Garcia 2008 Scale Libro
Garcia 2008 Scale Libro
Garcia 2008 Scale Libro
al Análisis Espacial
de Datos en Ecología
y Ciencias Ambientales:
Métodos y Aplicaciones
FERNANDO T. MAESTRE
ADRIÁN ESCUDERO
ANDREU BONET
(editores)
Servicio
de
Publicaciones
Todos los derechos reservados. Ni la totalidad ni parte de este libro, incluido el diseño
de la cubierta, puede reproducirse o transmitirse por ningún procedimiento electró-
nico o mecánico. Cualquier forma de reproducción, distribución, comunicación
pública o transformación de esta obra solo puede ser realizada con la autorización de
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mento de esta obra.
© Copyright by
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos
Servicio de publicaciones
Los autores
Madrid, 2008
ISBN: 978-84-9849-308-5
Depósito Legal:
Preimpresión:
RESUMEN
A pesar del carácter intuitivo del concepto de escala, durante los últi-
mos 25 años los ecólogos hemos mostrado un interés creciente hacia el he-
cho de que tanto la forma de los patrones como el funcionamiento de los
procesos ecológicos dependen de la escala espacial y temporal (Schneider
2001, Wu y Li 2006). Este aumento de atención parece asociado al uso de la
escala como un concepto integrador, no reduccionista, que mejora nuestra
capacidad para establecer vínculos causales entre patrones, procesos y
mecanismos ecológicos (Levin 1992, Peterson y Parker 1998). Nuestro po-
tencial para predecir y entender el funcionamiento de los sistemas ecoló-
gicos reside, en gran medida, en nuestra capacidad para dilucidar los me-
canismos que subyacen a los patrones ecológicos observables. En este
sentido, sabemos que un mismo proceso ecológico puede generar patro-
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 37
Figura 2.1. Modelo integrado de jerarquía biológica y escala espacial, considerando los niveles de or-
ganización situados entre el individuo y el bioma (modificado de Allen y Hoekstra 1990). Todos los
niveles pueden ser considerados sobre una misma extensión, y esa extensión puede cambiar a lo lar-
go de un gradiente de escala espacial. Las conexiones internas dentro de extensión indican la posibi-
lidad de que una misma realidad biológica se interprete como niveles de organización diferente.
Figura 2.3. Representación del tamaño de grano, la extensión y el espaciamiento en dos diseños de muestreo, uno espacialmente explíci-
to (A), consistente en una serie de cuadrados de muestreo de dimensión estándar distribuidos regularmente sobre una parcela también
cuadrangular, y uno espacialmente implícito (B), basado en los niveles de heterogeneidad estructural correspondientes a árboles indivi-
duales dentro de un rodal forestal.
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 47
Figura 2.4. A) Una extensión de muestreo pequeña recoge un escaso rango de la variabilidad
del parámetro sobre una extensión real dada, mientras que una extensión de muestreo amplia
cubre todo el rango de valores de magnitud del parámetro; B) un muestreo con tamaño de grano
amplio respecto a la extensión (1) sería insensible a la variabilidad real del parámetro, y no
mostraría diferencias en los valores promedio del parámetro entre unidades (grises vs. blancas),
mientras que un muestreo de grano fino (2) mostraría fuertes diferencias entre las distintas
unidades de muestreo; C) la fiabilidad para representar la variación espacial en la abundancia
de un objeto ecológico (gris) cambia al usar unidades de muestreo de distinto tamaño de grano
(1<2<3). El grano muestral ha de ser suficientemente amplio (3) como para representar la
variación en la abundancia del objeto a lo largo de la extensión.
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 49
Figura 2.5. Distribución espacial de un objeto ecológico en el espacio, en forma regular (B), aleatoria (C) y contagiosa (D). El espacio
puede caracterizarse de forma explícita (A), sobre una retícula de 5x5 unidades cuadrangulares, o bien de forma implícita, considerando
dos niveles de heterogeneidad estructural (p. ej. microhábitats) con distintas coloraciones (blanco vs. gris en A). El tamaño del agregado
representa la escala principal de variación espacial en la distribución contagiosa.
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 51
Figura 2.6. A) Depredación de semillas de acebo (Ilex aquifolium) por roedores a lo largo de
un transecto de 2500 m en la Sierra de Peña Mayor-Trigueiro (Asturias, N España; foto sup.
izda.). El transecto se subdividió en 100 unidades contiguas de 25 m. La depredación se evaluó
en enero de 2005, en semillas pegadas en soportes de malla plástica (foto sup. dcha.); B) Corre-
lograma de I de Moran de la tasa de depredación de semillas de I. aquifolium en el marco espa-
cial de dicho transecto. Se consideran 30 clases de distancias entre puntos de muestreo, con 80
m de diferencia de extensión entre clases (clase 1 ~ 80 m; clase 2 ~ 160 m;…). Los valores de I
indican la autocorrelación espacial positiva o negativa para cada clase de distancia (en negro
valores P<0,05 tras corrección de Bonferroni).
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 53
Figura 2.7. Escenarios de variación de la abundancia de un objeto ecológico a lo largo de una extensión espacial donde se consideran dos
escalas diferentes (A), bien de forma explícita (con una retícula de 4x4 de cuadrados pequeños y una retícula de 2x2 de cuadrados
grandes) o de forma implícita (con niveles de heterogeneidad estructural a escala fina, blanco vs. negro, y a escala amplia, gris claro vs.
gris oscuro). La variación puede acumularse a gran escala (B), a escala fina (C), o repartirse proporcionalmente entre las dos escalas, con
agregados grandes que incluyen en su interior agregados pequeños (D).
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 55
Figura 2.8. Desarrollo del Análisis de Coordenadas Principales de Matrices de Vecinos. A par-
tir de una estructura espacial de muestreo dada (transecto de 100 puntos equidistantes sobre
una extensión real de 2500 m en la cordillera Cantábrica), se genera una matriz truncada de
distancias euclídeas que se somete a un método de ordenación para obtener 67 vectores princi-
pales. Estos vectores representan plantillas de variación espacial sobre escalas progresivamente
más finas. Para desglosar la variación pluriescalar de una variable respuesta (logaritmo de la
abundancia de aves frugívoras en otoño-invierno de 2004-05) se seleccionan, mediante un mo-
delo de regresión múltiple, aquellos vectores principales con capacidad explicativa que, en con-
junto, recogen el 68% de la variación espacial explicable de la variable respuesta. Estos vectores
explicativos se agrupan arbitrariamente en tres submodelos espaciales que representan la va-
riación independiente a distintas escalas (macro-, meso- y microescala) y que proporcionan va-
lores predichos con los que interpretar la agregabilidad pluriescalar de la abundancia de aves.
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 57
se señalan las regiones estudiadas, con el número de localidades por región entre paréntesis, y en trama gris el área de distribución de J.
communis). Se indica el reparto de varianza para los distintos niveles evaluados para las dos variables respuesta (B), resultado de un
Análisis de Varianza considerando la región y la localidad (anidada dentro de región) como factores aleatorios y las plantas dentro de
localidad como término de error (véase García et al. 2000b para detalles).
59
60 DANIEL GARCÍA
Figura 2.10. Desglose de varianza y covariación entre parámetros a escalas espaciales múltiples. La fila superior representa la distribución de
una especie vegetal (sp. 1) en el espacio, mostrando agregación espacial a dos escalas, fina y amplia, y el hipotético reparto de varianza espacial
entre dichas escalas. La fila central representa distintos escenarios de distribución espacial de otra especie (sp. 2) en el mismo marco espacial,
con agregados grandes y varianza espacial acumulada en la escala amplia (izda.), con agregados pequeños y varianza acumulada en la escala
fina (centro) y con agregados anidados y varianza repartida entre las dos escalas (dcha.). La fila inferior representa el ajuste de abundancias de
las dos especies (covariación) evaluado en las dos escalas espaciales (la elipse gris representa una hipotética nube de puntos establecida a partir
de un conjunto de unidades muestrales donde se evalúa la abundancia de ambas especies, como en Fig. 2.7). La consistencia entre escalas en la
covariación sólo se produce cuando las abundancias de ambas especies tienen un desglose de varianza espacial similar.
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 63
Figura 2.11. Diseños muestrales para evaluar el cambio en la covariación de dos parámetros
ecológicos (x,y) a lo largo de un gradiente de escala espacial, bien mediante el uso de grupos
muestrales que representan extensiones crecientes de muestreo, conseguidas por adición pro-
gresiva de unidades de muestreo, en posición anidada o no (A), bien mediante la ampliación de
la resolución en la variable predictora, que es medida en superficies crecientes (B).
Figura 2.13. Relación entre la abundancia de frutos de enebro (Juniperus communis) y la interacción con las aves frugívoras
dispersantes (Turdus sp.) en las Sierras Béticas, evaluada a escala de rodal (A), enfrentándose el frugivorismo en distintas plantas
respecto a su tamaño de cosecha (cada línea representa el ajuste de regresión de un rodal, indicándose en trazo continuo cuando el ajuste
es P<0.05; las regresiones se representan forzadas al origen para mejor comparación), y a escala regional (B), enfrentándose la
magnitud de frugivoría y la abundancia de frutos de cada rodal (ajuste de regresión P<0.001; véase García y Ortiz-Pulido 2004 para
detalles).
El concepto de escala y su importancia en el análisis espacial 71
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