Evaluación ambiental del uso de

geopolímeros basados en dos

puzolanas volcánicas como
alternativa potencial al cemento
portland

Carolina Martínez López

Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Facultad de Ingeniería y Administración
Palmira, Colombia
2015
Evaluación ambiental del uso de
geopolímeros basados en dos
puzolanas volcánicas como
alternativa potencial al cemento
portland

Carolina Martínez López

Tesis presentada como requisito parcial para optar al título de:

Magister en Ingeniería Ambiental

Directora:
Dra. Janneth Torres Agredo

Línea de Investigación:
Producción de materiales y su impacto ambiental
Grupo de Investigación:
Materiales y Medio Ambiente (GIMMA)

Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Facultad de Ingeniería y Administración
Palmira, Colombia
2015
Resumen y Abstract III

Resumen

La insustentabilidad actual de la industria del cemento portland, ha conllevado a la

búsqueda de nuevos materiales alternativos menos contaminantes, dando lugar a los
denominados geopolímeros. La presente tesis consiste en la evaluación ambiental del
uso de geopolímeros basados en dos puzolanas volcánicas, para determinar su
viabilidad como alternativa del cemento portland; se presenta además un análisis teórico
ambiental comparativo entre los geopolímeros y el cemento portland. Para tal propósito,
se llevó a cabo la caracterización de las puzolanas empleando técnicas como
fluorescencia de rayos X (FRX), difracción de rayos X (DRX) y granulometría laser. Para
la determinación de la potencial toxicidad de los insumos involucrados en los
geopolímeros se aplicaron las normas de TCLP (del inglés Toxicity Characteristic
Leaching Procedure) y UNE EN 12457-2. Los resultados muestran que los mejores
porcentajes de retención fueron de 99,95% para Ba, 99,99% para Sr, 99,93% para Zn,
92,5% para S, 98,95% para V, y 98,71% para Cr, cumpliendo con los límites máximos
reportados por la legislación, evidenciando además una alta eficiencia en la
encapsulación de contaminantes como Pb y Ni, cuyos valores siempre fueron superiores
al 99%. Por lo tanto, en las proporciones estudiadas es viable el uso de geopolímeros, y
representan una buena oportunidad para el sector de la construcción.

Palabras clave: Geopolímeros, puzolana volcánica, metales pesados,

encapsulación, materiales alternativos al cemento portland, TCLP, UNE EN
12457-2.
 IV Resumen y Abstract

Abstract
Current unsustainability of portland cement industry, has led to the search for new
cleaner alternative materials, leading to the geopolymer denominated. This thesis
consists of the environmental assessment of the use of geopolymer based on two
volcanic pozzolan to determine its viability as an alternative portland cement; a
comprehensive comparative study between geopolymer environmental and portland
cement is also presented. For this purpose is carried out using pozzolan characterization
techniques such as XRF, XRD and laser granulometry. To determine the potential toxicity
of inputs involved in the geopolymer standards TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching
English Procedure) and UNE EN 12457-2 were applied. The results show that the best
retention percentages were 99.95% for Ba, Sr 99.99%, 99.93% for Zn, 92.5% for S,
98.95% for V, and 98.71 % for Cr, complying with the maximum reported by the
legislation, also showing a high encapsulation efficiency of pollutants such as Pb and Ni,
whose values were always higher than 99%.. Therefore, in the studied proportions is
viable its use, and represents a good opportunity for the construction sector.

Keywords: Geopolymers, volcanic pozzolan, heavy metals, encapsulation,

alternative materials Portland cement, TCLP, UNE EN 12457-2.
Contenido V

Contenido
Pág.

1. Antecedentes y contexto ......................................................................................... 1

2. Objetivos ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Objetivo general ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Objetivos específicos .............................................................................................. 5

3. Revisión de la literatura ........................................................................................... 7

3.1 Cemento Portland ................................................................................................... 7
3.1.1 Definición ......................................................................................................... 7
3.1.2 Proceso productivo .......................................................................................... 7
3.1.3 Tipos de cemento Portland .............................................................................. 9
3.2 Materiales alternativos al cemento Portland .......................................................... 10
3.2.1 Materiales puzolánicos .................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Materiales Hidráulicos ..................................................................................... 11
3.3 Materiales hidráulicos activados alcalinamente ................................................ 12
3.3.1 Reseña histórica de los materiales obtenidos por activación alcalina. ........... 12
3.3.2 Activación alcalina ......................................................................................... 12
3.3.3 Aspectos químicos......................................................................................... 13
3.4 Geopolímeros ...................................................................................................... 14
3.4.1 Definición ........................................................................................................ 14
3.4.2 Estructura de los Geopolimeros....................................................................... 15
3.4.3 Mecanismo de Geopolimerización ................................................................... 17
3.4.4 Propiedades de los geopolímeros ................................................................... 18
3.4.5 Aplicaciones industriales de los geopolimeros e importancia ........................... 20
3.4.6 Geopolimeros para tratamiento e inmovilización de residuos .......................... 20
3.5 Ceniza volcánica ................................................................................................... 21
3.5.1 Definición ........................................................................................................ 21
3.5.2 Génesis de los suelos derivados de cenizas volcánicas .................................. 21
3.5.3 Localización y distribución en Colombia .......................................................... 23
3.5.4 Composición y características Físico-Químicas ............................................... 23
3.5.5 Consideraciones ambientales relacionadas con la ceniza volcánica ............... 25
3.6 Lixiviación de compuestos químicos ..................................................................... 35
3.6.1 Generalidades ................................................................................................. 35
3.6.2 Tipos de ensayos de lixiviación ....................................................................... 37
3.6.3 Ejemplos de ensayos de lixiviación ................................................................. 39
3.7 Análisis de ciclo de vida en materiales de la construcción .................................... 41
3.7.1 Generalidades ................................................................................................. 41
3.7.2 Definición ........................................................................................................ 42
 VI Contenido

3.7.3 Aspectos ambientales relacionados con el cemento Portland empleando el

ACV…………….........................................................................................................43
3.7.4 Aspectos ambientales relacionados con los geopolímeros...............................51
3.7.5 Comparación ambiental entre la producción de cemento Portland y la
producción de geopolímeros. ....................................................................................54

4. Revisión del estado del arte: Encapsulación con geopolímeros ........................59

4.1 Cenizas Volantes (CV) procedentes de la combustión del carbón .................... 59
4.2 Cenizas volantes procedentes de la incineración de residuos sólidos
municipales ................................................................................................................. 60
4.3 Residuos de horno de arco eléctrico de acero .................................................. 61
4.4 Escorias siderúrgicas de alto horno .................................................................. 61

5. Metodología de la investigación ............................................................................63

5.1 Etapa 1. Construcción del estado del arte y del marco teórico............................... 64
5.2 Etapa 2. Caracterización de la materia prima ........................................................ 64
5.3 Etapa 3. Elaboración del geopolímero ................................................................... 65
5.4 Etapa 4. Análisis de la toxicidad asociada a la materia prima y a los geopolímeros
desarrollados ............................................................................................................... 66
5.5 Etapa 5. Determinación de la efectividad de la inmovilización de metales pesados
en geopolimeros .......................................................................................................... 67
5.6 Etapa 6. Estudio comparativo entre la producción de geopolimeros y la producción
de cemento portland: Análisis de ciclo de vida ............................................................ 67
5.7 Etapa 7. Análisis de los resultados ........................................................................ 67

6. Resultados y análisis..............................................................................................69
6.1 Caracterización de la materia prima .................................................................. 69
6.2 Análisis de la toxicidad asociada a la materia prima y a los geopolímeros
desarrollados ............................................................................................................... 72
6.2.1 Resultados de la aplicación del ensayo de TCLP ...........................................72
6.2.2 Resultados de la aplicación de la norma UNE EN 12457-2 ............................76
6.3 Determinación de la efectividad de inmovilización de metales pesados en
geopolímeros............................................................................................................... 79

7. Discusión general ...................................................................................................83

8.1 Conclusiones ......................................................................................................... 89
8.2 Recomendaciones ................................................................................................. 90
Contenido VII

Lista de figuras
Pág.

Figura 1. Etapas de la fabricación del cemento Portland. ................................................. 9

Figura 2. Representaciones de polisialatos. ................................................................... 16
Figura 3. Formación de suelos derivados de cenizas volcánicas. …………………………22
Figura 4. Distribución espacial de los volcanes (▲) y de los suelos derivados de cenizas
volcánicas (área achurada) en Colombia........................................................................ 24
Figura 5. TAS clasificación de los diferentes tipos de rocas volcánicas ......................... 25
Figura 6. Procesos de los metales pesados en el suelo. ................................................ 29
Figura 7. Factores que influencian la liberación de contaminantes en un material
monolítico. ...................................................................................................................... 36
Figura 8. Factores que influencian la liberación de contaminantes en un material granular.
....................................................................................................................................... 37
Figura 9. Análisis de ciclo de vida................................................................................... 43
Figura 10. Volúmenes globales de la producción de cemento y su distribución en la
primera década del siglo. ............................................................................................... 44
Figura 11. Diagrama del proceso de manufactura del cemento. ..................................... 45
Figura 12. Esquemas de ACV comparativos para diferentes procesos de manufactura de
cemento. ........................................................................................................................ 48
Figura 13. Límites del sistema para la comparación de diferentes composiciones
geopoliméricas. .............................................................................................................. 52
Figura 14. Comparación de resultados de balance de masa y GWP de dos diferentes
composiciones geopoliméricas. ...................................................................................... 53
Figura 15. Límites de los sistemas para la comparación de la producción del concreto de
cemento y geopolimérico. ............................................................................................... 55
Figura 16. Resultados del ACV de concreto de cemento y geopolimérico. .................... 55
Figura 17. Etapas del trabajo de Investigación. Fuente: Construcción propia. ................ 63
Figura 18. Difractograma de rayos X de la puzolana volcánica 1. .................................. 71
Figura 19. Difractograma de rayos X de la puzolana volcánica 2. .................................. 71
Figura 20. Concentraciones de sodio obtenidas para cada intervalo de tiempo.............. 77
Contenido VIII

Lista de tablas
Pág.

Tabla 1. Valores de permeabilidad en cm/s. ................................................................... 19

Tabla 2. Disolución con soluciones acidas al 5% ............................................................ 19
Tabla 3. Materiales, procesos y pasos de la manufactura considerados en el ACV. ....... 49
Tabla 4. Clasificación de entradas y salidas para la manufactura del cemento portland en
categorías de impacto ambiental..................................................................................... 50
Tabla 5. Composición de concreto geopolimérico y de cemento (Kg/m3). ....................... 54
Tabla 6. Diseño de la mezcla 1 (Geopolímero con puzolana 1). ..................................... 65
Tabla 7. Diseño de la mezcla 2 (Geopolímero con puzolana 2). ..................................... 66
Tabla 8. Composición química y propiedades físicas de las puzolanas .......................... 69
Tabla 9. Composición química de la Escoria. .................................................................. 70
Tabla 10. Composición elemental de metales pesados en las puzolanas solas. ............. 72
Tabla 11. Aplicación de TCLP a las puzolanas. .............................................................. 73
Tabla 12. Máximas concentraciones permitidas en los lixiviados de TCLP (US.EPA). ...... 73
Tabla 13. Aplicación de la prueba de TCLP a los geopolimeros. .................................... 74
Tabla 14. Límites máximos permisibles de metales pesados para agua de uso doméstico
según la EPA, OMS y UNE. ............................................................................................ 75
Tabla 15. Resultados de la aplicación de la norma UNE EN 12457-2. ............................ 76
Tabla 16. Límites máximos permisibles para el sodio en agua. ....................................... 78
Tabla 17. Concentraciones de los metales Pb y Ni en los lixiviados. ............................... 79
Tabla 18. Eficiencias de la inmovilización del Pb y Ni. .................................................... 80
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