteins of cardoon by SDS–PAGE could 24 h of maceration, respectively. Tavaria et al. (2001) reported
232 E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235
1
A
0.8 p3+4
Acceptability Juiciness
Viscosity Creaminess
0.6 Elastic
Yellow
p7
16.7 kDa
Component 2 (17.17 %)
p8 Spreadability
0.4
p5 Creamy
0.2 No holes p10 20.7 kDa
13.5kDa
p2 O-Acid
p9 p6 37.3 kDa F-Intensity
0 Bitter
20.7kDa Salty F-Ewe's milk F-Persistence
O-Ewe's milk p1 T-Acid
Firmness Astringent
66.2kDa
-0.2 O-Rancid Af tertaste
Pungent
-0.4
28.3 kDa
Unpleasant
-0.6 F-Rancid
13.5 kDa
32 kDa
-0.8 60.2 kDa
30.2 kDa
-1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Component 1 (21.45 %)
B 1
p6 Salty
20.7 kDa
0.6
p5 37.3 kDa T-Acid
Unpleasant Bitter
Component 3 (14.41 %)
0.4 p9
p10 F-Intensity
O-Acid
O-Rancid Af tertaste Pungent
Astringent
0.2 Yellow O-Ewe's milk F-Rancid
Firmness 13.5 kDa p3+4 F-Persistence
p7 p8 F-Ewe's milk
0
No holes 16.7 kDa
60.2 kDa Juiciness Creaminess
-0.2 Spreadability
p2 Elasticity Viscosity Creamy
13.5 kDa p1
-0.4 30.2 kDa
Acceptability 32 kDa
-0.6 20.7 kDa
28.3 kDa
-0.8
-1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Component 1 (21.45 %)
Fig. 2. Principal component analysis of the CE peaks, SDS–PAGE bands, and sensorial parameters (The prefixes T, O, and F refer to attributes of texture, odour and flavour,
respectively): plane 1–2 of variable plot (A); plane 1–3 of variable plot (B).
milk-clotting values around 18 R.U./mL for 15 times more concen- showed the highest mean values (P < 0.1) of b-casein degradation.
trated extracts of C. cardunculus collected in Portugal. These A similar result was found for samples of location 2 in the case of
authors also found a higher proteolytic activity on a- than on b- j-casein degradation activity. Cordeiro, Xue, Pietrzak, Pais, and
casein, but the values of the degradation percentage were gener- Brodelius (1994) studied the proteolytic and milk-clotting activi-
ally lower than those found in our study. With respect to the factor ties of mature flower extracts collected at 8 different locations in
investigated (stage, location, and year), no significant differences Portugal, which showed some variation in proteolytic activity
were found in milk-clotting values or in proteolytic activities on while the milk-clotting activity was essentially the same for all ex-
the casein fractions, although the samples of ripening stage b tracts. Therefore, these factors have proved ineffective as criteria
E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235 233
B
Measured overall acceptability values
Fig. 3. Scatter plot of measured versus predicted values of attribute creaminess (A) and overall acceptability (B) derived from the PLSR analysis of CE peaks 3 + 4 and 6.
for selecting the flowers of C. cardunculus that are technologically a-subunit of cardosin B (Sousa & Malcata, 1998). Other bands were
appropriate for the production of vegetable rennet in the elabora- tentatively identified by their molecular weights as procardosins
tion of ‘‘Torta del Casar’’. (66.2 and 60.2 kDa), intermediate form cardosin (38 kDa), other
Table 3 lists the mean values of the CE peak areas and a-subunits of cardosins (30.2 kDa), and b-subunits of cardosins
SDS–PAGE band intensities from the cardoon samples grouped by (16.7 and 13.5 kDa; Sampaio, Fortes, Cabral, Pais, & Fonseca,
different stages of harvest. In general, no relevant differences in 2008; Verissimo et al., 1996). However, these protein bands may
the FZCE electroferograms were associated with the ripening stage. also include other enzymes present in the cardoon tissue (López-
Only peak 9 was higher in the samples of stage b. Similar results Molina et al., 2003).
were obtained for SDS–PAGE densitograms since only the protein Table 3 also lists the correlations between the analytical param-
band 4 of apparent molecular weight of 32 kDa showed differ- eters (CE peak areas and SDS–PAGE band densities) and the milk-
ences, in this case being more intense in cardoon samples clotting and proteolytic activities. The areas of peaks 3 + 4 and 6
harvested in the initial stage. This band would correspond to the were strongly positively correlated (P < 0.01) with clotting activity
234 E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235
values after 1 h of maceration and with the j and b casein proposed that this technique be used routinely for the quality con-
degradation, respectively. Positive correlations were also obtained trol of the vegetable rennet used in the manufacturing process for
for peaks 9 and 10 with respect to b and j casein degradation, the Registry of the Protected Designation of Origin ‘‘Torta del
respectively. In addition, the sum of the peak areas was positively Casar’’.
correlated with the b-casein degradation activity. According to
their casein degradation activities, the above mentioned peaks Acknowledgements
may include active cardosins or their precursors. Given that card-
osin B has broader specificity (like pepsin) than cardosin A (like The authors are grateful to M. Cabrero and C. Cebrián for tech-
chymosin; Verissimo et al., 1996), the area of peaks 3 + 4 and 10, nical assistance and PDO ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ for technical support.
correlated with j-casein degradation, may be mainly related to
cardosin A, despite of the deglycosilated cardosin B standard is in-
cluded in peak 4. On the other hand, the area of peaks 6 and 9, cor- References
related with b-casein degradation, may be mainly related to
Bean, S. R., & Lookhart, G. L. (2001). Recent developments in high performance
cardosin B. capillary electrophoresis of cereal proteins. Electrophoresis, 22, 1503–1509.
With respect to the SDS–PAGE band analysis, the intensities of Bietz, J. A. (1994). Fractionation of wheat gluten proteins by capillary
bands of 66.2 and 20.7 kDa showed strong correlation with electrophoresis. In Gluten proteins (pp. 404–413). Detmold, Germany:
Association of Cereal Research.
b-casein degradation; while the band 8 of 16.7 kDa, probably Brodelius, P. E., Cordeiro, M. C., & Pais, M. S. (1995). Aspartic proteinases (cyprosins)
including b-subunits of cardosin A, were positively correlated with from Cynara cardunuclus spp. flavescens cv. cardoon: Purification,
clotting activities (Table 3). These results showed that CE and characterisation, and tissue-specific expression. Advances in Experimental
Medicine and Biology, 362, 255–266.
SDS–PAGE methods could a priori both be useful for the technolog- Cancalon, P. F. (1995). Capillary electrophoresis: A useful technique for food
ical characterisation of the aqueous extracts of flowers of analysis. Food Technology, 49, 52–58.
C. cardunculus. For that, it is necessary to know the impact of these Cattaneo, T. M. P., Nigro, F., Toppino, P. M., & Denti, V. (1996). Characterization of
ewe’s milk by capillary electrophoresis. Journal of Chromatography A, 721,
vegetable rennets with their different CE and SDS–PAGE profiles on 345–349.
the sensory properties of the ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ cheese. Cordeiro, M. C., Xue, Z. T., Pietrzak, M., Pais, M. S., & Brodelius, P. E. (1994). Isolation
and characterization of an cDNA from flowers of Cynara cardunculus encoding
cyprosin (an aspartic proteinase) and its use to study the organ-specific
3.3. Relationship between the CE and SDS–PAGE profiles of aqueous expression of cyprosin. Plant Molecular Biology, 24, 733–741.
extracts and the sensorial analysis of the ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ cheese Heimgartner, U., Pietrzak, M., Geertsen, R., Brodelius, P., Silva Figueredo, A. C., & Pais,
M. S. (1990). Purification and partial characterization of milk clotting proteases
from flowers of Cynara cardunculus. Phytochemistry, 29, 1405–1410.
The PCA analysis of the sensory descriptive attributes, overall
Hernández, A., Martín, A., Aranda, E., Bartolomé, T., & Córdoba, M. G. (2006).
scores, and CE and SDS–PAGE profiles showed major differences Detection of smoked paprika ‘‘Pimentón de la Vera’’ adulteration by free zone
between cheese samples (Fig. 2). The first axis accounted for capillary electrophoresis (FZCE). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry,
21.45% of the variance and was mainly defined by flavour intensity 54(12), 4141–4147.
Hernández, A., Martín, A., Aranda, E., Bartolomé, T., & Córdoba, M. G. (2007).
and persistence, and pungent, astringent, and bitter taste, but also Application of temperature-induced phase partition of proteins for the
by texture descriptors such as softness (contrary to firmness) and detection of smoked paprika adulteration by free zone capillary
spreadability. An increased valuation of these attributes could be electrophoresis (FZCE). Food Chemistry, 105, 1219–1227.
International Organization for Standarization (ISO). UNE-ISO 4121-2006. Sensory
partially related to a non-specific proteolytic activity of the vegeta- analysis-guidelines for the use of quantitative response scales; ISO: Geneva,
ble rennet, but also mainly to other factors such as microbial pro- Switzerland.
teolytic activity. In fact, no relevant correlations were found Laemmli, U. K. (1970). Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the
head of bacteriophage T4. Nature, 227, 680–685.
between any major CE peak or SDS–PAGE band and PC 1 (Fig. 2). López-Molina, D., Heering, H. A., Smulevich, G., Tudela, J., Thorneley, R. N. F., García-
The second axis (PC 2; 17.17% of the variance) includes overall Canovás, F., et al. (2003). Purification and characterization of a new cationic
acceptability, viscosity, juiciness and to a lesser extent, creaminess, peroxidase from fresh flowers of Cynara scolymus, L. Journal of Inorganic
Biochemistry, 94, 243–254.
together with the CE peak 3 + 4 and SDS–PAGE band of 16.7 kDa at Macedo, I. Q., Faro, C. J., & Pires, E. V. (1993). Specificity and kinetics of the milk-
the top of the figure, whereas the unpleasant flavour descriptor, to- clotting enzyme from Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus, L.) toward bovine k-casein.
gether with several SDS–PAGE bands (13.5, 30.2, 32.0, and Journal Agriculture of Food Chemistry, 41, 1537–1540.
Manabe, T. (1999). Capillary electrophoresis of proteins for proteomic studies.
60.2 kDa), are at the bottom. As has been shown previously, both
Electrophoresis, 20, 3116–3121.
CE peaks 3 + 4 and SDS–PAGE band 16.7 kDa also have a strong cor- Martins, A. P. L., Vasconcelos, M. M. P., & Sousa, R. B. (1996). Thistle (Cynara
relation with clotting activity, as does the CE peak 6. However, this cardunculus, L.) flower as a coagulant agent for cheesemaking: Sort
last peak did not correlate positively with overall acceptability or characterization. Lait, 76, 437–477.
Pires, E., Faro, C., Macedo, I., Esteves, C., Morgado, J., Veríssimo, P., et al. (1994). Flor
the creaminess descriptor. On the contrary, the relationship be- do cardo versus quimosina no fabrico de queijos artesanais. Revista da Sociedade
tween overall acceptability and CE peak 6 was negative, according Portuguesa de Química, 54, 66–68.
to the correlation analysis (P value <0.1) and PC 3 (14.41% of the Otte, J., Ardö, Y., Weimer, B., & Sorensen, J. (1999). Capillary electrophoresis used to
measure proteolysis in cheese. Bulletin International Dairy Federation, 337,
variance) represented in Fig. 2. With the aim of confirming peaks 10–16.
3 + 4 and 6 as quality control markers, a partial least-squares Recio, I., Ramos, M., & López-Fandiño,, R. (2001). Capillary electrophoresis for the
regression (PLSR) method was used. The model (r = 0.626) indi- analysis of food proteins of animal origin. Electrophoresis, 22, 1489–1502.
Recio, I., Amigo, L., & López-Fandiño, R. (1997). Assessment of the quality of dairy
cated that 39.2% of the variation in the descriptor ‘‘creaminess’’ products by capillary electrophoresis of milk proteins. Journal of
could be predicted from the areas of the selected CE peaks, as is Chromatography B, 697, 231–242.
shown in Fig. 3. Likewise, the model for the overall acceptability Regulation (CE) 1491/2003 of European commission of 25 of august: Registration of
the protected designation of origin ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ in the register of protected
(r = 0.650) indicated that up to 42% of its variation could be pre- designations of origin and the protected geographic indications.
dicted from these marker peaks. In contrast, the analysis by PLSR Roseiro, L. B., Barbosa, M., Ames, J. A., & Wilbey, R. A. (2003). Cheesemaking with
of the SDS–PAGE bands correlated with clotting or proteolytic vegetable coagulants – The use of Cynara L. for the production of ovine milk
cheeses. International Journal Dairy Technology, 56, 76–85.
activities did not show good results.
Roseiro, L. B., Gómez-Ruiz, J. A., García-Risco, M., & Molina, E. (2003). Vegetable
One can conclude that the present protocol of methanol-soluble coagulant (Cynara cardunculus) use evidenced by capillary electrophoresis
protein extraction from aqueous extracts of C. cardunculus flowers permits PDO Serpa cheese authentication. Lait, 83, 343–350.
and the FZCE analysis procedure provide a fast, economic, and effi- Sampaio, P. N., Fortes, A. M., Cabral, J. M. S., Pais, M. S., & Fonseca, L. P. (2008).
Production and characterization of recombinant Cyprosin B in Sacharomyces
cient method for the technological characterisation of this vegeta- cerevisiae (W303–1A) strain. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 105(4),
ble rennet in the processing of ‘‘Torta del Casar’’. We have therefore 305–312.
E. Ordiales et al. / Food Chemistry 133 (2012) 227–235 235
Serradilla, M. J., Martín, A., Aranda, E., Hernández, A., Benito, M. J., López- Tavaria, F. K., Sousa, M. J., & Malcata, F. X. (2001). Storage and lyophilization effects
Corrales, M., et al. (2008). Authentication of ‘‘Cereza del Jerte’’ sweet cherry of extracts of Cynara cardunculus on the degradation of ovine and caprine
varieties by free zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE). Food Chemistry, 111, caseins. Food Chemistry, 72, 79–88.
457–461. Valdés, B., Talavera, S. & Fernández-Galiano, E. (1987). In: Flora vascular de Andalucía
Sidrach, L., García-Canovás, F., Tudela, J., & Rodríguez-López, J. N. (2005). Occidental. Ketres Editora, S.A. Barcelona: España.
Purification of cynarases from artichoke (Cynara scolymus, L.): Enzymatic Veríssimo, P., Esteves, C., Faro, C., & Pires, E. (1995). The vegetable rennet of Cynara
properties of cynarase A. Phytochemistry, 66, 41–49. cardunculus L. contains two proteinases with chymosin and pepsin-like
Silva, S. V., & Malcata, F. X. (1999). On the activity and specificity of cardosin B, a specificities. Biotechnology Letters, 17, 621–626.
plant proteinase on ovine caseins. Food Chemistry, 67, 373–378. Verissimo, P., Faro, C., Moir, A. J., Lin, Y., Tang, J., & Pires, E. (1996). Purification,
Sousa, M. J., & Malcata, F. X. (1998). Proteolysis of ovine and caprine caseins in characterization, and partial amino acid sequencing of two new aspartic
solution by enzymatic extracts from flowers of Cynara cardunculus. Enzyme proteinases from fresh flowers of Cynara cardunuclus, L. European Journal
Microbiology and Technology, 22, 305–314. Biochemistry, 235, 762–768.
IV.3. CAPÍTULO III
IV.3.2. Proteolysis effect of Cynara cardunculus rennet from different plant selected for
being used in the elaboration of “Torta del Casar” cheese.
229
IV.3.1. Influence of technological properties of vegetable rennet (Cynara
cardunculus) on the texture of “Torta del Casar” cheese.
231
Journal of Dairy Science
Complete List of Authors: Ordiales, Elena; Centro Tecnológico Agroalimentario Extremadura (CTAEX),
Agricultura
Martín, Alberto; Extremadura University, Nutricion y Bromatologia
Benito, Maria; Extremadura University, Nutricion y Bromatologia
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5 Córdoba †
8 Villafranco a Balboa Km. 1.2, Villafranco del Guadiana, 06195 Badajoz, Spain.
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9
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10 † Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de
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16
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17
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21 Corresponding author
24 http://eia.unex.es
25
26 ABSTRACT
27 The purpose of this work was to investigate the influence of technological properties of
28 vegetable rennet on the texture of “Torta del Casar” cheese to establish the parameters
29 that can be useful for quality control of this coagulant. A total of 16 batches of cardoon
30 flowers (Cynara cardunculus) grouped according to location, harvest year, and ripening
31 stage were used to make aqueous coagulant extracts in which clotting and casein
33 sensorial properties of the "Torta del Casar" cheeses were evaluated during ripening,
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34 and then related to the technological properties of the vegetable rennet batches used for
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35 their elaboration. Although the differences in the clotting and proteolytic activities of
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36 vegetable rennets were not attributable to the factors studied, they had a relevant impact
37 on both the physico-chemical parameters in the initial processing stages of "Torta del
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38 Casar” and the texture and sensorial analysis of the final product. The level of in vitro
39 degradation of caseins by the aqueous extract used (specifically the activity against α-
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40 casein and κ-casein/β-casein degradation ratio) were found to be good tools with which
41 to predict the effect of vegetable rennet on the rheological properties of the “Torta del
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42 Casar" cheese.
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43
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46 cheese.
47
48
49 INTRODUCTION
50 “Torta del Casar” is a high quality Spanish cheese marketed under the Registry
51 of the Protected Designation of Origin “Torta del Casar” (Casar de Cáceres, Cáceres,
53 This type of cheese is made from raw ewe´s milk, using only the dried flowers of the
54 plant Cynara cardunculus as rennet, and without any deliberate addition of a starter.
56 A and cardosin B (Sousa, 1993; Veríssimo et al., 1995, 1996). Studies of their
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57 specificity and kinetics on the oxidized B-chain of insulin show that cardosin A has
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59 al., 1992; Veríssimo et al., 1995; Ramalho-Santos et al., 1996). Cardosins are
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61 bovine (Macedo et al., 1993) and ovine κ-casein (Sousa and Malcata, 1998). In addition
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62 to a clotting activity similar to that of chymosin, this vegetable rennet also displays a
63 strong proteolytic action in vitro. This activity eventually leads to extensive breakdown
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64 of the caseins in the cheese matrix (Macedo and Malcata, 1996), producing cheese
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65 characterized by a soft buttery texture and the development of a typical aroma and a
66 slightly piquant and creamy flavour (Galán et al., 2008; Tavaria et al., 2001). This
67 aspect is well suited to the manufacture of the soft-bodied “Torta del Casar” cheeses
70 diverse natural populations harvested at different flower ripening stages and mixed with
71 other parts of the plant. In addition, the milk clotting activity of the flowers shows great
72 variability mainly related to the drying conditions (Martins et al., 1996). This major
3
73 heterogeneity of the rennet used in “Torta del Casar” manufacture has a negative
74 influence on the cheese´s quality parameters, including low yield, lack of homogeneity
76 2000). Thus, technological quality control of the aqueous extracts used as rennet would
78 are important monitors of quality control in cheese processing and in scientific research
79 (Park, 2007).
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80 The objective of this work was to study the effect of the clotting and proteolytic
84 Plant Material
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85 The samples of cardoon (Cynara cardunculus, L.) used in this study were
86 identified previously in accordance with the guidelines of Valdés et al. (1987). They
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87 were collected from six locations during the seasons of the years 2007 and 2008, and
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88 grouped into 3 different ripening stages in accordance with the cardoon flower’s
90 opening, only some styles and stigmas visible), b (flowers fully open, even with pollen),
91 and c (flowers begin to dry, so that they are brownish, instead of violet). The collected
92 flowers were dried and kept in a cool dry place until use.
93 Milk-clotting Activity
94 For the milk-clotting trials, 0.5 g aliquots of each cardoon sample were softened
95 in 75 ml of ultrapure water for 1 h and 24 h. The rennet clotting time of these coagulant
96 extracts was measured according to a standard method (NILACTM; NIZO, Ede, The
99 (pH 6.5) at 30ºC. The enzymatic assay was performed using 0.2 mL of coagulant extract
100 added to 2 mL of reconstituted skim milk, and the clotting time was determined by
101 visual inspection. One rennet unit (R.U.) was defined as the amount of crude enzyme
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104 of each set of four data was taken as the datum point.
106 The dried flower extracts were prepared by macerating 0.25 g of dried flowers in
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108 h. The homogenate was filtered through a Whatman No. 4 filter. The substrate used for
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109 degradation by the extracts consisted of a mix of bovine caseins (Sigma Aldrich, Co.,
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110 St. Louis, MO, USA) ( α , β , and κ), at a concentration of 0.5 mg/mL of each casein,
111 dissolved in 5 ml of distilled water. The dried flower extracts were macerated with the
112 casein mix, at 2.5% of extract (vol/vol), for 2 h at room temperature to allow casein
113 degradation. After this time the extracts with degraded caseins were denatured by
114 adding 30 µL of SDS-PAGE loading buffer (62.5 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 20% (wt/vol)
117 The electrophoresis conditions were those described by Laemmli (1970), and the
119 (wt/vol) for stacking gels and 15% (wt/vol) for separating gels. The gels were cast and
120 run in a Miniprotean III device (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, CA). The molecular
121 mass marker kits (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) contained proteins from 6.5 to
122 205 kDa. The gels were subsequently stained with 0.5% (wt/vol) Coomassie blue (G-
123 250) dissolved in 45% (vol/vol) water, 45% (vol/vol) methanol, and 10% (vol/vol)
124 acetic acid for 30 min, and destained with a solution consisting of 20% (vol/vol)
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125 methanol, 10% (vol/vol) acetic acid, and 70% (vol/vol) distilled water for 4 h. A
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126 computer image analysis program (Genetools, Synoptics Ltd., Cambridge, U.K.) was
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129 A total of sixteen batches of “Torta del Casar” were manufactured, of 10 cheeses
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130 each batch, from unpasteurized Merino ewe’s milk to which no starter cultured was
131 added. Each batch was clotted using a C. cardunculus L. rennet, corresponding to the
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132 samples listed in Table 1. The aqueous extracts from the cardoon C. cardunculus L.
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133 were prepared from 50 g of dried flowers in 1 L of water, leaving them to macerate for
134 24 h, and adding 10 mL of this extract per litre of milk at 28–30ºC, for each 32 L batch.
135 After pressing, the cheeses were immersed in a salt solution (16% (wt/vol) NaCl) for 4
136 hours. The ripening took place at a temperature of 5–10ºC and relative humidity of 85–
137 90% throughout the ripening period of 60 days. Three cheeses of each batch were
140 The moisture content of the cheeses was determined by dehydration at 100ºC to
141 a constant weight by the ISO recommended methods (ISO, 1973). Water activity (Aw)
142 was determined using an FA-St/1 apparatus from GBX (France Scientific Instrument).
143 The pH was measured using a Crison mod. 2002 pH meter (Crison Instruments,
144 Barcelona, Spain). Total protein was determined by the Kjeldahl method (International
145 Dairy Federation (IDF), 1993), with a Kjeltec system 1002 distilling unit (Tecator,
146 Hoganas, Sweden). Fat content was determined by the Gerber method as described by
148 The yield was determined as the quantity of cheese obtained from a volume of
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149 milk, expressed as %. Cutting time was considered to be the time needed for curd to be
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150 formed, from the moment rennet is added to the moment the curd is cut.
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152 For the microbial counts and isolates, 10 g aliquots of each cheese sample were
153 taken aseptically, transferred to sterile plastic pouches, 10-fold diluted with 1% peptone
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154 water (Pronadisa, Alcobendas, Madrid, Spain), and homogenized for 120 s using the
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155 laboratory Stomacher Lab-Blender 400 (Seward Lab., London, England). Serial 10-fold
156 dilutions were prepared from the same solution and inoculated onto agar plates.
157 Plate count agar (PCA, Oxoid) was used for mesophilic aerobic bacteria counts
158 at 30ºC for 48 h, and for psychrotrophs for 7 days at 7ºC. LAB were grown in MRS
159 agar (Oxoid) whose pH was adjusted to 5.6 with acetic acid (10%), incubating at 37ºC
160 for 2 days under anaerobic conditions. The Gram positive catalase positive (GPCP)
161 cocci counts were determined in MSA agar (Oxoid) at 30ºC for 48 h, counting typical
162 colonies.
163 Texture
164 Two different instrumental texture analyses were performed using a TA.XTA2i
166 Texture compression analysis (TCA) of the samples was performed at room
168 cutting slices approximately 1.5 cm thick. Force–time curves were recorded at a cross-
169 head speed of 1 mm s−1 and 10 mm distance. Hardness (g), defined as maximum peak
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170 force during a compression cycle, cohesiveness (g s), area under the positive curve,
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171 adhesiveness (g), maximum negative peak, and F-T 2:3 area (g s), area under the
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172 negative curve, were evaluated at 2, 30, and 60 days of the process.
174 ripening using a TTC Spreadability Fixture probe. The samples were packed into the
175 lower cone with a spatula. The curves were produced at a test speed of 3 mm s−1 and 25
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176 mm distance. Firmness (g) and work of shear (g s) will be the maximum peak and the
177 area under the first curve. The maximum negative peak indicates the stickiness (g) of
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178 the sample, and the maximum negative area is taken as the work of adhesion (g s).
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180 Fifteen panelists, previously selected and trained under ISO standards with
181 samples of “Torta del Casar” cheese, were asked to characterize the sensory quality of
182 the batches selected according to the protein profile of the cardoon used for the clotting
183 stage. The cheeses were cut into slices of approximately 5 mm thickness. The slices
184 were equilibrated for 30 min at room temperature before serving. Descriptive analyses
185 were made according to international standard methods. Eight parameters related to
186 appearance (creamy, no holes, elastic, spreadability) and texture (firmness, creaminess,
187 viscosity, juiciness) were assessed using a structured line scale with intensity
188 descriptors at the end points (1, low; 10, high). The samples were three-digit coded and
189 the order of serving was determined by random permutation. Two replicate panels
190 performed for each sample. The response to each indicator was taken as the mean of the
195 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, Illinois, USA). Descriptive statistics of the vegetable rennet
196 activities were determined, and the evolution of the physicochemical, microbial, and
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197 texture parameters of the cheese batches were studied by one-way analysis of variance
198 (ANOVA), and separated by Tukey’s honest significant differences test (P ≤ 0.05). The
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199 relationships between the enzymatic activities of the aqueous extracts and the physico-
200 chemical parameters of the cheeses after 2 days of ripening were evaluated in terms of
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201 Pearson correlation coefficients. A principal component analysis (PCA) was performed
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202 on the technological properties of vegetable rennet, the texture parameters and sensorial
203 data of the final product to study the relationships between the clotting and proteolytic
204 activities of the vegetable rennet and the texture quality of the cheeses. The efficiency
205 of the selected coagulant parameters as quality control markers of the rennet was
206 evaluated in terms of Pearson correlation coefficients, and verified by linear regression
207 analysis.
210 Table 1 presents the results for the technological properties of the vegetable
211 rennets. They showed relevant differences in both clotting and proteolytic values among
212 the samples studied. These differences were not at the level of the maturation of the
213 cardoon or its location since a high intra-group variability was observed in both factors
214 (data not shown). Cordeiro et al. (1994) studied the proteolytic and milk-clotting
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215 activities of mature flower extracts collected at 8 different locations in Portugal. They
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216 found some variation in proteolytic activity, but for the milk-clotting activity they did
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217 not appreciate any significant differences among the locations corresponding to extracts.
218 The value ranges for milk-clotting were 0.092-0.185 and 0.136-0.512 RU/ml for 1 and
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219 24 hours of maceration, respectively. Tavaria et al. (2001) reported milk-clotting values
220 of around 18 RU/mL for 15 times more concentrated extracts of Cynara cardunculus
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221 collected in Portugal. They also found greater proteolytic activity on α- than on β-
222 casein. In the present study, the α-casein degradation varied from 24.39% (sample M15)
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223 to 100% (samples M1 and M3), and the β-casein and κ-casein degradation ranges were
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224 4.32-91.55% and 4.21-98.43%, respectively (Table 1). Silva and Malcata (1999) also
225 found that αs-caseins were hydrolysed faster than β-caseins in in vitro trials. This is
226 comparable to the case in cheese, since it has been reported that β-casein is less
227 susceptible to proteolysis than αs-caseins in the manufacture of raw ewe’s milk cheese
228 in which extracts of C. cardunculus are used as coagulant (Sousa and Malcata, 1997;
230 Influence of Vegetable Rennets on Cutting Time, Curd Yield, and the
232 Table 2 lists the descriptive statistics of cutting time and curd yield for the
233 batches studied, and the physicochemical characteristics of the fresh cheeses with 2
234 days of ripening. These data were correlated with the technological properties of the
235 vegetable rennets used for their elaboration. The cutting time varied between 35 and 75
236 min, and showed a negative correlation with the clotting activity of the aqueous extract
237 after 24 h of maceration. However, this parameter was also positively correlated with
238 unspecified proteolytic activity against whole caseins (Table 2). Although some studies
239 have examined the gelling properties of the proteases present in plant coagulants, no
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240 data were available in the literature concerning the properties of each cardosin and its
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241 independent contribution to the overall milk-clotting activity and gelling properties.
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242 Silva et al. (2003) showed that different cardosins have very different rheological
243 properties, as well as from chymosin. This type of knowledge is important in order to
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245 The mean value of the curd yield was low (23.8%), confirming previous results
246 (Agboola et al., 2009). Mas Mayoral et al. (1991) report slightly lower cheese yields
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247 with values between 16.5 and 20%. This parameter was not clearly linked to clotting
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248 activities but had a positive correlation with the degradation of κ-casein, the primary
250 With respect to the physicochemical parameters of the fresh cheeses, the mean
251 values of moisture and pH were 56.61% and 6.85 respectively and aw ranged from 0.96
252 to 0.99. Sanjuán et al. (2002) studied the influence of vegetable rennet on the
253 physicochemical characteristics of the soft cheese "Los Pedroches" during ripening. At
254 2 days of ripening, moisture of cheeses was 51.63 %, the pH was 5.6, and aw 0.98. pH
255 values were positively correlated with the whole proteolytic activity of the aqueous
11
256 extracts, a fact attributable to the buffer effect generated by the products of protein
258 For the protein and fat percentages, the mean values were 16.72 and 25.31,
259 respectively, in agreement with other studies (Mas Mayoral et al., 1991). In addition,
260 the total protein showed a positive correlation with the clotting activity of the vegetable
261 rennet extract after 1h of maceration (Table 2), together a negative correlation with
262 moisture (P < 0.1). Better curd gelling associated with clotting activities of the
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263 vegetable rennet may, at last partially, explain these results.
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264 Evolution of Physicochemical, Microbial, and Texture Parameters during Cheese
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265 Ripening
267 Figure 1. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) in moisture and pH values
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268 during cheese ripening, with decreases until the end of processing. The mean moisture
269 values varied from 56.61 (2 days of ripening) to 40.81 (60 days of ripening), and the pH
vi
270 values ranged from 6.85 (2 days of ripening) to 5.65 (60 days of ripening). The results
ew
271 were similar to those obtained for other soft cheeses (Roa et al., 1999; Sanjuán et al.,
272 2002). These pH changes may reflect the major metabolic activity of lactic acid bacteria
274 The mean counts of total viable bacteria and LAB were greater than 8 log CFU
275 g-1 throughout ripening with high variability in the initial stage (2 days of ripening). In
276 the case of the GPCP cocci, the counts for during ripening were essentially constant
277 with values close to 7 log cfu g−1 (Figure 1). No correlation was observed between
278 coagulant extract activity and the counts of these microbial groups. The counts of TVC,
12
279 LAB, and GPCP cocci were similar to those found in other fresh soft cheeses clotted
280 with vegetable rennets. Lactic acid bacteria appear to be the predominant microbial
281 groups in Serra da Estrela cheese (Tavaira et al., 1998), in which they eventually reach
282 viable numbers of ca. 7 log cfu g-1 by the time of consumption (Pintado et al., 2010).
283 Obviously, regardless of the vegetable rennet´s characteristics, these high levels of
284 microorganisms during ripening may be playing a relevant role in the development of
285 the sensory characteristics of "Torta del Casar" cheese, including its texture.
Fo
286 Figure 1 also shows the textural changes in TCA hardness, cohesiveness,
287 adhesiveness, and area F-T 2:3 of cheese samples during maturation. The hardness and
r
288 cohesiveness values decreased, mainly at the end of ripening, whereas adhesiveness and
Pe
289 area F-T 2:3 had the lowest values at 30 days of ripening. The values of the TCA
290 parameters found in the present work are concordant with those observed in other
er
291 cheeses made with vegetable rennet. In the case of TCA, hardness and adhesiveness
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292 were much lower than in cheeses elaborated with animal rennet (Agbola et al., 2009).
293 The mean values of the TCA parameters may be attributed to extensive proteolysis in
vi
295 the vegetable rennet may condition the sensorial characteristics of "Torta del Casar"
296 cheese.
297 Effect of Vegetable Rennets on Sensorial Characteristics of “Torta del Casar” Cheese
298 The PCA of the descriptive sensory attributes, overall scores, texture parameters,
299 and technological properties of vegetable rennets showed major differences among
300 cheese samples elaborated with different coagulant extracts after 60 days of ripening
301 (Figure 2). The first axis accounted for 29.83% of the variance, and was mainly defined
303 (SD3), viscosity (SD6), juiciness (SD7), and creaminess (SD5); but also by the clotting
304 activity of the rennet after 24 h of maturation (CA24), and to a lesser extent, overall
305 acceptability (SH1). Specifically, the values of viscosity and creaminess, and overall
306 acceptability in the sensorial analysis of the cheeses showed significant positive
307 correlations with the clotting activities of the aqueous extracts used after 24 h of
308 maturation. A high valuation of these attributes could thus be partially related to this
309 activity of the vegetable rennet, but also to other factors such as microbial proteolytic
310 activity (Macedo et al., 1996; Tavaira and Malcata, 2003). With respect to the
Fo
311 proteolytic activity of the vegetable extracts on casein fractions (β-casein (PAb) α-
r
312 casein (PAa), and κ-casein (PAk)), they were not clearly associated with any PC, and
Pe
313 their explained variability was distributed over the three PCs studied.
314 The second and third axes (28.30 and 11.57% of the variance, respectively) were
er
315 defined by most of the texture parameters, and to a lesser extent by overall acceptability
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316 and the in vitro proteolytic degradation of caseins. A significant negative correlation
317 was found between the in vitro whole casein degradation of the vegetable rennets and
vi
318 the TSA parameters firmness (TS1) and work of shear (TS2) of cheeses with 60 days of
ew
319 ripening, evidence for the influence of the vegetable extract´s characteristics on the final
320 texture properties of “Torta del Casar” cheese. This effect was translated to the overall
321 acceptability, but it not was clearly related to descriptive attributes of the sensory
322 analysis. Indeed, the sensory descriptor creaminess (SD5) was located opposite β-casein
323 degradation with respect to PC1 axis, showing a significant negative correlation. It is
324 possible that the increase in this non-specific activity on casein micelles affects the
14
327 rennet on the rheological properties of "Torta del Casar" cheese, a partial least-squares
328 regression (PLSR) method was used. The model (r = 0.688) indicated that 47.4 % of the
329 variation in the TSA parameter “work of shear” of cheeses could be predicted from the
330 level of in vitro degradation of caseins by the aqueous extract used. Concretely from the
331 α-casein degradation and the κ-casein/β-casein degradation ratio as is shown in Figure
332 3.
333 CONCLUSIONS
Fo
334 One can conclude that the differences in the clotting and proteolytic activities of
r
335 vegetable rennets used in the elaboration of soft-type cheeses have an important impact
Pe
336 on both the physicochemical parameters in initial stages and the texture and sensorial
337 properties of final product. Clotting activity after 24 h of maceration and the intensity of
er
338 β-casein degradation correlated with sensorial creaminess. The whole casein
339 degradation capacity of the aqueous extracts conditioned the TSA parameters such as
Re
340 firmness and work of shear. We therefore proposed the use of both clotting activity after
341 24 h of maceration and in vitro casein degradation for the routine quality control of the
vi
342 vegetable rennet used in the manufacturing process of “Torta del Casar” cheeses for the
ew
344 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
345 The authors are grateful to M. Cabrero and C. Cebrián for technical assistance,
15
347 REFERENCES
348 Agboola, S. O., H. H. Chan, J. Zhao, and A. Rehman. 2009. Can the use of Australian
349 cardoon (Cynara cardunculus, L.) coagulant overcome the quality problems
350 associated with cheese made from ultrafiltered milk?. LWT – Food Sci. Technol.
351 42:1352-1359.
352 Cordeiro, M. C., Z. T. Xue, M. Pietrzak, M. S. Pais, and P. E. Brodelius. 1994. Isolation
356 Faro, C. C., A. J. Moir, and E. V. Pires. 1992. Specificity of a milk-clotting enzyme
Pe
357 extracted from the thistle Cynara cardunculus L.: Action on oxidized insulin and
359 Galán, E., F. Prados, A. Pino, L. Tejeda, and J. Fernández-Salguero. 2008. Influence of
Re
360 different amounts of vegetable coagulant from cardoon Cynara cardunculus and
361 calf rennet on the proteolysis and sensory characteristics of cheese made with
vi
364 Analysis-Guidelines for the Use of Quantitative Response Scales; ISO: Geneva,
365 Switzerland.
366 ISO 1973. ISO in meat and meat product-determination of moisture content method
368 Laemmli, U.K. 1970. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of
16
370 Macedo, I. Q., C. J. Faro, and E. V. Pires. 1993. Specificity and kinetics of the milk-
371 clotting enzyme from Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus, L.) toward bovine k-
373 Macedo, A. C., and F. X. Malcata. 1996. Changes in the major free fatty acids in Serra
378 Mas Mayoral, M., J. González Crespo, and M. J. Nieto Villaseca. 1991. Casar cheese:
r
379 production, physicochemical and microbiological characteristics. Arch. Zootec.
Pe
380 40:359-369.
381 Netherlands Standard NEN 3059. 1969. Butyrometric determination of the fat content
er
387 Park, Y. W. 2007. Rheological characteristics of goat and sheep milk. Small Rumiant
389 Pintado, A. I., T. G. Tavares, F. K. Tavaira, and F. X. Malcata. 2010. Tradition versus
391 plant coagulant, non-bovine milks and adventitious microflora. Aust. J. Dairy
17
393 Ramalho- Santos, M., P. Veríssimo, C. Faro, and E. Pires. 1996. Action on bovine αs1-
394 casein of cardosins A and B, aspartic proteinasas from the flowers of the
397 the Protected Designation of Origin “Torta del Casar” in the Register of
399 Roa, I., M. B. López, and F. J. Mendiola. 1999. Residual clotting activity and ripening
406 Shammet, K. M., R. J. Brown, and D. J. McMahon. 1992. Proteolytic activity of some
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408 1388.
vi
409 Silva, S. V. and F. X. Malcata. 1999. On the activity and specificity of cardosin B, a
ew
411 Silva, S. V., T. Allmere, F. X. Malcata, and A. Andrén. 2003. Comparative studies on
412 the gelling properties of cardosins extracted from Cynara cardunculus and
414 Sousa, M. J. C. F. 1993. Plant Rennet Subtitute from Flowers of Cynara cardunculus.
18
416 Sousa, M. J., and F.X. Malcata.1997. Ripening of ovine milk cheeses: Effects of plant
417 rennet, pasteurization, and addition of starter on lipolysis. Food Chem. 59:427-
418 432.
419 Sousa, M. J., and F. X. Malcata. 1998. Proteolysis of ovine and caprine caseins in
423 Estrela cheese throughout its AOP region. J. Food Protect. 61:601-607.
Fo
424 Tavaria F. K., M. J. Sousa, and F. X. Malcata. 2001. Storage and lyophilization effects
r
425 of extracts of Cynara cardunculus on the degradation of ovine and caprine
Pe
427 Tavaira, F. K., and F. X. Malcata. 2003. Enzyatic activities of non-starter lactic acid
er
428 bacteria isolated from a traditional Protuguese cheese. Enzyme Microb Technol.
429 33:236-243.
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430 Tunick, M. H. 2000. Rheology of dairy foods that gel, stretch, and fracture. J. Dairy Sci.
431 83:1892-1898.
vi
432 Valdés, B., S. Talavera, and E. Fernández-Galiano. 1987. Flora vascular de Andalucía
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434 Veríssimo, P., C. Esteves, C. Faro, and E. Pires. 1995. The vegetable rennet of Cynara
437 Veríssimo, P., C. Faro, A. J. Moir, Y. Lin, J. Tang, and E. Pires. 1996. Purification,
438 characterization, and partial amino acid sequencing of two new aspartic
441 19
442 Figure 1 Evolution of pH and moisture (A), microbial counts for TVC, LAB and GPCP
443 cocci, (B) and hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, and area F-T 2:3 (C) of
445
446 Figure 2 Principal component analysis of the descriptive sensory attributes, overall
447 scores, texture parameters of cheeses, and technological properties of vegetable rennets.
448 Sensory descriptors: spreadability (SD3), softness (SD4), viscosity (SD6), juiciness
449 (SD7), creaminess (SD5); Overall acceptability (SH1); Clotting activities: after 1h of
Fo
450 maceration (CA1), after 24h of maceration (CA24); Proteolytic activity against β-casein
r
451 (PAb), α-casein (PAa), κ-casein (PAk); Texture spreadability analysis: firmness (TS1),
Pe
452 work of shear (TS2), stickiness (TS3), work of adhesion (TS4); Texture compression
453 analysis: adhesiveness (TC1), cohesiveness (TC2), Area F-T 2:3 (TC3), hardness
er
454 (TC4).
455
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456 Figure 3 Scatter plot of measured versus predicted values of attribute creaminess of
457 cheeses derived from the PLSR analysis of the α-casein degradation and the κ-casein/β-
vi
459
20
460 Figure 1
A pH Moisture
8 70
7 60
6 50
Moisture values
5
pH values
40
4
30
3
2 20
1 10
0 0
Fo
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Days
461
r
12
10
er
8
log cfu g−1
4
Re
0
vi
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Days
462
ew
1000 0
900 -20
800 -40
Cohesiviness (g.sec)
700 -60
Adhesiviness (g)
Hardness (g)
600 -80
500 -100
400 -120
300 -140
200 -160
100 -180
0 -200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Days
463
21
Figure 2
Fo ● Acceptability
♦ Clotting activities
TC3 ►
TC1
► SD1
rP ■ Proteolytic activities
▲ Sensory descriptor
► Texture compression analysis
ee
PAk ▲ SD2
■ ▲ ◄ Texture spreadability analysis
PAb■ ■ ●
PAa SH1
SD4 ▲
CA1 ♦
SD7
CA24 ♦
▲
▲ SD6
▲SD8
SD3▲▲
rR
SD5
◄ TS3
ev
TS4
◄ iew
TS1 TC4
◄ TC2►►
◄TS2
22
Figure 3
12000
L13
11000
L15
c 10000
e
s
*g
ra 9000
e
h
S 8000 L10
f L16
o 7000 L3
kr
Fo
L7 L11
o
W 6000 L2L12L5
L1 L14
L6
5000 L9
r
L4
4000 L8
Pe
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Regression standarized predicted values
er
Re
vi
ew
23
1
a: flower is opening, only some styles and stigmas are visible; b: flower fully open, even with pollen; c:
ew
24
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the physicochemical parameters of the cheese batches studied at 2 days of ripening, and correlations with
technological properties of the vegetable rennets used.
Correlations
Fo
Clotting activity
Descriptive Statistics
Physicochemical (R.U.) after Degradation of caseins
parameters maceration
Moisture
pH
N
16
16
Mean
56.61
6.85
SD Min Max
25
259
Elsevier Editorial System(tm) for Food Control
Manuscript Draft
Manuscript Number:
Title: Proteolytic effect of Cynara cardunculus rennet from different plants selected for use in the
elaboration of "Torta del Casar" cheese
Keywords: Torta del Casar, Cynara cardunculus L., proteolysis, biogenic amines, sensorial.
Order of Authors: Elena Ordiales; Maria Jose Benito; Alberto Martin; Margarita Fernández; Alejandro
Hernández; Maria G Ordiales
Abstract: The purpose of this work was to analyze the influence of rennet from different C. cardunculus
plants, selected for its clotting and proteolytic activity on caseins, on the characteristics of
manufactured ''Torta del Casar'' cheeses. After classifying the cardoon according to its proteolytic
activity into five groups of greater or lesser activity, 16 batches of cheeses were made with rennet
derived from different wild cardoon plants. We observed a major development of the proteolysis
during ripening leading to the generation of non-protein nitrogen compounds. Especially noteworthy
was the relationship of AN generation with rennet clotting activity after 24 hours of maceration, and
the fact that the production of biogenic amines was not related to the proteolytic activity of the rennet.
The activities of the rennet observed "in vitro" were also developed "in vivo" in the cheeses, with the
different rennets used affecting the final sensory characteristics of cheeses. The rennet with high
clotting activity at 24 h was positively correlated with the creaminess, viscosity, and acceptability of
the cheese. However, the high proteolytic activity rennet negatively influenced the acidity, bitterness,
and creaminess parameters. Therefore the most appropriate cardoons for making this cheese are those
with higher clotting activities and moderate proteolytic activities especially on β-casein. The use of
controlled and characterized cardoons in the manufacturing process of ''Torta del Casar'' is
fundamental to obtaining the homogeneous product demanded by the ''Torta del Casar'' Registry of the
Protected Designation of Origin.
F. Xavier Malcata
[email protected]
Cover Letter
NUTRICIÓN Y BROMATOLOGÍA
Carretera de Cáceres s/n
06071-Badajoz (Spain)
Teléfono: +34 924 286200 ext 86270
Fax: +34 924 286201
E-MAIL:[email protected]
4 July 2012
Authors:
Elena Ordiales (Centro Tecnológico Agroalimentario Extremadura (CTAEX))
Maria J. Benito (University of Extremadura, Spain)
Alberto Martín (University of Extremadura, Spain)
Margarita Fernández (University of Extremadura, Spain)
Alejandro Hernández (University of Extremadura, Spain)
María de Guía Córdoba (University of Extremadura, Spain)
In this manuscript the objective was to analyze the influence of rennet from different C.
cardunculus plants, selected for its clotting and proteolytic activity on caseins, on the
characteristics of manufactured „„Torta del Casar‟‟ cheeses. After classifying the cardoon
according to its proteolytic activity into five groups of greater or lesser activity, 16 batches
of cheeses were made with rennet derived from different wild cardoon plants. We observed
a major development of the proteolysis during ripening leading to the generation of non-
protein nitrogen compounds. Especially noteworthy was the relationship of AN generation
with rennet clotting activity after 24 hours of maceration, and the fact that the production of
biogenic amines was not related to the proteolytic activity of the rennet. The activities of the
rennet observed “in vitro” were also developed “in vivo” in the cheeses, with the different
rennets used affecting the final sensory characteristics of cheeses. The rennet with high
clotting activity at 24 h was positively correlated with the creaminess, viscosity, and
acceptability of the cheese. However, the high proteolytic activity rennet negatively
influenced the acidity, bitterness, and creaminess parameters. Therefore the most
appropriate cardoons for making this cheese are those with higher clotting activities and
moderate proteolytic activities especially on β-casein. The use of controlled and
characterized cardoons in the manufacturing process of „„Torta del Casar‟‟ is fundamental
to obtaining the homogeneous product demanded by the „„Torta del Casar‟‟ Registry of the
Protected Designation of Origin.
Yours sincerely,
María José Benito
*Research Highlights
Research Highlights
Authors analyze the influence of C. cardunculus rennet, selected for its clotting and proteolytic
activity, on the characteristics of ‘‘Torta del Casar’’. The appropriate cardoons for making this
cheese were those with higher clotting and moderate proteolytic activities. The use of
controlled and characterized cardoons is fundamental to obtaining the homogeneous product
demanded by the ‘‘Torta del Casar’’ Registry of the Protected Designation of Origin.
*Manuscript
Click here to view linked References
3 cheese
4 Ordiales, E.a; Benito, M.J.b*; Martin, A.b, Fernández, M.b; Hernández, A.b;
5 Córdoba, M.G. b
6
a
7 Agricultura, Centro Tecnológico Agroalimentario Extremadura (CTAEX), Ctra.
8 Villafranco a Balboa Km. 1.2, Villafranco del Guadiana, 06195 Badajoz, Spain
b
9 Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de
11
12
13
14 *Corresponding author
17 http://eia.unex.es
18
1
19 ABSTRACT
20 The purpose of this work was to analyze the influence of rennet from
21 different C. cardunculus plants, selected for its clotting and proteolytic activity on
23 classifying the cardoon according to its proteolytic activity into five groups of
24 greater or lesser activity, 16 batches of cheeses were made with rennet derived
28 rennet clotting activity after 24 hours of maceration, and the fact that the
29 production of biogenic amines was not related to the proteolytic activity of the
30 rennet. The activities of the rennet observed “in vitro” were also developed “in
31 vivo” in the cheeses, with the different rennets used affecting the final sensory
34 cheese. However, the high proteolytic activity rennet negatively influenced the
36 cardoons for making this cheese are those with higher clotting activities and
41
2
42 Keywords: Torta del Casar, Cynara cardunculus L., proteolysis, biogenic
43 amines, sensorial.
44
3
45 Introduction
47 of texture and flavour, and has been the subject of several reviews (Fox &
50 binding by liberated carboxyl and amino groups, and increase in pH, which
56 of amino acids with other compounds (Sousa et al., 2001). However, proteolysis
57 can also produce biogenic amines (BAs) in high amounts through the activity of
59 health concern because their unbalanced uptake by the human organism can
62 The high quality Spanish cheese “Torta del Casar” is produced in the
64 and buttery texture, yellowish-coloured paste, intense flavour, and its peculiar,
65 slightly bitter taste. It is made from whole raw ewe‟s milk by enzymatic clotting
67 cardunculus) flowers (Macedo, Faro, & Pires, 1993). This cheese is a marketed
68 under the Registry of the Protected Designation of Origin “Torta del Casar”
4
69 (Casar de Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain) in accordance with the Regulations (CE)
72 cardosin A and cardosin B (Sousa, 1993; Verissimo, Esteves, Faro, & Pires,
73 1995; Verissimo, Faro, Moir, Lin, Tang, & Pires, 1996). Cardosins are
74 characterized by high milk-clotting activity (Macedo, Faro, & Pires, 1993; Sousa &
75 Malcata, 1998) and also display a strong proteolytic action in vitro, which
78 texture and the development of a typical aroma and a slightly piquant and creamy
80 extracts of cardoon flowers have been used for centuries as rennets in traditional
81 ewe‟s milk cheesemaking in the Iberian Peninsula (Roseiro, Barbosa, Ames &
82 Wilbey, 2003).
84 cardunculus plants harvested at different flower ripening stages and mixed with
85 other parts of the plant. Hence, the milk clotting activity of the flowers shows great
86 heterogeneity in their use for of the rennet used in “Torta del Casar” manufacture.
87 This fact has a negative influence on the cheese‟s quality parameters, including
88 low yield, and lack of homogeneity of relevant sensorial factors between batches,
91 cheese-making process.
5
92 The aim of this work was to analyze the influence of different C.
95 cheeses.
96
100 identified in accordance with the guidelines of Valdés, Talavera, & Fernández-
101 Galiano (1987). Sixteen plants were collected from different locations during the
102 seasons of the years 2007 and 2008 (Ordiales, Martín, Benito, Hernández, Ruíz-
103 Moyano, & Córdoba, 2012). The collected flowers were dried and kept in a cool
106 For the milk-clotting assays, 0.5 g of each cardoon sample was softened in
107 75 ml of ultrapure water for 1 and 24 h. The rennet clotting time of these
109 NIZO, Ede, The Netherlands) described by Tavaria, Sousa, & Malcata (2001).
110 The substrate was prepared by dissolving 12 g of low-heat bovine skimmed milk
111 powder in 100 mL of 0.01 M CaCl2 (pH 6.5) at 30ºC. The enzymatic assay was
113 milk, and the clotting time was determined by visual inspection. One rennet unit
6
114 (R.U.) was defined as the amount of crude enzyme extract needed to coagulate
116 157/1992). Determinations were quadruplicated, and the mean of each set of four
119 The dried flower extracts were prepared by macerating 0.25 g of dried
121 temperature for 4 h. The homogenate was filtered through a Whatman filter No. 4.
122 The substrate used for degradation by the extracts consisted of a mix of bovine
123 caseins (Sigma Aldrich, Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) ( , , and κ), at a
125 The dried flower extracts were macerated with the casein mix, at 2.5% of extract
126 (v/v), for 2 h at room temperature to allow casein degradation. After this time the
128 loading buffer (62.5 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 20% (w/v) glycerol, 2% (w/v) SDS, 5%
129 (w/v) β-mercaptoethanol, 0.025% (w/v) bromophenol blue) and incubated at 99ºC
133 were 4% (w/v) for stacking gels and 15% (w/v) for separating gels. Gels were
134 cast and run in a Miniprotean III device (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, CA).
135 The molecular mass marker kits (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) contained
136 proteins from 6.5 to 205 kDa. The gels were subsequently stained with 0.5%
7
137 (w/v) Coomassie blue (G-250) dissolved in 45% (v/v) water, 45% (v/v) methanol,
138 and 10% (v/v) acetic acid for 30 min, and destained with a solution consisting of
139 20% (v/v) methanol, 10% (v/v) acetic acid, and 70% (v/v) distilled water for 4 h. A
140 computer image analysis program (Genetools, Synoptics Ltd., Cambridge, U.K.)
141 was used for the densitometric analysis of the gel electrophoresis.
142
144 A total of sixteen different batches of “Torta del Casar” were manufactured,
145 of 10 cheeses each batch, from unpasteurized Merino ewe‟s milk to which no
146 starter cultured was added. Each batch was clotted using different C. cardunculus
148 extracts from the cardoon C. cardunculus L. were prepared from 50 g of dried
150 this extract per litre of milk at 28–30ºC, for each 32 L batch. After pressing, the
151 cheeses were immersed in a salt solution (16 % (w/v) NaCl) for 4 hours. The
152 ripening took place at a temperature of 5–10ºC and relative humidity of 85–90 %
153 throughout the ripening period of 60 days. Three cheeses of each batch were
154 randomly taken for analysis after 2, 30, and 60 days of ripening.
155
157 The weight losses of the cheeses were measured through the differences
158 of consecutives weights from the initial weight to the final weight at day 60 of
8
159 ripening. The pH was measured using a Crison mod. 2002 pH meter (Crison
160 Instruments, Barcelona, Spain). Total protein was determined by the Kjeldahl
161 method (International Dairy Federation (IDF), 1993), with a Kjeltec system 1002
163 The yield was determined as the quantity of cheese obtained per volume
164 of milk, expressed in %. The cutting time is the time needed for curd to form, from
166
168 For the microbial counts and isolates, 10 g aliquots of each cheese sample were
169 taken aseptically, transferred to sterile plastic pouches, 10-fold diluted with 1%
170 peptone water (Pronadisa, Alcobendas, Madrid, Spain), and homogenized for
171 120 s using the laboratory Stomacher Lab-Blender 400 (Seward Lab., London,
172 England). Serial 10-fold dilutions were prepared from the same solution and
174 Plate count agar (PCA, Oxoid) was used for mesophilic aerobic bacteria counts at
175 30ºC for 48 h and for psychrotrophs for 7 days at 7ºC. LAB were grown in MRS
176 agar (Oxoid) of which the pH was adjusted to 5.6 with acetic acid (10%),
177 incubating at 37ºC for 2 days under anaerobic conditions. The Staphylococcus
178 counts were determined in Baird Parker agar (BP; Oxoid) supplemented with
179 potassium tellurite and egg yolk emulsion at 37ºC for 48 h, and black colonies
181
184 The whey protein fractions were extracted from cheese as described in the
185 literature (Enne, Elez, Fondrini, Bonizzi, Feligini, & Aleandri, 2005). Samples (20
186 g) were homogenized (2 cycles of 1 min each) in doubly distilled water (30 ml)
187 with an Ultraturrax homogenizer (Ika®-Werke, Staufen, Germany). Since this step
188 is heat-producing, a strict time optimization was required to avoid whey protein
190 g for 15 min at 4 °C). Casein was precipitated at its isoelectric point by adding 1M
194 Teixeira, Peres, Mendoça, & Ferreira, 2004). Then the samples were centrifuged
195 for 15 min at 3000 g at 4ºC to recover the precipitated caseins. The caseins were
197 and centrifuged for 10 min at 3000 g at 4ºC. This procedure was repeated twice.
198 In order to eliminate the remaining fat, the sample was washed with 5 ml acetone
199 and left to dry at room temperature. Finally, the dried powdered casein was
201
202 2.7.2. Protein concentration and polycrylamide gels (SDS and UREA PAGE)
203 The protein concentration was determined following the Bradford method using
206 Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA). For this, whey protein extracts were electrophoresed
207 using 4% acrylamide in stacking gels and 15% acrylamide in separating gels.
10
208 Samples (15 µl) were denatured by boiling for 5 min in 0.0625 M Tris–HCl buffer
210 weight marker from 205 kDa to 6.5 kDa (Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, MO, USA)
211 was used as standard. The potential was kept constant at 90 mV for the stacking
212 gel and at 150 mV for the separating gel. Proteins were visualized by Coomassie
213 brilliant blue R-250 staining (0.25% (w/v), in 50% (v/v) methanol and 10% (v/v)
214 acetic acid). The excess stain was washed out by destaining with a solution of
215 20% (v/v) methanol and 5% (v/v) acetic acid. A computer image analysis program
216 (Genetools, SynGene, Cambridge, United Kingdom) was used for the
218 Casein protein hydrolysis was detected by UREA-PAGE. Casein protein extracts
219 were electrophoresed using 4% acrylamide in stacking gels and 12% acrylamide
222 gel buffer was 0.76 M Tris, 8 M urea at pH 8.8. The electrophoresis buffer was a
223 solution of 0.02 M Tris, 0.19 M glycine. Samples (5 µl) were denatured by boiling
224 for 5 min in 0.0625 M Tris–HCl buffer at pH 6.8 with 10 M urea, 20% glycerol, and
226 St. Louis, MO, USA) were used as standard. A computer image analysis program
227 (Genetools, SynGene, Cambridge, United Kingdom) was used for the
229
231 Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) was determined by the Nessler method using 4 g of
232 sample after protein precipitation with 0.6 M perchloric acid. Amino acid nitrogen
11
233 (AN) was determined from the 0.6 M perchloric acid protein precipitation fraction
234 after peptide precipitation with 10% sulfosalicylic acid (Benito et al., 2005).
235
238 was homogenized and then shaken in a closed Erlenmeyer flask with 75 mL of
239 0.6 M HClO4 for 1 h. The mixture was filtered through a filter paper, washed with
240 HClO4 and the volume adjusted to 100 mL. In accordance with the expected
241 amine content, 5 mL of acidic extract was transferred to a test tube, the volume
242 adjusted to 5 mL with HClO4, and then spiked with 125 μL of internal standard
243 solution (1,7-heptanediamine, 400 mg L−1). The mixture was then made alkaline
244 by adding 1 mL of 9.8 M NaOH solution. After brief vortexing, 100 μL of pure
245 benzoyl chloride was added. The test tube was shaken for 2.5 min. Then it was
246 allowed to stand in the water bath of the laboratory ultrasound cleaner for 15–20
247 min. Subsequently 2.5 g of NaCl were shaken with the solution for 1 min. This
249 extracts (1 ml in each step) were dried under a stream of hot air. The dry residue
250 was dissolved in 400 μL of methanol–water (1:1, v/v). The biogenic amines were
252 2007; Martín et al. 2007) using an automated PACE 5500 (Beckman Instrument
254
259 Samples were three-digit coded, and the order of serving was determined by
260 random permutation. Two panel-replicates were carried out for each sample. The
261 response to each indicator was determined as the mean value of the panelist‟s
264
266 For the cardoon plants‟ classification based on their in vitro casein proteolytic
267 activity, the hierarchical clustering method was employed, based on average
268 linkage using SPSS 15.0 (SPSS Inc Chicago, IL, USA). The statistical analysis of
269 the data was carried out using one-way analysis of variance, and the means were
270 separated by Tukey‟s honest significant difference test using SPSS for Windows,
271 15.0. The relationships between the enzymatic activities of the rennets and the
274 the enzymatic activities of the rennets and the physicochemical parameters of
276
277
279 Figure 1 shows the results regarding the classification of the cardoon plants and
280 their proteolytic activity in vitro, indicating the clotting activity of each cluster. Five
281 clusters were obtained, with three supergroups of the cardoon plants classified as
13
282 very, moderately, or scarcely proteolytic, this last being the case of samples M13
283 and M15 (Fig. 1). The cardoon plants of cluster 1 are characterized by a strong
284 degradation of α- and κ-casein (84 and 81%, respectively), and moderately
285 degraded β-casein (54%). Cluster 2 groups cardoons with a moderate proteolytic
286 activity on β-casein (67%), and great intensity on α- and κ-casein (88 and 83%,
288 casein (54%), but intense degradation of α- and β-casein (93 and 92%,
290 moderate to high (70%) for cardoons of cluster 4, with κ-casein being degraded to
291 a lesser degree (23%). Finally, the cardoons of cluster 5 moderately degraded α-
292 casein (39%), and showed a very low proteolytic activity on β- (10%) and κ-
294 After classifying the cardoons, 16 batches of cheeses were made with
295 rennet derived from the different cardoon plants. Figure 2 presents the principal
296 component analysis (PCA) of the proteolytic parameters of the cheeses at 2 days
297 of ripening with the clotting and proteolytic activity of the 16 cardoon rennets used
299 The first axis accounted for 35.25% of the variance and was mainly
300 defined by proteolysis parameters such as degradation of α-, β-, and κ-caseins,
301 and also by cutting time and yield of the cheeses at 2 days of ripening, with
302 positive correlations between the parameters. The second axis (PC 2; 14.33% of
303 the variance) was related to clotting activity of the rennets at 2 days of ripening.
14
304 Batches 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, and 16 were positively related to the casein
305 degradation, cheese yield, and the cutting time of the curd. Batches 13 and 15
306 were negatively correlated with parameters as cheese yield, degradation of α-, β-,
307 and κ-casein, and the clotting time. The same trend was observed for batches 9
309 Thus, the cardoon plants that had high proteolytic activity in vitro, also
310 showed this activity in the cheeses. The contrary behavior was very evident for
311 those plants classified as scarcely proteolytic (M13 and M15). These cardoon
312 plants used as rennets will therefore have different effects on the development of
315 The pH values ranged from 6.85 at the beginning of the ripening time to 5.65 at
316 60 days of ripening. The pH is of great importance in cheese ripening due to its
318 mainly by the levels and type of residual rennet, salt and moisture ratio,
320 & Gilles, 1987). Over the ripening time, we observed a decrease in cheese
321 weight, by 1.35% at 2 days of ripening, to 33.41% at the end of the period
322 studied.
324 Figure 3. Total aerobic mesophilic counts had increased from 9.3 to 10.4 log CFU
325 /g in the cheeses after 60 days of ripening in all batches, and from 8.2 to 9.3 for
326 psychrotrophs. Similar results have been found in other traditional cheeses.
15
327 Galán, Cabezas, & Fernández-Salguero (2012) worked with cheese elaborated
328 using powered plant coagulant (C. cardunculus) and found stable counts for total
330 With respect to LAB, all the batches showed a statistically significant
331 increase, reaching levels higher than 8 log CFU/g after 60 days, and for
332 staphylococci the counts stayed stable until the end of the process at levels
333 around 6.5 log CFU/g. This growth of LAB is coherent with the evolution of the pH
334 values during the processing. Stable levels of Staphylococcus sp. of 6.5 log
335 CFU/g were found throughout ripening time. In other work, micrococci and LAB
337 with counts of 5.3 log CFU/g for micrococci, and 8.7 log CFU/g for LABs (Galán
340 the cheese ripening (Table 1), caseins were degraded, with their content in the
341 cheese decreasing from 283.99 mg g-1 at the beginning of the ripening process to
342 226.49 mg g-1 at the end. As a consequence, the level of whey proteins in the
343 cheeses was higher at 60 days (262.27 mg g-1) of ripening than at 2 days (171.23
344 mg g-1). It seems that the whey protein content stabilized between 30 and 60
345 days of ripening time. The NPN and AN concentrations increased during ripening
346 due to the breakdown of caseins, from 2.05 at 2 days to 3.55 mg g-1 at 60 days of
347 ripening for NPN, and from 0.59 mg/g to 1.63 mg/g for AN. Mas Mayoral,
348 González Crespo, & Nieto Villaseca (1991) recorded an increase in IP (NPN/NT)
349 from 3.94% at 3 d following manufacture to 13% at the end of ripening time for
350 “Torta del Casar” cheese. Sanjuán, Millán, Saavedra, Carmona, Gómez, &
16
351 Fernández-Salguero (2002) reported for “Los Pedroches” cheeses, manufactured
352 with vegetable (C. cardunculus) rennet, that TN values ranged from 5.92 g/100 g
354 content of NPN and AN in these cheeses increased throughout the ripening
355 period. Similar results were obtained for “La Serena” cheese after 60 days of
356 ripening (Núñez, Fernández del Pozo, Rodríguez Martín, Gaya, & Medina, 1991).
357 Soluble nitrogen components at the beginning of the process in these cheeses
358 are produced mainly by the action of Cynara cardunculus proteases (Roa, López,
359 & Mendiola, 1999; Galán et al., 2012), although microorganisms are responsible
360 for proteolysis from the middle to the end of the process. The degradation of
361 water insoluble nitrogen, and therefore the production of water soluble nitrogen, is
362 mainly driven by residual rennet trapped in the cheese matrix, which hydrolyses
364 The results obtained for the protein content after two days of ripening were
365 positively correlated with coagulant activity (1 hour), with the higher the protein
366 content, the greater the coagulant activity (1 h). Among factors that affect milk
367 coagulation, casein concentration plays an important role (St-Gelais & Haché,
368 2005). Caron, St-Gelais, & Pouliot (1997) observed that coagulation was delayed
369 (long coagulation time) in milk with high protein content relative to milk with a low
370 protein concentration. Moreover, the casein content was negatively correlated
371 with coagulant activity (24 h) at 30 and 60 days of ripening, with the higher the
372 rennet clotting activity (24 h), the lower the content of casein at 30 and 60 days.
373 This is due to the greater degradation of caseins. Van Hekken and Holsinger
374 (2000) observed that rennet coagulation properties were related not only to
17
375 casein concentration but also to the proportion of α-casein and β-casein present
376 in the milks. In parallel with the evolution of the casein, the rennet coagulant
377 activity (24 h) influenced the AN content of the cheese at 30 and 60 days of
378 ripening. The correlation is positive, meaning that the greater the coagulant
379 activity (24 h), the greater the content of AN in the cheese at 30 and 60 days of
381 The effect of proteolysis during processing is also shown in Figure 4 for the
382 UREA and SDS-PAGE gels. The casein profile evolved throughout ripening,
383 showing a gradual degradation of caseins (86% for α- casein and 74% for β-
384 casein) in all samples. Concomitant with this decrease in concentration of these
385 caseins was an increase of nitrogen compounds derived from proteins. The same
386 was the case for whey proteins, which decreased throughout the process, but
387 peptides deriving from casein hydrolysis appeared during the ripening.
388 Proteolysis, the ratio of β- to k- caseins, has been used as a basis to classify
389 cheeses (Fox, 1993; Sousa, 2001). Macedo and Malcata (1996) studied the
391 polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. They observed that, by the end of ripening,
392 the α- and β-caseins had undergone extensive degradation, up to 82 and 76%,
393 respectively. However, other authors found that, while α-casein decreased
394 throughout ripening, β-casein only decreased slightly, confirming its greater
396 hydrolysis of β-caseins seems to be related to the type of rennet (Macedo and
18
398 Compounds derived from protein degradation contribute to cheese flavour
400 With respect to the biogenic amine content of the cheese (Table 1), no
401 influence was found of the rennet used for cheese making. The levels of the
402 amines were lower than in other reports of this kind of products (Contreras,
404 The results thus show a major development of proteolysis in the cheeses
406 activity of the rennet without any increase of biogenic amine (BA) production.
407 Table 2 presents the parameters of the sensorial analysis of the cheeses
408 at the end of the ripening period, and their correlation with the characteristics of
409 the rennet. The degradation of β-casein was positively correlated with the
410 compactness of the cheese paste, while degradation of the casein is negatively
411 correlated with the acidic taste. The degradation of β-casein appears to
412 negatively influence the creaminess of the cheese, with the greater the
413 degradation the less the creaminess. Some authors suggest that β-casein might
414 be essential for the hardening of curd (St. Gelais et al., 2005). Likewise, β-casein
415 degradation was negatively correlated with the bitter taste of the cheese, ie, the
417 The κ-casein degradation was negatively correlated with the aftertaste of
418 the cheese, with the less the κ-casein degradation, the greater the aftertaste in
19
420 The clotting activity (24 h) influenced the creaminess, viscosity, the type of
421 cheese and its acceptability, with a positive correlation in all cases. Thus, the
422 greater the value of clotting activity, the greater the values of creaminess,
423 viscosity, the “Torta” type of cheese, and the acceptability. Cardoon coagulation
424 leads to significantly softer, yellower, and creamier cheeses (Agboola, Chan,
426 Therefore the most appropriate cardoons for making this cheese are those
427 which show greater clotting activity and moderate proteolytic activity on β-casein
428 mainly, suggesting that the plants of Cluster 1 (Figure 1) provide rennets with
430 proteolytic activity is an essential parameter for the classification of the cardoons
432 One can conclude that the technological characteristics of this vegetable
433 rennet indeed influence the „„Torta del Casar‟‟ final product, with the clotting and
434 proteolytic activity being the fundamental parameters that determine these final
439
440 Acknowledgements
441 The authors are grateful to M. Cabrero and C. Cebrián for technical assistance
20
443
444 References
445
446 Agboola, S. O., Chan, H. H., Zhao, J., Rehman, A. (2009). Can the use of
448 quality problems associated with cheese made from ultrafiltered milk?.
450 Benito, M.J., Rodriguez, M., Córdoba, M.G. y Andrade, M.J. (2005). Effect of the
451 fungal protease EPg222 on proteolysis and texture in the dry fermented
452 sausage “salchichón”. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85,
453 273-280.
454 Benito, M.J., Martín, A., Aranda, E., Pérez-Nevado, F., Ruiz-Moyano, S., y
457 Salchichón and Chorizo sausages. Journal of Food Science, 72, 193-201.
458 Caron, A., St-Gelais, D., & Pouliot, Y. (1997). Coagulation of milk enriched with
461 Contreras, M., Izquierdo, P., Allara, M., García, A., Torres, G., Céspedes, E.
466 Dulley, J. R. (1974). The contribution of rennet and starter enzymes to proteolysis
470 bovine milk’s addition in water buffalo Mozzarella: Comparison with results
471 from raw milk from raw milk and cheese matrix. Journal of
474 animal rennet on proteolysis during ripening in ewe’s milk cheese. Food
477 Physics and Microbiology, Vol. 1 (pp. 1-36). London: Chapman & Hall.
480 Galán, E., Prados, F., Pino, A., Tejeda, L., Fernández-Salguero, J. (2008).
482 cardunculus and calf rennet on the proteolysis and sensory characteristics
483 of cheese made with sheep milk. International Dairy Journal, 18, 93-98.
485 and sensory properties of ewe’s milk cheese produced with plant
22
491 Laemmli, U.K. (1970). Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the
493 Lawrence, R. C., Creamer, L. K., y Gilles, J. (1987). Texture development during
495 Macedo, I. Q., Faro, C. J., y Pires, E. V. (1993). Specificity and kinetics of the
498 Macedo, A. C., y Malcata, F. X. (1996). Changes in the major free fatty acids in
500 1097.
501 Martín, A., Colín, B., Aranda, E., Benito, M.J. y Córdoba, M.G. (2007).
504 Mas Mayoral, M., González Crespo, J. y Nieto Villaseca, M.J. (1991). Casar
507 Núñez, M., Fernández del Pozo, B., Rodríguez Martín, M. A., Gaya, P., y Medina,
511 Ordiales, E., Martín, A., Benito, M. J., Hernández, A., Ruíz-Moyano, S., &
23
514 cardunculus) used in “Torta del Casar” cheese-making. Food Chemistry,
517 Registration of the Protected Designation of Origin “Torta del Casar” in the
519 Indications.
520 Roa, I., López, M.B., Mendiola, F.J. (1999). Residual clotting activity and ripening
523 Roseiro, L.B.; Barbosa, M.; Ames, J.M.; Wilbey, R.A. (2003). Cheesemaking with
524 vegetable coagulants-the use of Cynara L. for the production of ovine milk
526 Sanjuán, E., Millán, R., Saavedra, P., Carmona, M.A., Gómez, R., Fernández-
535 Sousa, M.J., Ardö, Y. y McSweeney, P.L.H. (2001). Advances in the study of
536 proteolysis during cheese ripening. International Dairy Journal 11, 327-
537 345.
24
538 St-Gelais, D. y Haché, S. (2005). Effect on β-casein concentration in cheese milk
541 Tavaria F.K., Sousa, M.J., and Malcata, F.X. (2001). Storage and lyophilization
547 produce unique β-casein enriched milk gels. Lait, 80, 69-76.
548 Veloso, A.C.A., Teixeira, N., Peres, A.M., Mendoça, A., Ferreira, I.M.P.L.V.O.
551 Verissimo, P., Esteves, C., Faro, C. y Pires, E. (1995). The vegetable rennet of
552 Cynara cardunculus L. contains two proteinases with chimosin and pepsin-
554 Verissimo, P., Faro, C., Moir, A.J., Lin, Y., Tang, J., y Pires, E. (1996).
558
559
25
560 Figure 1. Dendrogram obtained from the proteolytic and clotting activities of
565 classification group on the dendrogram obtained from the proteolytic and clotting
569 Figure 4. Evolution of proteins during processing. (A) Urea-Page with casein
570 protein extracts from cheeses at 2, 30, and 60 days of ripening. M, standard
571 proteins α, β, and κ caseins. (B) SDS-Page with whey protein extracts from
573
26
Tables 1 and 2
Table 1. Protein changes of cheeses made with different rennets and the correlations of these characteristics with the clotting and proteolytic activity of the
rennet.
Correlations
Descriptive statistics Clotting activity (R.U.)
Degradation of caseins
after maceration
N Mean SD Min Max 24h 1h α-caseins β-casein κ-casein
% Protein 16 16.72 1.13 15.29 19.32 0.235 0.696** -0.183 0.002 -0.178
Whey protein (mg/g)
a
2 days 16 171.8 42.4 112.1 302.6 -0.082 -0.318 0.025 -0.032 0.137
b
30 days 16 261.3 53.7 165.2 344.7 0.12 -0.33 -0.216 -0.282 -0.055
b
60 days 16 262.4 34.1 203.4 320.0 0.046 -0.148 0.089 0.028 0.025
Caseins (mg/g)
c
2 days 16 285.8 39.2 222.7 373.7 -0.467 -0.101 0.085 0.243 0.279
b
30 days 16 244.5 31.7 178.6 311.6 -0.596* -0.046 0.117 0.379 0.232
a
60 days 16 226.5 26.0 188.4 283.1 -0.556* -0.17 0.242 0.369 0.43
NPN (mg/g)
a
2 days 16 2.05 0.47 1.36 2.82 -0.039 -0.361 0.206 0.098 0.39
b
30 days 16 2.81 0.46 2.03 3.68 0.409 0.031 -0.021 0.055 0.127
c
60 days 16 3.54 0.90 2.20 6.02 -0.026 -0.354 -0.302 -0.166 -0.275
AN (mg/g)
a
2 days 16 0.60 0.10 0.45 0.78 0.013 -0.37 -0.198 -0.119 -0.486+
b
30 days 16 1.19 0.24 0.70 1.63 0.500* -0.116 -0.344 -0.278 -0.293
c
60 days 16 1.63 0.40 1.16 2.49 0.568* 0.094 0.056 -0.105 -0.193
BA (mg/g 60 days)
a
Putrescine 16 0.069 0.084 nd 0.408 0.098 -0.194 -0.269 -0.349 -0.096
a
Cadaverine 16 0.148 0.494 nd 0.493 0.13 -0.052 -.768** -.539* -0.473
a
Triptamine 16 0.006 0.018 nd 0.066 0.078 -0.094 -0.123 -0.030 -0.078
a
Spermidine 16 0.012 0.018 nd 0.103 -0.308 -0.363 0.128 0.164 -0.028
1
a
Spermine 16 0.224 0.404 nd 0.446 0.384 -0.219 0.283 0.037 0.097
a
Tiramine 10 0.036 0.097 nd 0.575 0.127 -0.212 -0.374 -0.096 -0.523
a
Means of the same parameter in the same column without a common superscript letters (a-c) differ significantly (P<0.05)
+ P<0.1.
* P<0.05.
** P<0.01.
nd: not detected
2
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the sensorial attributes of the batches studied. and correlations with technological properties of the vegetable rennets used.
Correlation
Descriptive statistics Clotting activity
(R.U.) after Degradation of caseins
Sensorial attributes maceration
N Mean SD Min Max 24h 1h α-caseins β-casein κ-casein
Compact paste 16 5.61 0.65 4.10 6.60 0.009 -0.082 0.418 0.534* 0.182
Acid odour 16 3.88 0.61 2.72 5.06 -0.043 -0.399 -0.454 -0.576* -0.432
Hardness 16 4.18 0.66 2.95 4.99 -0.317 -0.087 0.31 0.494 0.187
Creaminess 16 4.79 0.77 3.50 6.01 0.507* 0.028 -0.337 -0.532* -0.227
Viscosity 16 4.01 0.94 2.66 5.45 0.657** -0.064 -0.209 -0.367 -0.273
Salty 16 4.68 0.47 3.68 5.70 -0.402 -0.345 -0.092 -0.058 -0.206
Bitter 16 3.21 0.47 2.47 3.94 0.13 -0.344 -0.298 -0.519* -0.138
Pungent 16 1.43 0.36 0.92 2.02 -0.246 -0.076 -0.139 -0.062 -0.275
Acid 16 3.89 0.58 2.89 4.86 -0.146 -0.403 -0.222 -0.364 -0.334
Astringent 16 1.78 0.37 1.10 2.55 -0.16 -0.058 -0.376 -0.383 -0.37
Rancid 16 0.72 0.17 0.48 1.07 -0.195 -0.055 -0.017 -0.188 0.103
Aroma intensity 16 6.11 0.46 5.22 6.85 -0.062 -0.043 -0.381 -0.351 -0.453
Aftertaste 16 5.83 0.40 5.34 6.60 0.053 0.002 -0.482 -0.430 -0.550*
Kind of cheese “Torta” 16 4.24 0.81 2.80 5.39 0.515* -0.198 -0.247 -0.354 -0.272
Acceptability 16 6.01 0.56 5.18 6.88 0.504* 0.176 -0.127 -0.127 -0.016
* P<0.05.
** p<0.01.
3
Figures 1-4
Figure 1
75 % 80 % 85 % 90 % 95 % 100 %
CA (RU/mL) (24h): 0.269; (1h): 0.127 M4, M5, M8, M12, M14
Cluster 3
CA (RU/mL) (24h): 0.202; (1h): 0.156 M9, M11
1
Figure 2
1
0.8 β-casein
0.6 degradation
Component 3 (14.33%)
AN Caseins
0.4 Cutting time
0.2
Whey
0 CA1h α-casein
NPN degradation
-0.2 %PRO
Yield
-0.4 k-casein
-0.6 degradation
CA 24h
-0.8
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Component 1 (35.25%)
1.5 Batch 6
Batch 8
1
Batch 12 Batch 10
0.5 Batch 15
Component 3 (14.33%)
Batch 11
Batch 4
0
Batch 13 Batch 7 Batch 3
-0.5 Batch 14 Batch 2 Batch 16 Batch 1
-1
Batch 9
-1.5
-2
Batch 5
-2.5
-3
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Component 1 (35.25%)
2
Figure3
Weight Loss (%) pH
40 8
35 7
30 6
Weight Loss values
25 5
pH values
20 4
15 3
10 2
5 1
0 0
2 30 60
Days
11
10
9
8
log CFU g-1
7
6
5
4
3
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Days
3
Figure 4
k casein
b casein
a casein
205
116
97
84
66
55
45
36
29
24
20
14.2
6.5
4
IV.3.3. Role of authoctonous microorganisms on the texture characteristics of the
tradictional cheese “Torta del Casar”.
297
1 Role of autochthonous microorganisms on the texture characteristics of the traditional
4 Elena Ordialesa; María José Benitob*; Alberto Martínb, Margarita Fernándezb; Rocío Casqueteb;
a
7 Agricultura, Centro Tecnológico Agroalimentario Extremadura (CTAEX), Ctra. Villafranco a
b
9 Nutrición y Bromatología, Escuela de Ingenierías Agrarias, Universidad de Extremadura, Ctra.
11
12
13
14 *Corresponding author
17 http://eia.unex.es
18
298
19 Abstract
20 The aim of the present work was to investigate the effect of the autochthonous microorganism on
21 the development of texture and sensory characteristics in the traditional cheeses ‘‘Torta del
22 Casar”. In addition, determine the microorganisms that play an important role in the development
23 of the texture characteristic of these cheeses. The counts in the raw materials show that the lactic
24 acid bacteria population in cheese comes mainly from milk, while psychrotrophs and enterococci
25 population comes from the rennets. The counts in cheese during the ripening process showed that
26 the diferentes populations increased from the beginning to 30 days of ripening, and remain
28 The microbial effect in the primary proteolysis was low and only the enterococci group was
29 positively correlated with AN and IGA at 30 days of ripening, and NPN and IP at 60 days. About
30 the texture parameters, it was observed how the psychrotrophos, lactic acid bacteria, lactococci
31 and enterococci were positively correlated with adhesiviness parameters; and enterobacteria and
32 coliforms were negatively correlated. In the sensory analysis, psychrotrophos, lactic acid bacteria,
33 lactococci, and staphylococci were positively correlated with the creaminess and viscosity data
34 were. In conclusion, microorganisms have shown a decisive influence on the studied parameters
35 related to proteolysis and texture along the ripening process, emphasizing the role of lactic acid
36 bacteria, lactococci and enterococci. Thus, to control the process, it would be advisable the control
39
41
299
42 1. Introduction
43 “Torta del Casar” is a high quality Spanish cheese marketed under the Registry of the
44 Protected Designation of Origin “Torta del Casar” (Casar de Cáceres, Cáceres, Spain) in
45 accordance with the Regulations (CE) 1491/2003 of the European Commission. This type of
46 cheese is made from raw sheep’s milk only with the dried flowers of the plant Cynara
47 cardunculus as rennet and without any deliberate addition of a starter. This cheese is much
48 appreciated by consumers for its high quality and unique flavour. The use of Merino ewe’s raw
49 milk and plant coagulant provides characteristic slightly bitter taste and a spreadable texture
51 acceptability. Proteolysis contributes to cheese matrix textural changes due to the protein network
52 breakdown. Physicochemical changes exert, in turn, a major influence upon the rheological and
53 sensory properties of the final cheese as perceived by consumers, which determine their
54 preference and eventual acceptability; appearance and texture are indeed the primary features at
56 Several microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts and moulds, are present in cheese
57 throughout ripening. Hence, they contribute to maduration, either directly via their methabolic
58 activity, or indirectly via release of enzymes into the cheese matrix, after autolysis. These
59 microorganisms come from the raw materials used in the cheese manufacture, the rennet and the
60 raw milk. Although most of the microflora of raw milk comprises lactic acid bacteria (LAB), e.g.
62 Enterococcus, Pseudomonas, etc. are also very frequently and have to be controlled because of
63 the potential public health hazards of some of this kind of microorganism (Almeida et al., 2007).
64 Rennet also plays an important role in the onset and development of much of the microorganism
65 that appears in the cheeses, and in this case, there are no studies developed regarding the
67 affect the characteristics of the final cheese. In particular, the action of LAB via initial
68 fermentation of lactose and breakdown of proteins, or via more complex catabolic reactions later
300
69 during ripening, is a well-known contributor to the organoleptic features perceived in the final
70 cheese (Menéndez et al., 2000). Degradation of proteins, carbohydrates and fat is also due to the
71 microorganism activities which directly influence the taste and texture of the cheese.
72 Proteolysis in cheese during ripening plays a vital role in the development of texture as
73 well as flavour (Fox and McSweeney, 1996). Proteolysis contributes to textural changes of the
74 cheese matrix, due to breakdown of the protein network, decrease in a w through water binding by
75 liberated carboxyl and amino groups and increase in pH (Sousa et al., 2001).
76 Primary proteolysis releases large to medium-sized peptides from caseins; these can be
77 further degraded into small peptides and eventually FFA, as part of a process known as secondary
78 proteolysis. The former plays an essential role in the development of proper cheese texture,
79 whereas secondary proteolysis is more directly implicated with cheese flavour; hence, both are of
80 great importance to assure a well-balanced breakdown of curd proteins (caseins) (Visser, 1993).
81 The main proteolytic agents in the ripening process are the rennet or clotting enzymes retained in
82 the curd, and the proteases and peptidases from microorganisms (Fox and Law, 1991).
83
84 The aim of the present work was to investigate the effect of the autochthonous microorganism on
85 the development of texture and sensory characteristics in the traditional cheeses ‘‘Torta del
86 Casar”. In addition, determine the microorganisms that play an important role in the development
88
91 A total of sixteen different batches of “Torta del Casar” were manufactured, of 10 cheeses each
92 batch, from unpasteurized Merino ewe’s milk to which no starter cultured was added. Each batch
301
93 was clotted using different C. cardunculus L. rennets, corresponding to the 16 plants collected as
94 Ordiales et al. (2012). The aqueous extracts from the cardoon C. cardunculus L. were prepared
95 from 50 g of dried flowers in 1 L of water, leaving them to macerate for 24 h, and adding 10 mL
96 of this extract per litre of milk at 28–30º C, for each 32 L batch. After pressing, the cheeses were
97 immersed in a salt solution (16 % (w/v) NaCl) for 4 hours. The ripening took place at a
98 temperature of 5–10º C and relative humidity of 85–90 % throughout the ripening period of 60
99 days. Three cheeses of each batch were randomly taken for analysis after 2, 30 and 60 days of
100 ripening.
102 Microbiological analysis was performed to raw milk, rennets and cheeses made from those raw
103 materials.
104 For the microbial counts and isolates, 10 g aliquots of each sample were taken aseptically,
105 transferred to sterile plastic pouches, 10-fold diluted with 1% peptone water (Pronadisa,
106 Alcobendas, Madrid, Spain), and homogenized for 120 s using the laboratory Stomacher Lab-
107 Blender 400 (Seward Lab., London, England). Serial 10-fold dilutions were prepared from the
109 Plate count agar (PCA, Oxoid) were used for mesophilic aerobic bacteria counts at 30ºC for 48 h
110 and for psychrotrophs for 7 days at 7ºC. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were grown in MRS agar
111 (Oxoid) of which the pH was adjusted to 5.6 with acetic acid (10%), incubating at 37ºC for 2 days
112 under anaerobic conditions and lactococci on M-17 agar (M-17,Oxoid) at 30 °C for 48 h. The
113 Staphylococcus and Micrococcus counts were determined in MSA agar (Oxoid) at 30ºC for 48 h,
114 and for Staphylococcus Baird Parker agar (BP; Oxoid) was also used supplemented with
115 potassium tellurite and egg yolk emulsion at 37ºC for 48 h, and black colonies were counted.
116 Total enterobacteria (Gram-negative and cytochrome oxidase-negative) were inoculated on Violet
117 Red Bile Glucose agar (VRBG; Oxoid), the plates were covered with a layer of the same medium
118 before incubation at 37ºC for 24 hours, and colonies that were rose-coloured and surrounded by a
302
119 halo of purple precipitate were counted. Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA) was used for coliform
120 counts and the inoculated plates of this medium were also covered with a layer of the same
121 medium before incubation at 30ºC for 48 h. Typical dark red colonies (>0.5 mm in diameter)
122 surrounded by a zone of precipitated bile acids were considered as coliforms for the counts.
123 Moulds and yeasts were isolated on acidified Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA; Oxoid) with 5%
126 The moisture content of the cheeses was determined by dehydration at 100ºC to constant weight
127 by the ISO recommended methods (ISO, 1973). Water activity (Aw) was determined using an
128 FA-St/1 apparatus from GBX (France Scientific Instrument). The pH was measured using a
131 Whey and caseins protein analysis: The whey protein fractions were extracted from cheese as
132 (Enne et al., 2005). Samples (20 g) were homogenized (2 cycles of 1 min each) in doubly distilled
133 water (30 ml) with an Ultraturrax homogenizer (Ika®-Werke, Staufen, Germany). Since this step
134 is heat-producing, a strict time optimization was required to avoid whey proteins’ degradation.
135 The homogenized samples were skimmed by centrifugation (2000 × g for 15 min at 4 °C). Casein
136 was precipitated at its isoelectric point by adding 1M hydrochloric acid and centrifuging at 2500 ×
138 Caseins were obtained from 1g of cheese samples by precipitation at pH 4.3, by the addition of 10
139 ml of 1 M ammonia–acetate buffer at 8ºC during 20 min (Veloso et al., 2004). Then the samples
140 were centrifuged for 15 min at 3000 g at 4ºC, to recover the precipitated caseins. The caseins were
141 dispersed in 10 ml of 1 mM ammonia–acetate buffer (pH 4.3), precipitated again and centrifuged
142 for 10 min, at 3000 g, at 4ºC. This procedure was repeated twice. In order to eliminate the
143 remaining fat, the sample was washed with 5 ml acetone and left to dry at room temperature.
303
144 Finally, the dried powdered casein was stored at -80 ºC until analysis. The protein concentration
145 was determined following the Bradford method using 100 μl of the soluble protein extracts.
146 Non-protein nitrogen and amino acid nitrogen analysis: Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) was
147 determined by the Nessler method using 4 g of sample after protein precipitation with 0.6 M
148 perchloric acid. Amino acid nitrogen (AN) was determined from the 0.6 M perchloric acid protein
149 precipitation fraction after peptide precipitation with 10% sulfosalycilic acid (Benito et al., 2005).
150 Two index have been used to analyze the proteolysis degree found in cheeses, IP (% proteolysis
151 rate) as the relation between NPN and TN, and IGA (% amino acids generation rate), which
154 Two different instrumental texture analyses were performed using a TA.XTA2i texture analyzer
156 Texture compression analysis (TCA) of the samples was performed at room temperature, using a
157 cylindrical probe of 4 mm diameter. The procedure involved cutting slices approximately 1.5 cm
158 thick. Force–time curves were recorded at a cross-head speed of 1 mm s−1 164 and 10 mm
159 distance. Hardness (g), defined as maximum peak force during a compression cycle, cohesiveness
160 (g s), area under the positive curve, adhesiveness (g), maximum negative peak, and F-T 2:3 area
161 (g s), area under the negative curve, were evaluated at 2, 30, and 60 days of the process.
162 A texture spreadability analysis (TSA) was also performed at 60 days of ripening using a TTC
163 Spreadability Fixture probe. The samples were packed into the lower cone with a spatula. The
164 curves were produced at a test speed of 3 mm s−1 170 and 25 mm distance. Firmness (g) and
165 work of shear (g s) will be the maximum peak and the area under the first curve. The maximum
166 negative peak indicates the stickiness (g) of the sample, and the maximum negative area is taken
168
304
169 2.6. Sensory evaluation
170 Fifteen panelists, previously selected and trained under ISO standards with samples of “Torta del
171 Casar” cheese, were asked to characterize the sensory quality of the batches selected according to
172 the protein profile of the cardoon used for the clotting stage. The cheeses were cut into slices of
173 approximately 5 mm thickness. The slices were equilibrated for 30 min at room temperature
174 before serving. Descriptive analyses were made according to international standard methods.
175 Parameters related to appearance and texture were assessed using a structured line scale with
176 intensity descriptors at the end points (1, low; 10, high). The samples were three-digit coded and
177 the order of serving was determined by random permutation. Two replicate panels performed for
178 each sample. The response to each indicator was taken as the mean of the panelists’ responses. In
179 addition to this descriptive test, a panel of 17 untrained consumers evaluated the samples for
181
183 Statistical analysis of the data was carried out using SPSS for Windows, 15.0. (SPSS Inc.
184 Chicago, Illinois, USA). Descriptive statistics of the vegetable rennet activities were determined,
185 and the evolution of the physicochemical, microbial, and texture parameters of the cheese batches
186 were studied by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and separated by Tukey’s honest
187 significant differences test (p ≤ 0.05). The relationships between the microorganism counts and
188 protein, texture and sensorial parameters analyzed on the cheeses were evaluated in terms of
190
305
193 The counts in the raw materials are shown in Table 1. It can be observed that highest counts of
194 enterobacteria and coliforms were found in the rennets, while milk would provide higher amount
195 of lactic acid bacteria, lactococci, enterococci, staphylococci, micrococci and molds to the cheese.
196 The correlations of the cheese counts at 2 day of ripening with the counts from rennets and milk,
197 raw materials used in the processing of cheese batches, are shown in Table 2. The results show
198 that the lactic acid bacteria population in cheese after 2 days of ripening comes mainly from milk,
199 while psychrotrophs and enterococci population comes from the rennets. This indicates that it
200 would be important to monitor and identify the microorganisms that provide the raw materials and
201 more specifically the rennets, which have never been studied, as they may have great significance
202 in the final product as well as health consumer. On the other hand, the microbiological
203 contamination of the milk is expected to exert an influence upon the final characteristics of the
204 cheese (Pintado et al., 2010). The raw milk microbiota is an essential component of many
205 traditional cheese varieties and plays important roles during both cheese manufacture and ripening
206 (Beresford et al., 2001). Thus, Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and other indigenous microflora seem
207 to occupy a central role in cheese – making and the generation of the distinctive flavor of cheeses
208 (Buchin et al., 1998; Leroy and DeVuyst, 2004; Abriouel et al., 2008).
209
211 Table 3 shows the counts in cheese during the ripening process. The coliforms and enterobacteria
212 populations increased slightly from the beginning to 30 days of ripening, and decreased modestly
213 at the end of ripening. The aerobic mesophilic bacteria slightly increased while the psychrotrophs
214 remained around 9.2 log CFU/g throughout ripening process. Lactobacilli increased between the
215 beginning and middle, to remain constant until 60 days of ripening while lactococci decreased
216 slightly at the end of ripening. The population of enterococci increased at the beginning of the
217 process and staphylococci and micrococci remained constant throughout the cheese ripening.
218 Finally molds and yeasts decreased moderately from the beginning to the end of cheese ripening.
306
219 Some authors have obtained similar results in the different microbial groups that develop in the
221 Within the LAB group Enterococcus is the most controversial genus, because their natural
222 habitat is the mammalian intestinal tract and their presence in foodstuffs has usually been related
223 to poor standards of hygiene during manufacture (López – Díaz et al., 1995). However, in recent
224 years, some studies into microbiota of many traditional cheeses in Mediterranean countries have
225 indicated that they may well play an important role in the ripening of these cheeses, probably
226 through proteolysis, and lipolysis, hence contributing to their typical sensory characteristics
228
230 The pH of the cheeses decreased along maturation, moderately at the beginning from 6.85
231 to 5.86, reaching pH values of 5.65 at 60 days of ripening (Figure 1A). The moisture of the
232 cheeses decreased progressively during ripening, from 56.6% to 40.8% at 60 days. The same
233 evolution was observed for the water activity of cheeses, decreasing from 0.97 to 0.95 (30 days)
234 and 0.94 at the end of the process. The results were similar to those obtained for other soft cheeses
235 (Roa et al., 1999; Sanjuán et al., 2002). The pH is of great importance in cheese ripening due to its
236 influence on the proteolytic activity. These pH changes may reflect the major metabolic activity
238
240 Figure 1B shows the evolution of different parameters related to proteins along the
241 ripening process. Whey proteins increased from 171 to 262 mg/g until 30 days of ripening,
242 remaining constant until the end of ripening. However, the caseins decreased gradually during
307
243 ripening, from 284 to 226 mg/g, because of proteolysis mediated primarily by rennet, and then
244 by the microorganisms present in the process (Pintado et al., 2010; Pereira et al., 2010). The
245 whey proteins increase was due to casein breakage which generated soluble peptides extracted
246 with whey proteins. Similarly, the amount of NPN in cheese increased during the ripening
247 from 2.05 to 3.55 mg N/g, and the amount of AN, from 0.59 to 1.63 mg N/g. Proteolysis rates,
248 IP and IGA, also showed higher values during the process, proving the proteolysis effect
249 during the whole process. This effect seems to be more intense in the second part of the
250 ripening, indicating the possible influence of microorganisms in this activity. Similar results
251 were obtained for different authors (Núñez et al., 1991; Macedo and Malcata, 1997; Vioque et
253 In this way, the different parameters related to proteolysis were correlated with the
254 microbial counts from the different ripening days (Table 4). At the beginning of the process (2
255 days), it was not showed correlation with microbial counts. This indicates that the microbial
256 effect in the primary proteolysis is low, as was indicated above. Proteolysis at this stage would
257 be related to the rennet. However, as ripening progresses the microbial effect on these
258 parameters was more evident. It was showed that the enterococci group was positively
259 correlated with AN and IGA at 30 days of ripening, and NPN and IP at 60 days. This suggests
260 the importance of this microbial group in the proteolysis developed during the process. Other
261 microbial groups that were positively correlated with the proteolysis parameters, were the
262 psychrotroph, lactobacilli, lactococci and staphylococci at the end of processing (60 days).
263 So these are the microbial groups that seem more related to protein degradation in
264 these products. Proteolysis increases the level of free amino acids and peptides which leads to
265 enhanced flavor intensity and accelerates cheese ripening (Corsetti et al., 1998; Franklin et al.,
266 1963; Lane et al., 1996; Lynch et al., 1996; McSweeney et al., 1993).
308
268 In the Texture compression analysis (TCA) results of the parameters evolution along
269 the maturation are shown in Figure 2A. Hardness and cohesiveness were gradually decreased
270 during ripening, while the values of adhesiveness and Area F-T 2:3 were higher as it advanced
271 processing. The hardness and cohesiveness decrease of cheeses indicate a higher proteolysis
272 (Awad et al., 2005), and the adhesiveness increase indicates the ability of proteins to interact
273 with water (Pastorino et al., 2003), which take place during ripening.
274 Thus, in the texture spreadability analysis (TSA) at 60 days, the mean values of the
275 parameters of firmness and work of shear were 7100 g and 6750 g s respectively (Figure 2B).
276 The average value of stickiness was 4750 g (absolute value), while the work of adhesion
278 These data were correlated with microbial counts obtaining the results showed in
279 Table 5. Again, counts at 2 days did not correlate with almost any texture parameter, indicating
280 the lower effect of the microorganisms at the beginning of the process. The early change in the
281 texture is attributed to a number of factors such as proteolysis of casein network by rennet
283 It can be observed how the microbial groups that are positively correlated with
284 adhesiviness parameters were psychrotrophos, lactic acid bacteria, lactococci and enterococci
285 with the counts found at 2, 30 and 60 days. Instead, enterobacteria and coliforms were
286 negatively correlated, rising to highlight the negative effect of these microbial groups in the
287 texture of the cheeses. This group also correlated negatively with hardness and cohesiveness at
288 60 days, so an increase of these organisms produces a large softening of the product.
289 Similar results were obtained in the sensory analysis (Table 6). In which the microbial
290 groups that were positively correlated with the creaminess and viscosity data were
291 psychrotrophos, lactic acid bacteria, lactococci, and staphylococci. The group of lactic acid
292 bacteria and lactococci with the acidity parameter, and these same groups and enterococci
309
293 were positively correlated with the intensity. In all these cases the sensory parameters were
294 correlated with the counts found after 2 days of ripening. Finally, as to the overall evaluation
295 by the type of cheese “Torta del Casar” were psychrotrophos, lactic acid bacteria, lactococci,
296 enterococci and staphylococci counts, which were positively correlated with this parameter.
298 parameters related to proteolysis and texture along the ripening process, emphasizing the role
299 of lactic acid bacteria, lactococci and enterococci. Thus, to control the process, it would be
300 advisable the control of these microorganisms development, being essential the development
302 Acknowledgements
303 The authors are grateful to M. Cabrero and C. Cebrián for technical assistance, and to PDO “Torta
305 References
306 Abriouel, H., Martín-Platero, A., Maqueda, M., Valdivia, E., Martínez-Bueno, M. 2008.
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309 Almeida, G., Figuereido, A., Rôla, M., Barros, R., Gibbs, P., Hogg, T., Teixeira, P. 2007.
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313 Producing cultures in reduced-fat cheddar cheese: texture and melting properties. J. Dairy
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315 Benito, M.J., Rodríguez, M., Córdoba, M.G., Andrade, M.J. 2005. Effect of the fungal protease
316 EPg222 on proteolysis and texture in the dry fermented sausage “salchichón”. J. Sci. Food
318 Beresford, T.P., Fitzsimons, N.A., Brennan, N.L., Cogan, T.M. 2001. Recent advantages in
320 Corsetti, A., Gobbetti, M., Smacchi, E., De Angelis, M., Rossi, J. 1998. Accelerated ripening of
322 Delgado, F.J., González-Crespo, J. Cava, R., García-Parra, J., Ramírez, R. 2010. Characterisation
323 by SPME-GC-MS of the volatile profile of a Spanish soft cheese P.D.O. Torta del Casar
325 Enne, G., Elez, D., Fondrini, F., Bonizzi, I., Feligini, M., Aleandri, R. 2005. High-performance
326 liquid chromatography of governing liquid to detect illegal bovine milk’s addition in
327 water buffalo Mozzarella: Comparison with results from raw milk from raw milk and
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330 application of enterococci in food and health. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 106, 1-24.
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334 Franklin, J.G., Sharpe, M.E. 1963. The incidence of bacteria in cheesemaking and Cheddar cheese
335 and their association with flavor. J. Dairy Res. 30, 87-99.
336 Galán, E., Cabezas, L., Fernández-Salguero, J. 2012. Proteolysis, microbiology and sensory
337 properties of ewe’s milk cheese produced with plant coagulant from cardoon Cynara
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338 cardunculus, calf rennet or a mixture thereof. Int. Dairy J.
339 doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2012.02.001.
340 International Organization for Standarization (ISO). UNE-ISO 4121-2006. Sensory Analysis-
341 Guidelines for the Use of Quantitative Response Scales; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland.
342 ISO 1973. ISO in meat and meat product-determination of moisture content method 1442.
344 Lane, C.N., Fox, P.F. 1996. Contribution of starter and added lactobacilli to proteolysis in
346 Leroy, F., De Vuyst, L. 2004. Lactic acid bacteria as cultures for the food fermentation. Trends
348 López-Díaz, T.M., Santos, J.A., González, C.J., Moreno, B., García, M.L. 1995. Bacteriological
350 Lucey, J.A., Johnson, M.E., Horne, D.S. 2003. Perspectives on the basis of the rheology and
352 Lynch, C.M., McSweeney, P.L.H., Fox, P.F., Cogan, T.M., Drinan, F.B. 1996. Manufacture of
353 cheddar cheese with and without adjunct lactobacilli under controlled microbiological
355 Macedo, A.C., Malcata, F.X. 1997. Technological optimization of the manufacture of Serra
357 McSweeney, P.L.H., Fox, P.F., Lucey, J.A., Jordan, K.N., Cogan, T.M. 1993. Contribution of the
358 indigenous microflora to the maturation of Cheddar cheese. Int. Dairy J. 3, 613-634.
359 Menéndez, S., Centeno, J.A., Godínez, R., Rodríguez – Otero, J.L. 2000. Effects of various
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362 Núñez, M., Fernández del Pozo, B., Rodríguez Martín, M. A., Gaya, P., Medina, M. 1991. Effect
363 of vegetable and animal rennet on chemical, microbiological, rheological and sensory
365 Ordiales, E., Martín, A., Benito, M.J., Hernández, A., Ruíz-Moyano, S., Córdoba, M.G. 2012.
367 vegetable rennet (Cynara cardunculus) used in “Torta del Casar” cheese-making. Food
369 Pastorino, A.J., Hansen, C.L., McMahon, D.J. 2003. Effect of salt on structure-function
371 Pereira, C.I., Gomes, A.M.P., Malcata, F.X. 2009. Microestructure of cheese: processing,
372 technological and microbiological considerations. Trends Food Sci. Tech. 20, 213-219.
373 Pereira, C.I., Graça, J.A., Ogando, N.S., Gomes, A.M.P., Malcata, F.X. 2010. Influence of
374 bacterial dynamics upon the final characteristics of model Portguese traditional cheeses.
376 Pintado, A.I., Tavares, T.G., Tavaira, F.K., Malcata, F.X. 2010. Tradition versus modernism in
377 cheesemaking technology: a Portuguese case study encompassing plant coagulant, non-
378 bovine milks and adventitious microflora. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 65, 128-134.
380 Protected Designation of Origin “Torta del Casar” in the Register of Protected
382 Roa, I., López, M.B., Mendiola, F.J. 1999. Residual clotting activity and ripening properties of
383 vegetable rennet from Cynara cardunculus in La Serena cheese. Food Res. Int. 32, 413-
384 419.
313
385 Sanjuán, E., Millán, R., Saavedra, P., Carmona, M.A., Gómez, R., Fernández-Salguero, J. 2002.
386 Influence of animal and vegetable rennet on the physicochemical characteristics of Los
388 Sousa, M.J., Ardö, Y., McSweeney, P.L.H. 2001. Advances in the study of proteolysis during
390 Tavaira, F.K., Malcata, F.X. 1998. Microbiological characterization of Serra da Estrela cheese
392 Veloso, A.C.A., Teixeira, N., Peres, A.M., Mendoça, A., Ferreira, I.M.P.L.V.O. 2004. Evaluation
395 Vioque, M., Gómez, R., Sánchez, E., Mata, C., Tejada, L., Fernández – Salguero, J. 2000.
396 Chemical and microbiological characteristics of ewe’s milk cheese manufactured with
397 extracts from flowers of Cynara cardunculus and Cynara humilis as coagulants. J. Agric.
399 Visser, S. 1993. Proteolytic enzymes and their relation to cheese ripening and flavor: an overview.
401
402
314
403 Figure 1. Moisture content, and pH values during the process of “Torta del Casar” cheeses (1A).
404 Evolution of proteolysis parameters during the ripening of the cheese “Torta del Casar” (1B).
405
406 Figure 2. Evolution of Texture compression analysis (TCA) parameters during the ripening of the
407 cheese “Torta del Casar” (2A) and texture spreadability analysis (TSA) parameters at 60 days of
409
315
410 Figure 1
411 1A
8 70
7 60
6
50
Moisture, %
5
40
pH
4
30
3
20
2
1 10
0 0
2 day 30 day 60 day
Ripening time
pH Moisture
412
413
414 1B
350 5,0
Whey proteins and Caseins, mg prot/g cheese
4,5
300
4,0
NPN and AN, mg N/g cheese
250 3,5
IP and IGA, %
3,0
200
2,5
150
2,0
100 1,5
1,0
50
0,5
0 0,0
2 day 30 day 60 day
Ripening time
316
416 Figure 2
417 2A
800
700
Cohesiviness and Area FT 2:3 (gsec)
600
Hardness and Adhesiviness (g)
500
400
300
200
100
0
Hardness Cohesiveness Adhesiveness Area FT2:3
-100
-200
-300
2 day 30 day 60 day
418
419
420 2B
12000
10000
Work of Shear and Work of Adhesion, gsec
8000
Firmness and Stickiness, g
6000
4000
2000
0
Firmness Work of Shear Stickiness Work of Adhesion
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
421
317
422 Table 1. Counts of the rennets and the raw milk (raw materials)
4231
424
318
425 1 Table 2. Correlations of the cheeses counts in at 2 days of ripening with the rennets and raw milk counts
427 + P<0.01
428 * P<0.05
429
319
430 Table 3. Counts in cheeses along the ripening process (log CFU/g)
431
432
320
433 1 Table 4. Correlations of microbiological counts with proteolysis parameters along the cheese ripening. (Only shown those data in which there was correlation)
2
30 days 60 days
Whey Caseins NA IGA Whey Caseins NPN NA IP IGA
VRBA --(30) ++(2) --(30) --(30)
VRBG ++(60) --(30)
PCA --(30) ++(2)
PCA(psi) ++(60)
MRS ++(60)
M17 --(30) ++(60) ++(60)
SB +++(30,
++(30) +++(2, 30) +++(30) +++(30) --(30)
60)
BP ++(30)
MSA --(30) ++(30) ---(30) --(30)
PDA(moho) --(30)
PDA(lev) ++(60) --(60)
3 + positive correlation P<0.1
4 ++ positive correlation P<0.05.
5 +++ positive correlation P<0.01.
6 - negative correlation P<0.1
7 -- negative correlation P<0.05.
8 --- negative correlation P<0.01.
9 (2) microbial counts at 2 days
10 (30) microbial counts at 30 days
43411 (60) microbial counts at 60 days
435
436
437
321
438 Table 5. Correlations of microbiological counts with Texture compression analysis (TCA) parameters (at 2, 30 y 60 days of ripening) and texture spreadability
439 analysis (TSA) parameters (at 60 days of ripening). (Only shown those data in which there was correlation)
TCA TSA
Cohesiviness Adhesiviness Cohesiviness Adhesiviness Area F-T 2:3 Hardness Cohesiviness Adhesiviness Area F-T 2:3 Work of Shear Adhesiviness Work of Adhesion
(g.seg) (g) Hardness (g) (g.seg) (g) (g.seg) (g) (g.seg) (g) (g.seg) (gsec) (g) (gsec)
PCA(ps) ++(2)
+++(2)
MSA --(60)
322
443 - negative correlation P<0.1
449
450
451
323
452 Table 6. Correlations of microbiological counts with sensory analysis parameters. (Only shown those data in which there was correlation)
PCA
324
458 --- negative correlation P<0.01.
462
463
464
325
V. DISCUSIÓN
Discusión
Las especies de cardo que se incluyen en este trabajo fueron seleccionadas porque
crecen en Extremadura y presentan flores, que una vez recolectadas, secas y picadas,
pueden ser confundidas entre sí. Las queserías que elaboran el queso “Torta del Casar”
compran el cuajo listo para ser utilizado, es decir, flores de cardo secas y picadas, por lo
tanto imposible distinguir si pertenecen a C. cardunculus o a alguna de las otras
especies de cardo de la familia Asteraceae o a una mezcla de las mismas. El uso de un
cuajo formado por flores pertenecientes a especies diferentes a C. cardunculus o a una
mezcla de especies, puede conllevar a problemas en la elaboración del queso, lo cual
redundaría en pérdidas económicas, además de suponer un fraude para la DOP “Torta
del Casar”.
329
Discusión
330
Discusión
Después de analizar los resultados obtenidos con las técnicas RAPD y SSR se
encontró que los mejores perfiles, con el mayor número de bandas polimórficas se
obtuvieron con los cebadores OPAE10 y CMAFLP-24 para cada una de las técnicas.
Por esta razón, estos cebadores se eligieron para la caracterización de las muestras
recogidas.
331
Discusión
Se ha demostrado que estas técnicas pueden ser usadas como un método efectivo
para conseguir la autenticidad y trazabilidad del cuajo por la DOP del queso “Torta del
Casar”.
332
Discusión
diferencias cuantitativas en los densitogramas obtenidos para cada una de las especies
de cardo estudiadas. El perfil de C. cardunculus presenta 9 bandas, las más intensas, de
16,7 y 28,3 kDa, y 13,5 y 30,2 kDa, corresponden a las cardosinas A y B,
respectivamente. El resto de las bandas que presenta esta especie pertenecen a
procardosina A (45 y 55 kDa) y procardosina B (60,2 kDa), como describe Ramalho
Santos y col. (1997). La forma madura de cardosina A (31 kDa) se detectó en células
del tejido calloso con una banda de 45 kDa y otra de 55 kDa. La banda de 45 kDa se
observa frecuentemente y se ha descrito que corresponde a cadenas no disociadas de la
enzima (Ramalho Santos, 1998). Respecto a la cardosina B, se detectó la banda de 64
kDa (60,2 kDa en nuestro estudio), que se corresponde con el precursor y la banda de 55
kDa, similar a la observada para cardosina A. Estos autores sugieren que la banda de 55
kDa puede corresponderse con una forma intermedia de cardosinas, aunque esta banda
no fue detectada en flores de cardo (Ramalho – Santos, y col., 1997; Vieira, y col.,
2001), sino en semillas o en hojas (Pereira, y col., 2008). La especie Cynara scolymus
presenta un perfil de proteínas formado por 10 bandas polipeptídicas, en un rango de
peso molecular de 13,5 a 60,2 kDa. Las bandas que corresponden a las cardosinas A y B
mostraron la misma intensidad que las de C. cardunculus, mientras que la banda de 60,2
kDa fue significativamente menos intensa que la encontrada en C. cardunculus (Sidrach
y col., 2005). Por otra parte, el perfil de proteínas de Cynara humilis queda definido por
5 bandas polipeptídicas, correspondiendo a las bandas características de cardosina A
(16,7 y 30,2 kDa) y otras bandas menos intensas (55, 60,2 y 66,2 kDa), las cuales
podrían corresponder a formas de procardosinas, como sugieren Ramalho Santos y col.
(1998). En este perfil no se aprecian las bandas correspondientes a cardosina B, en
concordancia con Esteves y col. (1995), que afirmaba que las flores de C. humilis no
contienen cardosina B. Las cardosinas A y B representan las proteasas aspárticas mejor
caracterizadas, junto con las cyprosinas (Brodelius y col., 1998; Cordeiro y col., 1994).
Respecto a la especie Silybum marianum, su perfil mostró 3 bandas proteicas, dos de
ellas de 35 y 64 kDa aproximadamente, no se encontraron en el resto de las especies
estudiadas en este trabajo. Por último, el perfil de Onopordum nervosum se caracterizó
por bandas de 30, 32, 59 y 67 kDa aproximadamente, las cuales no se observaron en los
perfiles del resto de especies estudiadas. En este sentido, los diferentes perfiles de
proteínas obtenidos con la técnica SDS-PAGE, permiten diferenciar las 5 especies de
cardo pertenecientes a la familia Asteraceae estudiadas.
333
Discusión
334
Discusión
Este método analítico podría emplearse para identificar el origen de las flores
secas de los cardos empleados como cuajo en las queserías, con el fin de evitar fraudes,
y garantizar la autenticidad del cuajo.
335
Discusión
% de la varianza, y se define por los picos FZCE 3, 5, 21 y 23, las bandas SDS-PAGE
de 45 y 55 kDa y la actividad proteolítica sobre β-caseína. Según este análisis de
componentes principales, las muestras de las diferentes especies estudiadas se
agruparon entre sí y se diferencian del resto, en base a las variables con las que se
correlacionan cada una de ellas. De modo que las muestras de S. marianum se
correlacionaban con los picos FZCE 8, 9, 12 y 14, y las bandas SDS-PAGE de 35 y 64
kDa. Por otro lado, las muestras de la especie O. nervosum parecen estar
correlacionadas con los picos FZCE 1, 4, 6, 7, 22 y 24, y las bandas SDS-PAGE de 30,
32, 59 y 67 kDa. Las muestras que pertenecen a las especies del género Cynara no
aparecen tan separadas entre sí, aunque se observan tres grupos diferenciados. Las
muestras de la especie C. humilis se correlacionan con los picos FZCE 3, 5, y 21, las
bandas SDS-PAGE de 37,3 y 55 kDa, y la actividad proteolítica sobre β-caseína. Se
observa que las muestras de C. scolymus y de C. cardunculus se correlacionan con el
resto de variables.
336
Discusión
Para la muestra de cardo A30, para la concentración de 0,65 g/100 ml, el mayor
valor de actividad coagulante se obtuvo tras 4 horas de maceración, siendo superior
significativamente al resto de los tiempos ensayados. Para los extractos preparados a la
concentración 5 g/100 ml, el mayor valor de actividad coagulante se encontró tras 16 h
de maceración, superior significativamente al valor encontrado tras 4 horas de
maceración. En cuanto a los extractos preparados a la concentración 10 g/100 ml, no se
encontraron diferencias significativas para los diferentes tiempos de maceración.
Teniendo en cuenta todas las variables, el mayor valor de actividad coagulante para esta
muestra de cardo se obtuvo con la concentración 10 g/100 ml, tras 1 h de maceración, y
el menor valor para la concentración 0,65 g/100 ml, tras 2 horas de maceración.
Para el extracto preparado con la muestra de cardo A49, para las tres
concentraciones ensayadas, los mayores valores de actividad coagulante se obtuvieron
con los extractos preparados tras 4 horas de maceración. Con este extracto,
considerando todas las variables ensayadas, se puede decir que el mayor valor de
actividad coagulante se encontró para el extracto preparado con la concentración 10
g/100 ml tras 4 h de maceración, mientras que el valor más bajo lo presentaron los
extractos de 0,65 g/100 ml, tanto a 1 h, como tras 16 h de maceración.
337
Discusión
338
Discusión
dichas bandas. Estas diferencias en la intensidad de las bandas de los perfiles proteicos
se traducen en diferente actividad proteolítica sobre las caseínas, de modo que los
perfiles con bandas más intensas, fueron los más proteolíticos. Ello significa que la
actividad coagulante es diferente en cada una de las muestras de cardo recogidas.
339
Discusión
340
Discusión
341
Discusión
Considerando las correlaciones entre los parámetros analíticos (áreas de los picos
CE e intensidades de las bandas SDS-PAGE) y las actividades coagulante y proteolítica,
se puede afirmar que las áreas de los picos 3+4 y 6 están fuerte y positivamente
correlacionadas (P<0,01) con los valores de la actividad coagulante tras 1 hora de
maceración y con la degradación de β y k-caseína respectivamente. Además la suma de
las áreas de los picos estaba positivamente correlacionada con la degradación de β-
caseína. Según sus valores de actividad proteolítica o de degradación de las caseínas, los
picos arriba mencionados pueden incluir cardosinas activas o sus precursores. Dado que
la cardosina B tiene una especificidad más amplia (como pepsina) que cardosina A
(como quimosina) (Veríssimo y col., 1996), los picos 3+4 y 10, correlacionados con la
degradación de k-caseína, pueden relacionarse con cardosina A, mientras que los picos
6 y 9, correlacionados con la degradación de β-caseína, pueden relacionarse con
cardosina B.
342
Discusión
Para conseguir este propósito se elaboraron 16 lotes de quesos tipo “Torta del
Casar”, cada uno con una de las muestras de cardo (C. cardunculus) estudiadas y se
analizaron, entre otros aspectos, los atributos sensoriales de los quesos obtenidos.
343
Discusión
V.3.1. Influencia de las propiedades tecnológicas del cuajo en la textura del queso
Torta del Casar.
Las diferencias detectadas en las propiedades tecnológicas de los cuajos, no se
muestran a nivel de maduración del cardo o la localización, observando una alta
variabilidad intra-grupo en ambos factores, como se comentaba anteriormente. En este
estudio, la degradación de α-caseína osciló de 24,39 (muestra M15) al 100 % (muestras
M1 y M3), mientras que la degradación de β-caseína y κ-caseína osciló entre 4,32 –
91,55 % y 4,21 – 98,43 % respectivamente. Tavaira y col. (2001) encontraron mayor
actividad proteolítica sobre α y β-caseína. Silva y Malcata (1999) también observaron
que αs-caseínas eran hidrolizadas más rápido que β-caseína en ensayos in vitro. Esta
observación es comparable con lo que ocurre en el queso, dado que ha sido afirmado
que β-caseína es menos susceptible a la proteólisis que αs-caseínas en la elaboración de
quesos de leche cruda de oveja, en la que se emplean extractos de C. cardunculus como
cuajo (Sousa y Malcata, 1997; Roa y col., 1999).
344
Discusión
químicas de los quesos a los 2 días tras su elaboración. El tiempo de corte osciló entre
35 y 75 minutos y mostró una correlación negativa con la actividad coagulante de los
extractos tras 24 h de maceración. Sin embargo, este parámetro estaba positivamente
correlacionado con la actividad proteolítica inespecífica sobre las caseínas. Aunque
algunos estudios se han realizado sobre las propiedades gelificantes de las proteasas
presentes en los coagulantes vegetales, no hay datos disponibles respecto a las
propiedades de cada cardosina, y su contribución independiente a la actividad
coagulante global y las propiedades gelificantes. Silva y col. (2003) mostraron que las
cardosinas exhiben un comportamiento reológico diferente entre ellas, y también si se
comparan con la quimosina. Este conocimiento es importante con el fin de reducir
racionalmente la variabilidad en la elaboración de los quesos, empleando extractos de C.
cardunculus.
El valor medio de rendimiento de la cuajada para los quesos estudiados fue bajo
(23,8 %) confirmando resultados previos (Agboola y col., 2009). Mas Mayoral y col.
(1991) encontraron rendimientos en queso ligeramente inferiores que el obtenido en este
estudio, en torno a 16,5 y 20 %. Este parámetro no está claramente unido a las
actividades coagulantes, pero mostró una correlación positiva con la degradación de κ-
caseína, la primera fase de la coagulación de la leche.
Con respecto a los parámetros físico-químicos de los quesos frescos, los valores
medios de humedad y pH fueron de 56,61 % y 6,85, respectivamente, mientras que la aw
osciló entre 0,96 a 0,99. Sanjuán y col. (2002) estudiaron la influencia del cuajo vegetal
en las características físico – químicas del queso “Los Pedroches” durante la
maduración. A los 2 días de maduración la humedad de los quesos era 51,63 %, el valor
de pH era 5,6 y el de la aw, de 0,975. Los valores de pH estaban positivamente
correlacionados con la actividad proteolítica de los extractos acuosos, lo cual se atribuye
al hecho del efecto buffer generado por los productos de la hidrólisis de proteínas
(Shammet y col., 1992).
345
Discusión
la relevante actividad metabólica de las bacterias ácido lácticas en este tipo de queso de
oveja. La actividad proteolítica en el queso está determinada principalmente por el nivel
y tipo de cuajo residual, el ratio sal/humedad, la temperatura de maduración y los
cambios de pH durante la maduración (Lawrence y col., 1987). Heimgartner y col.
(1990) observaron que durante la maduración del queso el pH alcanzaba el valor de
5,31, que está próximo al óptimo para la actividad del cuajo vegetal.
A lo largo del periodo de maduración, se observó una disminución del peso del
queso, de 1,35 % a los 2 días de maduración, hasta 33,41 % menor peso del queso al
final de la maduración. El valor medio de humedad osciló entre 56,61 (2 días de
maduración) a 40,81 (60 días de maduración). La actividad de agua de los quesos
disminuyó progresivamente durante la maduración, desde 0,972 a 0,952 (30 días) y a
0,946 al final del proceso. Los resultados son similares a los obtenidos para otros quesos
de pasta blanda (Roa y col., 1999; Sanjuán y col., 2002).
Para los porcentajes de proteína y grasa, los valores medios fueron 16,72 y 25,31
respectivamente, en consonancia con otros autores (Mas Mayoral y col., 1991).
Además, la proteína total mostró correlación positiva con la actividad coagulante del
cuajo usado tras 1 h de maceración, junto con una relación negativa con los valores de
humedad. Una cuajada mejor gelificada asociada a altos valores de actividad coagulante
del cuajo explicaría estos resultados.
346
Discusión
347
Discusión
348
Discusión
349
Discusión
350
Discusión
del proceso de maduración para el queso “Torta del Casar”. Sanjuán y col. (2002)
encontraron en queso “Los Pedroches”, elaborado con cuajo vegetal (C. cardunculus)
que los valores de NT oscilaron de 5,92 g/100 g a los 2 días de maduración, a 6,04
g/100 g (materia seca) a los 60 días de maduración, además el contenido de NPN y AN
en este queso aumentó a lo largo de la maduración. Resultados similares se obtuvieron
para el queso de La Serena tras 60 días de maduración (Núñez y col., 1991). Los
componentes de N solubles al principio del proceso del queso son producidos
fundamentalmente por la acción de las proteasas de Cynara cardunculus (Roa y col.,
1999; Galán y col., 2012), aunque los microorganismos son responsables de la
proteólisis desde la mitad al final del proceso de maduración. La degradación de
nitrógeno insoluble en agua, y por tanto la producción de nitrógeno soluble en agua, es
principalmente llevada a cabo por el cuajo residual que queda atrapado en la matriz del
queso, el cual hidroliza α-caseína (Creamer y Olson, 1982; Dulley, 1974).
351
Discusión
Tavaira y col. (2003) y otros autores que han estudiado los cuajos vegetales
(Macedo y Malcata, 1997; Fernández-Salguero y col., 1999) refuerzan la afirmación que
352
Discusión
353
Discusión
(1979) afirmaron que, en general, αs1-caseína fue degradada con mayor intensidad que
β-caseína.
354
Discusión
Por tanto, los cuajos más apropiados para la elaboración de estos quesos, son
aquellos que presentan una alta actividad coagulante y una moderada actividad
proteolítica sobre β-caseína principalmente, sugiriendo que las plantas de cardo
agrupadas en el cluster 1 proporcionarían características deseables en el queso. Un alto
ratio de actividad coagulante sobre actividad proteolítica es una herramienta esencial
para la clasificación de los cardos usados en el procesado de “Torta del Casar”.
355
Discusión
356
Discusión
357
Discusión
staphylococos al final del proceso (60 días). De modo que estos son los grupos
microbianos que parecen estar más relacionados con la degradación de las proteínas en
estos productos. La proteólisis aumenta el nivel de aminoácidos libres y péptidos, que
dan lugar a una mejora en la intensidad del flavor y acelera la maduración del queso
(Corsetti y col., 1998; Franklin y col., 1963; Lane y col., 1996; Lynch y col., 1996;
McSweeney y col., 1993).
358
Discusión
V.4. Ceder a la DOP “Torta del Casar” el cardo más adecuado para la obtención
de las mejores tortas.
Gracias a la realización de este estudio es posible ceder a la DOP “Torta del
Casar” no solo los resultados sobre las características que deben presentar los cuajos
que se emplean en el proceso de elaboración de la “Torta del Casar” para conseguir
mejores quesos, sino también algunos ejemplos de las plantas de Cynara cardunculus
de las que proceden estos cuajos. Dado que se demuestra la gran variabilidad que exiet
entre las poblaciones y dentro de las poblaciones de Cynara cardunculus de
Extremadura, lo que redunda en cuajos muy heterogéneos en cuanto a sus características
tecnológicas. Además se pone a disposición de la DOP “Torta del Casar” una serie de
técnicas analíticas, como SDS-PAGE y FZCE, que puede implantar como herramientas
en el control de calidad rutinario, con las que puede garantizar la autenticidad del cuajo,
la trazabilidad del proceso, y conocer las características tecnológicas de los cuajos
previamente a su utilización en la elaboración del queso.
Otro de los aspectos que se aborda en este trabajo, y que podrá ser de utilidad
para los elaboradores de “Torta del Casar” es la influencia de diferentes parámetros de
la preparación de los cuajos a partir de las flores de Cynara cardunculus, en la actividad
359
Discusión
coagulante del cuajo, una de las características tecnológicas más influeyentes en las
características del queso.
En base a toda esta información, la DOP “Torta del Casar” está en disposición
de seleccionar los mejores cardos de la especie Cynara cardunculus, en cuanto a sus
características tecnológicas, con el fin de cultivarlo y así tener asegurado el suministro
de un cuajo de calidad, de cara a su repercusión en las características del queso, y con el
que poder acotar la heterogeneidad del producto final, debida a este ingrediente.
360
VI. CONCLUSIONES
Concluisones
2. Las técnicas, moleculares y las que determinan el perfil de proteínas de las flores
de las diferentes especies, se consideran como una herramienta potencialmente
útil para garantizar la autenticidad y la trazabilidad del cardo empleado como
cuajo en la elaboración de “Torta del Casar”. El uso de plantas de cardo (C.
cardunculus) caracterizadas, en base a su actividad coagulante y proteolítica, en
la elaboración de “Torta del Casar” es fundamental para obtener un producto
homogéneo demandado por la Denominación de Origen Protegida “Torta del
Casar”.
363
Conclusiones
364
Concluisones
365
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400
VIII. RESUMEN
Resumen
La especie Cynara cardunculus es la que autoriza la DOP “Torta del Casar” para ser
empleada como cuajo vegetal, por ello, una vez identificada y caracterizada, el trabajo
se centra en estudiar la influencia de esta planta en las características finales del queso
“Torta del Casar”.
403
Resumen
Analizada la influencia del cuajo sobre las características del producto final, y
teniendo en cuenta que no todos los cambios que ocurren en la matriz del queso se
deben al cuajo, se aborda la influencia de la microbiología en las características finales
de “Torta del Casar”, siendo el cuajo una de las fuentes de los microorganismos que
actúan en este producto.
Los recuentos en las materias primas muestran que la población de bacterias ácido
lácticas del queso procede principalmente de la leche, mientras que las poblaciones de
psicrotrofos y enterococos proviene de los cuajos. La correlación entre los parámetros
de proteólisis y los recuentos microbianos revela que el efecto de los microorganismos
en la proteólisis primaria es baja y el grupo de los enterococos influye sobre NA e IGA
a los 30 días de maduración, y NPN e IP a los 60 días. Los psicrotrofos, bacterias ácido
404
Resumen
405
ÍNDICE
Índice
I.-INTRODUCCIÓN ..................................................................................................................... 1
I.1. EL QUESO ............................................................................................................................. 3
I.1.1. Definición de queso ......................................................................................................... 3
I.1.2. Producción de queso a nivel mundial, nacional y regional .............................................. 3
I.1.3. Tipos de quesos más importantes .................................................................................... 8
I.1.4. La Torta del Casar.......................................................................................................... 14
I.1.4.1. Descripción de la Torta del Casar ........................................................................... 14
I.1.4.2. Proceso de elaboración de la Torta del Casar ......................................................... 15
I.1.4.3. Características de calidad de la Torta del Casar...................................................... 17
I.1.4.4. Flora característica de la Torta del Casar ................................................................ 18
I.1.4.5. Presencia de aminas biógenas en quesos ................................................................ 21
I.1.4.6. Proteólisis................................................................................................................ 23
I.1.4.7. Lipolisis .................................................................................................................. 24
I.1.4.8. Compuestos volátiles en el queso ........................................................................... 27
I.2. EL CUAJO ............................................................................................................................ 30
I.2.1. Características del cuajo ................................................................................................ 30
I.2.2. Cynara cardunculus, L. ................................................................................................. 35
I.2.2.1. Descripción de Cynara cardunculus, L. ................................................................. 35
I.2.2.2. Otros usos de Cynara cardunculus ......................................................................... 37
I.2.3. Caracterización del cardo usado como cuajo vegetal .................................................... 38
I.2.3.1. Caracterización Morfológica................................................................................... 39
I.2.3.2. Caracterización Molecular ...................................................................................... 39
I.2.3.3. Caracterización mediante análisis de proteínas....................................................... 40
I.2.4. Obtención del cuajo para la elaboración de la “Torta del Casar” .................................. 42
I.2.5. Enzimas presentes en las flores de “Cynara cardunculus”............................................ 42
I.2.6. Actividad proteolítica del cuajo obtenido de Cynara cardunculus ................................ 47
I.2.7. Actividad coagulante del cuajo procedente de Cynara cardunculus ............................. 51
I.2.8. Actividad antimicrobiana de Cynara cardunculus ........................................................ 53
I.2.9. Problemas asociados a la utilización del cuajo procedente de Cynara cardunculus en la
actualidad ................................................................................................................................ 54
II. OBJETIVOS ........................................................................................................................... 57
III. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS .................................................................................................. 61
III.1. Material .............................................................................................................................. 63
III.1.1. Reactivos químicos y medios de cultivo ..................................................................... 63
iii
Índice
iv
Índice
v
Índice
vi