Compuestos Fenolicos Aceite Oliva Desarr de Aceite D Oliva F PDF
Compuestos Fenolicos Aceite Oliva Desarr de Aceite D Oliva F PDF
Compuestos Fenolicos Aceite Oliva Desarr de Aceite D Oliva F PDF
Dirigida por :
Dra. M Jos Motilva Casado
Dra. M Paz Romero Fabregat
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Candidata a Grado de Doctor
Arantza Soler Cantero
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Directora
Dra. Mara Jos Motilva Casado
Firma de Aprobacin:
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Directora
Dra. Mara Paz Romero Fabregat
Firma de Aprobacin:
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AGRADECIMIENTOS:
RESUMEN:
El aceite de oliva es la principal fuente de grasa de la dieta mediterrnea. En las ltimas
dcadas esta dieta se ha redescubierto como un modelo de alimentacin capaz de mejorar la
salud de los que la consumen. Los ltimos estudios indican que el aceite de oliva es ms que
una grasa monoinsaturada, atribuyndose a su contenido en compuestos fenlicos una parte de
los efectos beneficiosos sobre la salud. Adems, a diferencia de otros aceites vegetales, el aceite
de oliva virgen se consume sin refinar y no se utilizan disolventes para su extraccin; por ello,
conserva una importante cantidad de fenoles del fruto.
Existen muchos estudios epidemiolgicos, "in vitro" e incluso "in vivo", que corroboran las
diferentes actividades biolgicas que son capaces de desarrollar los compuestos fenlicos del
aceite de oliva y que podran resultar beneficiosas para la salud de los que lo consumen. Se les
ha otorgado capacidad antioxidante, anticancergena, antitrombtica, antiinflamatoria,
antitumoral y antimicrobiana.
Pero todava no se conoce con seguridad si estos compuestos alcanzan los lugares, dentro del
organismo humano, donde podran ser tiles dichas propiedades. Por tanto es necesario
realizar ms investigaciones relacionadas con el grado de biodisponibilidad de dichos
compuestos. Conocer ms acerca de las consecuencias de la digestin y de los canales de
transporte y absorcin de los compuestos fenlicos es un objetivo interesante de alcanzar.
Una vez quede esto desarrollado, podr plantearse la creacin de aceites de oliva enriquecidos
con antioxidantes.
RESUM:
Loli doliva s la principal font de greix de la dieta mediterrnia. Durant les ltimes dcades
aquesta Dieta sha redescobert com un model dalimentaci capa de millorar la salut dels que
la consumeixen. Els ltims estudis indiquen que loli doliva s ms que un greix
monoinsaturat, atribuint-se al seu contingut en compostos fenlics una part dels efectes
beneficiosos per a la salut. A ms, a diferncia daltres olis vegetals, loli doliva verge es
consumeix sense refinar i no sutilitzen dissolvents per a la seva extracci; tant es aix, que
conserva una important quantitat dels fenols del fruit.
Els compostos fenlics, anomenats alguns cops imprpiament polifenols, deriven del
metabolisme secundari de les plantes. Sn estructures qumiques formades per un anell
aromtic unit a un o ms grups hidroxil, incloent-hi tamb derivats funcionals com sters, metil
sters, glicsids, etc. Els components de la fracci fenlica de loli doliva sn molt variats i es
classifiquen en dos grans grups: flavonoides i no flavonoides, i dins daquest ltim tenim els
cids fenlics, secoiridoides, lignans, etc.
Ja fa ms de 40 anys que es van establir lnies dinvestigaci sobre els fenols hidroflics de loli
doliva verge, plantejant-se entre altres la importncia de la naturalesa antioxidant daquestos
sobre la salut dels consumidors i la possibilitat de desenvolupar altres activitats biolgiques
dinters.
Existeixen molts estudis dinters epidemiolgics "in vitro" i tamb "in vivo" que corroboren les
diferents activitats biolgiques que sn capaos de desenvolupar els compostos fenlics de loli
doliva i que podrien resultar beneficiosos per a la salut dels qui el consumeixen. Sels ha
atorgat capacitat antioxidant, anticancergena, antitrombtica, antiinflamatria, antitumoral i
antimicrobiana.
Per encara no es coneix amb seguretat si aquestos compostos arriben a llocs, dintre de
lorganisme hum, on podrien ser tils les propietats esmentades. Per tant s necessari realitzar
ms investigacions relacionades amb el grau de biodisponibilitat daquestos compostos.
Conixer ms sobre les conseqncies de la digesti i dels canals de transport i absorci dels
compostos fenlics s un objectiu interessant dassolir.
Un cop quedi aix desenvolupat, podr plantejar-se la creaci dolis doliva enriquits amb
antioxidants.
ABSTRACT:
Olive oil is the most important source of fat in the Mediterranean diet. In recent decades this
diet has been rediscovered as a model of good nutrition capable of improving the health of
those who follow it. The most recent studies indicate that olive oil is more than simply a
monounsaturated fat, attributing its content of phenolic compounds as the element which is
most beneficial to ones health. Furthermore, in contrast with other vegetable oils, virgin olive
oil is consumed unrefined without a use of solvents in its production. This allows a large
quantity of fruit phenolics to be preserved.
Phenolic compounds, often incorrectly called polyphenols, come from the second stage of plant
metabolism. They are chemical structures formed by an aromatic ring joined to one or more
hydroxyl groups including also functional derivatives like esters, methyl esters, glycosides, etc.
The compounds of the phenolic fraction of olive oil are very diverse and classified to two major
groups: flavonoids and non flavonoids. In this last group we find phenolic acids, secoiridoids,
lignans, etc.
Hydrophilic phenols of virgin olive oil have been studied for the last 40 years, raising amongst
other things the importance of natural antioxidants in the health of consumers and the
possibility to develop other important biological activity.
There are many epidemiological studies both in vitro and in vivo which corroborate
different biological activities which phenolic compounds derived from olive oil can produce,
which would directly benefit the consumer health. Such benefits include antioxidant capacity,
anti-carcinogenic, anti-thrombotic, anti-inflammatory, anti- tumor and anti-microbial.
Even now they are trying to demonstrate the beneficial effect of the antioxidant capacity of
these compounds on human health. Furthermore, the knowledge of its bioavailability is
becoming more and more important to clearly understand its biological activity.
But we still dont know with certainty if these compounds reach the places inside the human
body, where they could be useful in the ways just discussed. Therefore it is necessary to
undertake more research related to the level of bioavailability of the said compounds. To learn
more about the consequences of the digestion and of the channels of transportation and
absorption of the phenolic compounds is of high interest.
Once this has been developed, we could begin to create olive oils enriched with antioxidants.
.
NDICE:
23
Lista de abreviaturas
24
Lista de abreviaturas
25
Lista de abreviaturas
PI Peroxidizability index
PLPC 1-palmitoyllysophosphatidylcholine
POVPC 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-oxovaleryl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
PUFA Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Q-TOF Quadrupole time of flight
RSD Relative standard deviation
S/N Signal-to-noise ratio
SEM Standard error of the mean
SFA Saturated fatty acids
SGPC 1-stearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
SIM Selected-ion monitoring
SPE Solid-Phase-Extraction
SRM Selected reaction monitoring
TEER Trans-epithelial electrical resistance
UPLC Ultraperformance liquid chromatography
UV Ultraviolet
VLDL Very low density lipoprotein
VOO Virgin olive oil
26
2. NDICE DE TABLAS
ndice de tablas
29
ndice de tablas
30
3. NDICE DE FIGURAS
ndice de figuras
33
ndice de figuras
34
ndice de figuras
Figure 8.2 3 Proteins from Cu++-incubated LDL show significant increases in 150
the amounts of oxidation markers whose formation is inhibited
by selected olive-derived polyphenols. A-C show GC/MS
analyses of GSA and AASA (markers of metal-catalyzed
oxidation), and MDAL, originated from lipoxidation. Values
shown are % changes of mean S.E.M. over values from control
LDL (GSA: 594561 mol/mol lysine; AASA: 112820 mol/mol
lysine; and MDAL: 17723 mol/mol lysine); *p<0,05; ** p<0,01
and *** p<0,001 respect to Cu++ incubated LDL. D: protein
lipoxidative damage shows a quadratic relationship with
peroxidizability index (PI) (r2=0,911;p<0,0001; model:[MDAL] =
1,03*[PI]2-151,26*[PI]+5698)
Figure 8.2 4 Olive-derived polyphenols inhibit changes in LDL lipidome 153
induced by Cu++. A: Pie plot showing distribution of differential
lipid species between control and Cu++-incubated LDL. B: Effect
of olive-derived polyphenols in the accumulation of PLPC
induced by Cu++-incubation. C: Effect of olive-derived
polyphenols in the accumulation of SGPC induced by Cu++-
incubation. D: Effect of olive-derived polyphenols in the
accumulation of POVPC induced by Cu++-incubation. E: Effect of
olive-derived polyphenols in the accumulation of PGPC induced
by Cu++-incubation. Values shown are mean S.E.M over values
from Cu++-incubated LDL, *** p<0,001 (n=4 for each data point).
Figure8.2 5 Olive-derived polyphenols inhibit to various extents oxidative- 154
stress induced loss of viability in endothelial and hepatocyte cell-
lines. A: Effect of olive-derived polyphenols in cell death in
HMEC (endothelial cell line) induced by Cu++-incubated LDL; **
p<0,01 and *** p<0,001 respect to cell death induced by Cu++
incubated LDL (n=6 for each data point). Values shown are mean
S.E.M. over values from samples treated with control LDL B:
Effect of olive-derived polyphenols in HepG2 capacity to
withstand t-BOOH induced cell death; *** p<0,001 respect to cell
death induced by t-BOOH (n=6 for each data point). Values
shown are % changes of mean S.E. over values from control
samples. C: Endothelial cell death induced by Cu++-incubated
LDL is strongly correlated with GSA content (r=-0.734; p<0,016 by
the Pearson correlation test)
35
ndice de figuras
36
ndice de figuras
37
ndice de figuras
38
4. CAPTULO I: INTRODUCCIN
Aceite de oliva virgen alimento funcional?
A pesar de las diferentes teoras sobre el origen del aceite de oliva, la ms aceptada defiende
que el origen geogrfico del olivo se encuentra en el Asia Menor, seis milenios antes de nuestra
era. En la literatura clsica ha quedado reflejado su consumo por egipcios, griegos, romanos e
israeles en sus respectivos auges culturales. Se cree que su consumo se extendi a travs de
Chipre, al Mediterrneo Oriental, gracias a comerciantes fenicios, los mismos que lo llevaran a
la Pennsula Ibrica.
Sin embargo, la autntica difusin del aceite de oliva se ha producido en nuestra poca. El aceite
de oliva es considerado la principal fuente de grasa vegetal de la Dieta Mediterrnea. En las
ltimas dcadas esta dieta se ha redescubierto como un modelo de alimentacin capaz de
mejorar la salud de los que la consumen y el aceite de oliva es una de las claves de ello. Los
ltimos estudios indican que el aceite de oliva es ms que una grasa monoinsaturada,
atribuyndose a su contenido en determinados compuestos minoritarios una parte de los
efectos beneficiosos sobre la salud. Esto es debido a que, a diferencia de otros aceites vegetales,
el aceite de oliva se extrae sin el uso de disolventes y se consume sin refinar. Por tanto, se trata
de un zumo extrado exclusivamente mediante tratamientos fsicos [2, 3] que conserva una
importante cantidad de componentes minoritarios, presentes en el fruto de la oliva, de gran
inters. Sin embargo, existen diferentes calidades dentro de los aceites de oliva. Es la categora
virgen extra la nica con un porcentaje elevado de los componentes minoritarios y por tanto la
de mayor inters nutricional.
Para responder a esta pregunta es necesario demostrar cientficamente que el aceite de oliva rico
en compuestos fenlicos cumple esta definicin.Tras esto, deber superar los requisitos
impuestos por la legislacin vigente, para poder presentarse en el mercado como un aceite de
oliva funcional rico en compuestos fenlicos capaz de mejorar la dieta de sus consumidores y
tener efectos cardioprotectores. Sin embargo, esta legislacin todava no se ha redactado de
forma definitiva, en el ltimo punto de esta introduccin se recoge el estado mas actual de la
normativa para alimentos funcionales.
41
Captulo I: Introduccin
La mayor parte de los cidos grasos estn presentes como triacilgliceroles. Graciani en 1988 [4]
ya llev a cabo un trabajo para caracterizar los principales aceites de oliva espaoles,
estableciendo valores medios tpicos para los triacilgliceroles mayoritarios. Los triacilgliceroles
mayoritarios en el aceite de oliva son la triolena (OOO), la dioleopalmitina (POO) y la
dioleolinoleina (OOL). La composicin caracterstica bsica de los cidos grasos que forman los
triacilglicridos del aceite de oliva muestra claramente el predominio del cido oleico, aunque la
variabilidad debida sobre todo a factores agroclimticos es muy elevada (Tabla I 1). Pese a esta
variabilidad, tan solo una proporcin muy baja de cidos grasos saturados (<1,3%) ocupa la
posicin 2 del triglicerido. Por ello, la fraccin de triacilglicridos es utilizada como un criterio
de pureza, para diferenciar el aceite de oliva de otros tipos de aceite.
Tabla I 1. Composicin caracterstica bsica de los cidos grasos mayoritarios del aceite de oliva.
42
Aceite de oliva virgen alimento funcional?
Tocoferoles: 7 30 mg/100 g
-tocoferol > 93 %
y -tocoferol < 10 % del total de tocoferoles
-tocoferol < 1,5 %
43
Captulo I: Introduccin
4.2.1 CLASIFICACIN
Se han llegado a identificar ms de 8.000 compuestos fenlicos con estructura muy variada, por
lo que su clasificacin es una tarea compleja. Una de las ms utilizadas es la enunciada por
Harborne y col. (1989)[9], que agrupa los fenoles en diez clases, dependiendo de su estructura
qumica bsica. La clasificacin se muestra en la Tabla I 3.
As, los compuestos fenlicos comprenden desde molculas simples como los cidos benzoicos
hasta polmeros complejos como los taninos condensados. Cada una de las familias agrupa un
nmero de compuestos fenlicos ms o menos variado, siendo la familia de los flavonoides, con
cerca de 4.000 estructuras diferentes una de las ms estudiadas.
44
Compuestos fenlicos
Tabla I 3: Clasificacin de los compuestos fenlicos en funcin de la estructura qumica bsica enunciada
por Harborne.
NUMERO DE
TOMOS DE ESQUELETO CLASE
CARBONO
6 C6 Fenoles Simples, Benzoquinonas
7 C6 C 1 Acidos Fenolicos
8 C6 C 2 Acetofenona, Acido Fenilactico
9 C6 C 3 Acidohidroxicinamico, Cromonas, Coumarinas,
Isocoumarinas, Polipropenos
10 C6 C 4 Naftoquinonas
13 C6 C 1 C 6 Xantonas
14 C6 C 2 C 6 Estilbenos, Antraquinonas
15 C6 C 3 C 6 Flavonoides, Isoflavonoides
18 (C6 C3)2 Lignanos, Neolignanos
30 (C6 C3 C6)2 Biflavonoides
n (C6C3)n Ligninas
(C6)n Catecolmelanina
(C6 - C3 - C6)n (Taninos Condensados)
Fuente: Harborne , 1989[9]
La posible funcionalidad de los compuestos fenlicos en las plantas ha sido a lo largo de los
aos un tema complejo. Ya en 1917, M. Wheldale [11] escribi un libro sobre el papel de los
antocianos en las plantas. Esta investigadora haba observado que los antocianos de las plantas
tenan numerosos efectos protectores, tales como favorecer el camuflaje e incluso atraer insectos
contribuyendo de esta manera a la polinizacin, pero las explicaciones que demostraban una
funcionalidad en una determinada planta presentaban numerosas excepciones que quedaban
sin explicacin en otras plantas. Actualmente una de las explicaciones ms aceptadas a la
sntesis de fenoles en las plantas es como respuesta al estrs. Las plantas estn casi de forma
continua sometidas a un estrs ambiental debido a radiaciones UV, altas temperaturas
particularmente en zonas de clima mediterrneo, baja disponibilidad de agua, plagas, etc.
Existen estudios que demuestran como las plantas sintetizan compuestos fenlicos para
portegerse de los herbvoros (insectos o vertebrados)[12-15] o de las radiaciones UV u otras
situaciones de estrs fsico[15-17]. Otro papel a parte de este es el ser atrayentes de animales
polinizadores y/o diseminadores de semillas[9, 15], el actuar como seales qumicas entre
plantas y microorganismos simbiticos [18, 19] y el ejercer una funcin estructural, por el efecto
de las ligninas en el soporte mecnico de las plantas [15].
45
Captulo I: Introduccin
Pero los compuestos fenlicos no slo son importantes para la planta, tambin tienen
consecuencias para los animales y humanos, ya que los incorporamos a nuestro organismo con
el consumo de alimentos de origen vegetal.
Sin embargo, la principal razn que ha hecho que el estudio de los compuestos fenlicos haya
sido objeto de numerosas investigaciones en los ltimos 15 aos es su contribucin a la mejora
de la salud. En los ltimos aos se han acumulado evidencias de que algunos compuestos
fenlicos ingeridos con la dieta habitual pueden tener implicaciones sobre la salud humana,
concretamente en la reduccin de la incidencia de enfermedades cardiovasculares y de algunos
tipos de cncer. De hecho, desde 1990, varias organizaciones internacionales del mbito de la
nutricin, como la OMS, la CIIC o la AAR, recomiendan un consumo diario de antioxidantes,
principalmente a travs de frutas y verduras, con el fin de prevenir o atenuar patologas
asociadas al estrs oxidativo celular [21-25].Dentro de este grupo de antioxidantes se
encontraran carotenoides, licopenos, Vitamina C, Zinc, Selenio, etc.adems de los compuestos
fenlicos.
Los compuestos fenlicos forman parte de la fraccin minoritaria del aceite de oliva. La pulpa
del fruto de la oliva contiene elevadas concentraciones de compuestos fenlicos, entre 20 y 50
g/kg, aunque tan slo una pequea parte pasan al aceite durante el proceso de extraccin [26].
El hecho de que su concentracin en el aceite sea mucho ms baja que en el fruto es
consecuencia de su naturaleza hidrosoluble, lo que hace que la mayor parte de los compuestos
fenlicos queden retenidos en las aguas de vegetacin del fruto y en el agua adicionada durante
el proceso. Sin embargo, pese a su baja concentracin en el aceite de oliva su importancia es
destacable. En los aos 70 se publicaron los primeros trabajos en los que se asoci la estabilidad
a la autooxidacin de los aceites de oliva con el elevado contenido de compuestos fenlicos [27],
y estudios posteriores confirmaron su implicacin en los atributos amargo y picante del aceite
de oliva virgen [20, 28].
La identificacin de los compuestos fenlicos del aceite se inici en los aos 70 aplicando
tcnicas cromatogrficas de la poca, con muchas limitaciones para la cuantificacin e
identificacin, como las cromatografas en columna y de capa fina. En estos primeros estudios
se identificaron tirosol e hidroxitirosol, as como los flavonoides luteolina y apigenina y algunos
cidos fenlicos [29-32]. Fue a partir de los aos 90, con el desarrollo de las tcnicas analticas
como la cromatografa lquida de alta resolucin acoplada a detectores de espectrometra de
masas y la resonancia magntica nuclear, cuando se iniciaron investigaciones para alcanzar un
mejor conocimiento de la composicin de la fraccin fenlica de olivas y aceite, destacando en
46
Compuestos fenlicos
particular los trabajos de la Universidad de Perugia (Italia), en los que se identificaron las
estructuras de los derivados secoiridoides mayoritarios del aceite de oliva [33-36]. Los
secoiridoides son compuestos derivados de la oleuropena y el ligustrsido, que son los fenoles
mayoritarios del fruto. Posteriormente se ampli el conocimiento de la fraccin fenlica con la
identificacin de nuevos compuestos como los lignanos [37, 38]. La identificacin completa de la
fraccin fenlica del aceite de oliva virgen an hoy en da permanece incompleta.
Los principales fenoles del aceite de oliva virgen pertenecen a las familias de los cidos
fenlicos, alcoholes fenlicos, flavonoides, secoiridoides y lignanos [3, 34].
47
Captulo I: Introduccin
Figura I 1. Estructura de los principales cidos fenlicos y derivados de la oliva y del aceite de oliva.
cido benzoico, (II) cido p-hidroxibenzoico, (III) cido vainllico, (IV) cido protocatquico, (V) cido
sirngico, (VI) cido glico, (VII) cido sinpico, (VII)cido p-cumrico, (VIII)cido o-cumrico,
(IX)cido cafeco, (XI)cido ferlico. (A)Verbascsido, (B) Vainillina.
48
Compuestos fenlicos
49
Captulo I: Introduccin
Figura I 3. Estructura de los principales fenoles simples y derivados secoiridoides. (A) Tirosol o p-
HPEA, (B) Hidroxitirosol o 3,4-DHPEA. Formas aldehdicas: (I) p-HPEA-EA, (II) 3,4-DHPEA-EA. Formas
dialdehdicas: (III) p-HPEA-EDA, (IV) 3,4-DHPEA-EDA. (V) Forma dialdehdica de la oleuropena
aglicona, (VI) Forma dialdehdica del ligustrsido aglicona.
Durante el proceso de extraccin del aceite de oliva virgen la hidrlisis de los derivados
secoiridoides da origen a sus formas ms simples como el hidroxitirosol o 2-(3,4)-dihidroxifenil
etanol (3,4-DHPEA) y el tirosol o 2-(4-hidroxifenil etanol) (p-HPEA)[34]. Tambin estn
presentes compuestos que los contienen en sus estructura, tales como el hidroxitirosol
acetato[58], el 4-acetoxietil-1,2-dihidroxibenceno (3,4-DHPEA-AC) [58], el tirosol acetato [59] y
la forma glicosilada del hidroxitirosol [60].
50
Compuestos fenlicos
En la actualidad todava hay componentes de la fraccin fenlica del aceite de oliva virgen que
se mantienen sin identificar. La aplicacin de tcnicas analticas, como el acoplamiento a los
sistemas de cromatografa de detectores de masas en tndem, ha permitido confirmar la
complejidad de la fraccin de los derivados secoiridoides, habindose detectado numerosas
estructuras ismeras de algunos compuestos que hacen muy compleja la cuantificacin por
tcnicas de deteccin clsicas como la fluorimetra o los fotodiodos. Caruso et al., 2000[61] y
Visioli et al., (2002) [62] ya sealaron el problema a la hora de cuantificar la oleuropena aglicona
y proponen el uso de la espectrometra de masas/masas como una de las tcnicas para
identificar los picos correspondientes a los diferentes ismeros. De forma similar Vissers et al.
(2002), [63] seala la existencia de hasta 10 estructuras isomricas de la oleuropena aglicona.
Probablemente, la necesidad de tcnicas de deteccin complejas sea la causa de que en
numerosos artculos cientficos recientes se identifiquen como derivado de la oleuropena o del
ligustrsido bastantes compuestos, sin llegar a dilucidar la estructura. De la Torre y col. (2005)
[64]han llegado a asignar estructura de derivado secoiridoide a 23 compuestos fenlicos de un
extracto de aceite de oliva.
Flavonoides:
Los flavonoides del aceite de oliva que fueron identificados en primer lugar son las
flavonas luteolina y apigenina, presentes en forma libre y glicosiladas[65]. Las formas
glicosiladas aparecen principalmete en el fruto, mientras que las formas mayoritarias en
el aceite son las libres. Su estructura se detalla en la Figura I 4. Recientemente se ha
encontrado en un aceite de oliva espaol el (+)-taxifolin [56].
R 3'
H 3' R 4'
2' 4'
B
R7 8
O 2
1
6'
5'
H
A C
6 4 3
5 R3
OH O
Estructura Flavonoides
Compuestos R7 R3 R3 R4
Apigenina OH H H OH
Apigenina-7-Glucsido Glc H H OH
Luteolina OH H OH OH
Luteolina -7-Glucsido Glc H OH OH
Figura I 4. Estructura de los flavonoides mayoritarios del aceite de oliva.
51
Captulo I: Introduccin
Lignanos:
Figura I 5. Estructura de los lignanos presentes en aceite. (A) (+) 1- acetoxipinoresinol, (B) (+) -
1Pinoresinol.
Otros Compuestos:
Tambin se encuentran en el aceite de oliva otros compuestos no pertenecientes a las familias
descritas anteriormente, tales como el aldehdo fenlico vainillina, y el verbascsido, un
hetersido del acido cafeico y el hidroxitirosol cuya presencia en el aceite fue confirmada por
Servili y col en 1999.[68]
52
Fenoles y actividad antioxidante
Los mecanismos de accin y particularidades por los que los fenoles presentan actividad
antioxidante son diversos. Cada fenol actuar por uno o ms mecanismos, segn sus
propiedades caractersticas. La explicacin qumica de estos mecanismos tan slo se conoce para
determinados grupos de fenoles. Algunos de los mecanismos que han sido dilucidados son los
siguientes[69] :
Actuacin como secuestradores de radicales libres. Cada uno de los fenoles tienen distinta
especificidad por las distintas especies oxidantes que se generan en el organismo.
53
Captulo I: Introduccin
LO + ArO LOOAr
Pero debemos tener en cuenta, que el radical aroxil formado con la oxidacin del antioxidante
tambin puede reaccionar en algunos casos contribuyendo a la produccin de nuevos radicales
libres [73].
ArO + LH ArOH + L
La influencia de la estructura qumica del compuesto fenlico ejerce una notable influencia en
su actividad como antioxidante. As, el impedimento estrico de algunos cidos fenlicos, como
el acido cafeico, hace que se produzcan ms frecuentemente las reacciones que dan productos
no reactivos frente a las reacciones que dan radicales libres, por lo que globalmente se observa
una inhibicin de la oxidacin lipdica. En general, los o-difenoles, como son el cido cafeico, el
hidroxitirosol y la oleuropena, presentan una elevada capacidad antioxidante si los
comparamos con cidos fenlicos con menor impedimento estrico como es el tirosol [73] ,
debido a la presencia de dos grupos hidroxi en posicin orto, tambin llamado grupo cateclico.
Lo ideal, adems, es que el radical libre antioxidante resultante, no inicie nuevos radicales
libres, ni sea susceptible de una oxidacin rpida por una reaccin en cadena. En este sentido
los antioxidantes fenlicos ocupan una posicin privilegiada. Son excelentes donadores de
54
Fenoles y actividad antioxidante
Tambin hay numerosas publicaciones acerca del mecanismo de actuacin de flavonoides en los
procesos oxidativos. Los flavonoides estn formados por 3 anillos (A, B y C) (Figura I 6), cada
uno de los cuales presenta distintos grados de hidroxilacin y metilacin y pueden aparecer
como glucsidos o como agliconas. Adems de comportarse como donadores de hidrgeno
tambin actan como agentes quelantes de iones metlicos iniciadores de la formacin de
radicales lipdicos.
Flavonas Flavonoles
Flavanonas Flavanos
La capacidad para combinarse con metales tambin inhibe los procesos de degradacin
oxidativa. Esta accin se ve favorecida cuando el flavonoide tiene a) un grupo hidroxi mltiple,
siendo el 3,4-dihidroxi, la configuracin con ms actividad, b) un grupo 4-carboxi y un grupo
55
Captulo I: Introduccin
Figura I 7. Mecanismo de quelacin de metales desarrollado por flavonas y flavononas propuesto por
Hudson y Lewis [74] (Hudson y col., 1983)
56
Fenoles y actividad antioxidante
La investigacin debe demostrar dicha capacidad e intentar dar una aproximacin ms real del
efecto potencial que podra ejercer in vivo un alimento rico en sustancias antioxidantes [85]. Para
ello se mide la actividad antioxidante total del compuesto, extracto, ingrediente o alimento, o
bien la actividad antioxidante de muestras biolgicas relacionadas con ste. De esta manera se
puede obtener informacin sobre posibles procesos de adicin y sinergia que se producen como
consecuencia de interacciones entre distintas molculas bioactivas en la matriz de la muestra
analizada. Por lo general, la actividad antioxidante total es mayor que la correspondiente a la
suma de las actividades de los antioxidantes individuales que la componen, aunque tambin se
pueden observar inhibiciones.
Este comportamiento tan diverso es crucial en los ensayos in vivo, en los que la ingesta de un
poderoso inhibidor de la oxidacin de lpidos podra inducir enfermedades al causar daos
oxidativos en el ADN. Este comportamiento obliga a realizar numerosos ensayos in vitro e in
vivo antes de autorizar el uso de un compuesto como aditivo antioxidante en alimentos.
Un problema adicional es la gran cantidad de mtodos que existen para medir la capacidad
antioxidante de un compuesto, siendo difcil la eleccin del mtodo ptimo y la interpretacin
de resultados obtenidos con mtodos diferentes. Por tanto, la evaluacin de la efectividad de un
alimento rico en antioxidantes se ha de abordar de distintas maneras.
57
Captulo I: Introduccin
principalmente por la rapidez, reproducibilidad y bajo coste de este tipo de mtodos. Como
aval de la utilidad de estos mtodos, algunos estudios han mostrado buenas correlaciones entre
los resultados obtenidos en modelos animales con los resultados de la actividad antioxidante in
vitro. A continuacin se resumen las metodologas ms utilizadas en el estudio in vitro de la
actividad antioxidante de compuestos fenlicos.
El ensayo Folin-Ciocalteu ha sido utilizado durante muchos aos como una medida del
contenido en compuestos fenlicos totales en productos naturales. Sin embargo, el mecanismo
bsico del mtodo es una reaccin redox por lo que puede considerarse como otro mtodo de
medida de la actividad antioxidante total [87]. La oxidacin de los fenoles presentes en la
muestra en contacto con el reactivo de Folin-Ciocalteu causa la aparicin de una coloracin azul
que presenta un mximo de absorcin a 765 nm y que se cuantifica por espectrofotometra en
base a una recta patrn de un fenol de referencia, habitualmente cido glico o cido cafeico.
Se trata de un mtodo simple y sensible pero que presenta algunas interferencias debidas a
diversas sustancias de naturaleza no fenlica que tambin desarrollan coloracin azul
interfiriendo en la determinacin, y que pueden dar lugar a una sobreestimacin de la
concentracin fenlica de una muestra. Entre ellas destacan las protenas, el cido ascrbico, el
cido rico, algunos aminocidos y nucletidos, azcares y algunas sales inorgnicas [87]. No
obstante, a pesar de estos inconvenientes, el ensayo de los fenoles totales se emplea con
frecuencia en el estudio de las propiedades antioxidantes de alimentos vegetales (ej. frutas y
zumos de frutas), al tratarse de un parmetro que generalmente muestra una estrecha
correlacin con diferentes mtodos de medida de la actividad antioxidante [88].
58
Fenoles y actividad antioxidante
Esta estrategia de medir los productos de la oxidacin secundaria parece adecuada para el
estudio de sistemas lipdicos, as como en lpidos aislados de su entorno biolgico, como los
microsomas o las lipoproteinas de baja densidad (LDL). Los tres mtodos ms comnmente
utilizados son el mtodo del cido tiobarbitrico (TBARS), el ndice de anisidida para
determinar aldehdos voltiles y la determinacin por cromatografa de gases de los
compuestos resultantes del proceso de oxidacin, como alcoholes, aldehdos, cetonas, cidos
carboxlicos de cadena corta e hidrocarburos. As, el propanal es el principal marcador de la
oxidacin de los cidos n-3, mientras que el hexanal lo es de la familia de cidos n-6.
Tambin pertenecen a este grupo el mtodo Rancimat [91]. El mtodo Rancimat se designa
tambin como test de Swift automatizado o test de oxidacin acelerado y se emplea
ampliamente como variante automatizada del mtodo AOM (Active Oxygen Method). El
Rancimat es un equipo que permite inducir la oxidacin forzada de una grasa a la que se puede
haber aadido el antioxidante objeto de estudio, o bien lo puede contener de forma natural
como es el caso del aceite de oliva virgen. Es quizs uno de los mtodos ms habituales que
emplea la industria alimentaria para evaluar la estabilidad oxidativa de alimentos grasos. En el
caso concreto del aceite de oliva, los resultados de los anlisis Rancimat muestran buena
correlacin con el contenido en fenoles totales [44, 92].
El mtodo ORAC ha alcanzado una gran difusin debido que ha sido adaptado a la medida en
microplaca [93, 94], por lo que ha disminuido considerablemente el tiempo de anlisis al poder
determinar varias muestras a la vez. Adems ofrece solucin a otro de los problemas con los
que el investigador se encuentra a la hora de medir actividad antioxidante: el antioxidante ha de
ser soluble en los medios de reaccin. En el mtodo ORAC se ha propuesto una alternativa y se
59
Captulo I: Introduccin
distingue entre ORAC lipoflico y ORAC hidroflico, es decir, es posible asignar la actividad
antioxidante a la fraccin hidroflica y lipoflica del alimento [94]. Estas ventajas, unidas a que la
FDA ha publicado tablas de referencia de actividad ORAC en alimentos
(http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp) han hecho que sea uno de los mtodos de mayor
aplicacin en la actualidad.
Los mtodos ex vivo son un avance en el estudio de la capacidad antioxidante intentando una
mayor aproximacin a las condiciones fisiolgicas. Estn considerados como una etapa previa a
los estudios en modelos animales y en humanos, dado que estos ltimos son muy costosos y
deben llevarse a cabo con un objetivo mucho ms concreto. Con los modelos ex-vivo hay
ventajas econmicas, adems de que ofrecen la posibilidad de criopreservacin de los sustratos
y de las lneas celulares durante largos periodos de tiempo, adems de la facilidad de control de
las condiciones experimentales.
En los estudios con cultivos celulares para determinar la capacidad antioxidante encontramos 4
etapas fundamentales:
60
Fenoles y actividad antioxidante
muestra que sean txicas para las clulas en cultivo, para posteriormente emplear aquellas dosis
no txicas en la caracterizacin del efecto protector de la muestra.
Suplementacin de las clulas con dosis no citotxicas de la muestra: las clulas son
incubadas con el compuesto puro o el extracto que lo contiene.
Induccin del estrs oxidativo. Las sustancias utilizadas para inducir el estrs oxidativo en
estos ensayos son muy variadas: perxidos orgnicos e inorgnicos, sistemas oxidantes basados
en reacciones de Fenton, glutamato, peroxinitrito, etc Entre estas sustancias, las ms
frecuentemente usadas y mejor caracterizadas son el perxido de hidrgeno (H2O2) y el tert-
butilhidroperxido (tB-OOH), dos compuestos capaces de inducir eficazmente la muerte celular
y causar dao oxidativo al ADN, a los lpidos de membrana y a otras biomolculas [99].
61
Captulo I: Introduccin
metabolitos generados en los procesos digestivos. Adems, estos estudios requieren tcnicas
analticas especficas como la cromatografa liquida acoplada a la espectrometra de masas para
obtener datos consistentes [103, 106, 107].
Por esta razn, en los estudios de intervencin que incluyen la ingesta de alimentos ricos en
antioxidantes es muy til la evaluacin de la modificacin de biomarcadores del dao oxidativo
sobre las principales molculas diana del organismo: ADN, lpidos y protenas. Adems, en
estos estudios es habitual determinar la actividad o capacidad antioxidante total del plasma o
suero, que nos da informacin de la capacidad general de respuesta ante la oxidacin y sobre
posibles efectos cooperativos entre los distintos componentes de los sistemas de defensa
antioxidante. De este modo, obtenemos informacin sobre el efecto de la exposicin del
organismo a los compuestos antioxidantes de la dieta [100, 108]. A continuacin se describen
brevemente algunos de los biomarcadores del dao oxidativo ms frecuentemente empleados
en modelos de cultivos celulares y en estudios de intervencin.
A menudo se miden los niveles de productos de la oxidacin de las bases nitrogenadas del
ADN como la 8-oxo-7,8-dihidroguanina (8-OHdG). Las determinaciones se pueden realizar
mediante anlisis cromatogrficos (CG-MS, HPLC-DAD, HPLC-tandem MS), pruebas
inmunoqumicas (ELISA), o con el uso del enzima formamidopirimidina ADN glicosilasa que
convierte la 8-OHdG en hebras de ADN rotas, las cuales posteriormente son detectadas
mediante el ensayo Comet [100].
Un mtodo con una sensibilidad similar al anterior, pero en el que no se realiza electroforesis
es el Ensayo Halo Alcalino [109]. Las clulas fijadas en gel se incuban en un tampn alcalino
(pH 13) y los fragmentos de ADN se desplazan de modo radial generando una imagen al
microscopio que se asemeja a un halo concntrico a los restos del ncleo. El rea del halo
aumenta a medida que aumenta la fragmentacin del ADN, en un proceso asociado a una
reduccin progresiva del rea correspondiente a los restos del ncleo.
62
Fenoles y actividad antioxidante
Otros indicadores de la peroxidacin lipdica in vivo son los hidrocarburos exhalados, tales
como pentano, que deriva de la oxidacin de cidos grasos n-6, y etano, que resulta de la
oxidacin de cidos grasos n-3 [108]. No obstante, estos hidrocarburos son considerados
productos minoritarios de la peroxidacin lipdica[110].
Cada uno de los distintos tipos de metodologa presentan sus limitaciones, pero la combinacin
de la informacin obtenida mediante pruebas qumicas en conjunto con datos obtenidos con
clulas en cultivo y estudios de intervencin en humanos, hacen posible una caracterizacin
adecuada de la seguridad y eficacia de un alimento funcional, as como de los mecanismos de
63
Captulo I: Introduccin
accin de sus compuestos bioactivos. Todos estos requisitos son necesarios para la validacin de
las declaraciones nutricionales y sus potenciales efectos beneficiosos.
64
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
65
Captulo I: Introduccin
La absorcin intstinal, donde puede tener lugar otro proceso metablico en los
enterocitos de la pared intestinal.
El metabolismo heptico.
Asimismo, hay que tener en cuenta que el grado de biodisponibilidad vara ampliamente en
funcin del tipo de polifenol. Tanto la etapa de digestin y absorcin a travs del tracto
intestinal como el transporte, metabolismo y efecto biolgico se ven ampliamente influenciados
por la estructura qumica del compuesto. Al mismo tiempo, se debe tener muy presente que las
formas metablicas que circulan en sangre y llegan a los rganos diana, no tienen porque
desarrollar la misma actividad biolgica y con el mismo rango de accin que sus formas nativas.
Esto obliga a conocer bien la biodisponibilidad de los fenoles si se quieren afirmar sus efectos
en el consumidor y realizar alegaciones de salud sobre ellos.
Por ltimo, cabe destacar los efectos de la matriz de los alimentos sobre la biodisponibilidad
de los polifenoles. Pueden darse interacciones directas entre los polifenoles y algunos
componentes de los alimentos, como protenas y polisacridos, que podran afectar al proceso
de absorcin de estos compuestos. Tambin, la presencia en la dieta de algunos micronutrientes
o agentes xenobiticos [21], pueden inducir o inhibir enzimas y /o transportadores
involucrados en la absorcin y metabolismo de los polifenoles. En el caso particular del aceite
de oliva, algunos estudios han encontrado una baja disponibilidad de ciertos fenoles y
flavonoides, debido a la fuerte interaccin que existe entre ellos y la matriz alimentaria [118].
66
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
Como se puede observar en el esquema, los compuestos fenlicos estn sujetos aun extensivo
metabolismo heptico/intestinal en el organismo humano [117, 120-122].
El proceso de digestin
Los polifenoles provenientes de la dieta en un primer lugar se ven sometidos a todo el proceso
de digestin, en el cual factores como el pH gstrico e intestinal, las fermentaciones intestinales,
la excrecin biliar, el tiempo de trnsito en el tubo digestivo, etc., pueden afectar a la
biodisponibilidad en general y a la absorcin de los polifenoles en particular.
La mayora de los compuestos fenlicos se encuentra en los alimentos en forma de esteres,
glicsidos o polmeros. Generalmente los glicsidos resisten la hidrlisis acida del estomago y
llegan intactos al duodeno [123].
El proceso de absorcin
67
Captulo I: Introduccin
Por lo general, en el intestino delgado solamente se absorben las agliconas y algunos glucsidos.
[128-130]. En el ao 2000, Scalbert [125] y col., basndose en datos obtenidos en estudios con
humanos, estudios de especificidad enzimtica y mediante modelos animales, desarrollaron
una hiptesis de trabajo que permita realizar una prediccin de la absorcin de los compuestos
fenlicos de la dieta. Esta hiptesis queda esquematizada en la Figura I 9. Pese a todo esto,
todava no se conocen todos los mecanismos de la absorcin gastrointestinal de los polifenoles.
Esta hiptesis de trabajo se basaba en los siguientes resultados, los cuales generalmente han
sido corroborados con estudios posteriores:
68
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
A nivel del proceso metablico, la importancia relativa de los tres tipos de conjugaci,
(metilacin, sulfatacin y glucuronidacin) vara acorde con la naturaleza del substrato y con la
dosis ingerida del mismo. Posteriormente a estas conjugaciones, estos compuestos posiblemente
sufran procesos de reconjugacin, incluyendo deglucuronidaciones, seguidas de sulfataciones.
Esto se ha podido observar en la quercetina.
Existe por tanto un complejo conjunto de enzimas que regulan la produccin y liberacin de los
diferentes metabolitos de los compuestos fenlicos, lo cual afecta a su vez al sitio de accin y a
la interaccin con otros compuestos. Los enzimas ms destacados son:
69
Captulo I: Introduccin
70
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
71
Captulo I: Introduccin
Figura I 10 Esquema simplificado que muestra el metabolismo de los polifenoles. CBG: -glucosidasa
citoslica; LPH: lactato florizin hidrolasa; COMT: catecol-O-metil-transferasa; UDPGT: UDP glucuronosil
transferasa; SULT: sulfotransferasa. Adaptado de Scalbert,2000 [125] .
El proceso de transporte en plasma.
Aquellos compuestos fenlicos que sean absorbidos, conjugados o no, son transportados en
plasma a los distintos tejido y rganos. Diversos estudios han intentado caracterizar el perfil
fenlico del plasma a nivel de concentraciones mximas, vidas medias, estructuras qumicas
en las que se transforman y mecanismos de tranasporte.
En el primer caso, el tipo de fenol y de fuente alimentaria son factores determinantes. Los datos
que se conocen oscilan entre unos 0,1 a unos 0,75 moles equivalentes de quercetina/L de
plasma[21]. Por otro lado, la vida media en sangre de los compuestos fenlicos no es muy
conocida, se estima que es de 11 a 28 h para la quercetina, de 4 a 8 h para las isoflavonas o de
unas 2 horas para los antocianos [10]. Generalmente, los principales compuestos que circulan
por el torrente sanguneo son conjugados glucurnidos [21].
Por otro lado se ha estudiado los mecanismos de transporte, determinndose que pocas veces
circulan libres en sangre. En general los compuestos fenlicos y sus metabolitos muestran una
mayor afinidad por los ambientes acuosos del organismo debido a su carcter hidroflico [21].
Estudios in vitro e in vivo han mostrado su afinidad por las protenas plasmticas,
principalmente la albmina, exceptuando los antocianos, que circulan mayoritariamente en
forma glucosdica [149]. Pero esta afinidad vara en funcin de las caractersticas estructurales
de los compuestos fenlicos, por ejemplo en funcin de la posicin de la sulfatacin o
glucuronidacin [21]. Cuando se origina un cambio conformacional en la albmina, por ejemplo
por cambios en el pH, se produce la disociacin de los polifenoles ligados, incorporndose estos
a las clulas y tejidos [21]. A este respecto un estudio in vitro ha revelado la posibilidad de un
flujo bidireccional de quercetina entre la albmina y la hemoglobina. Esto sugiere que los
eritrocitos puedan desempear un papel importante en la distribucin y biodisponibilidad de
los compuestos fenlicos circulantes, al actuar como reservorios naturales de estas
sustancias[162].
Pero estudios in vitro e in vivo sugieren que, aunque en menor medida, las lipoprotenas estaran
implicadas en el transporte de los compuestos fenlicos [163]. Los polifenoles se asocian a las
lipoprotenas a travs de interacciones inicas con residuos que se encuentran cargados en la
superficie de la partcula [164, 165]. Es este mismo hecho lo que explica, entre otras causas, su
capacidad para inhibir la peroxidacin lipdica, particularmente a nivel de las LDL, como se ha
planteado en este trabajo.
El metabolismo heptico
Cuando llegan al hgado, algunos compuestos fenlicos o sus metabolitos son metabolizados
(mediante reacciones de conjugacin con grupos metilo, sulfatos y glucuronidos), y regresan al
72
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
torrente sanguneo y otros son eliminados va bilis, pudiendo alcanzar otra vez el intestino
delgado.
Los compuestos fenlicos que siguen la ruta biliar son secretados en el duodeno, donde son
sometidos a la accin de enzimas bacterianas, especialmente la -glucuronidasa, tras la cual son
reabsorbidos. Este reciclaje entero heptico prolonga la presencia de los compuestos fenlicos
en el organismo y puede detectarse con una nueva subida de la cantidad de ese polifenol en
intestino[168]. Los metabolitos de polifenoles de elevado peso molecular, generalmente por
estar altamente conjugados, tienden a ser excretados por esta ruta. [169].
Del mismo modo, los polifenoles tambin pueden ser metabolizados en los tejidos, desde
donde pueden ser transportados al rin para su eliminacin va orina. sta es otra forma de
eliminacin de los compuestos fenlicos del organismo.
73
Captulo I: Introduccin
Por otra parte, tanto los polifenoles provenientes de la dieta que han alcanzado el intestino y
que no son absorbidos (compuestos hidroflicos, por ejemplo), como los polifenoles que s se
han absorbido en el intestino y que luego han sido metabolizados en el hgado y excretados a la
bilis, alcanzan el intestino grueso, donde son metabolizados por las bacterias presentes en este
rgano.
Estos ltimos llegan al colon con una forma qumica diferente, por ejemplo como glucurnidos
[171]. Aqu, los enzimas de la microbiota pueden hidrolizar los glicsidos en agliconas. Por
ejemplo, los polifenoles unido a azucares tipo Ramnosa llegan al colon, donde sern
hidrolizados por las ramnosidasas de la microbiota, tras lo cual sern absorbidos [172-174]. Se
podra aplicar lo mismo en los polifenoles que estn unidos a arabinosa y a xilosa, aunque no se
han estudiado de forma especfica. El proceso de absorcin en el colon de estos metabolitos se
lleva a cabo con mayor dificultad que aquellos que se absorben en el intestino delgado, ya que
el rea de intercambio es ms pequea. Asimismo, las esterasas degradarn compuestos
hidroflicos, , como paso previo a su absorcin en el colon[140] . Tambin estos enzimas pueden
metabolizar las agliconas. Se puede producir la rotura de los anillos aromticos de los
compuestos fenlicos y la consiguiente produccin de cidos aromticos simples [115, 175, 176],
llegndose a formar derivados del acido benzoico, generalmente de menor biodisponibilidad y
actividad. En el caso de polmeros y oligmeros de procianidinas se ha comprobado in vitro que
la microflora del colon es capaz de romperlos en cidos fenlicos de menor peso molecular, que
podra facilitar su absorcin en el colon. [177]. Los compuestos resultantes de este metabolismo
son de un tamao molecular inferior al de los compuestos de los que provienen. Este hecho
hace que estos nuevos compuestos formados puedan ser absorbidos fcilmente en el colon o
bien ser eliminados del cuerpo va heces. Por tanto existe una diferencia con respecto a los
enzimas de los tejidos, ya que estos no catalizan la rotura de los polifenoles a compuestos ms
simples. Aquellos que se absorben pueden ser conjugados con glicina, acido glucurnico o
sulfato [21]. Estas rutas metablicas todava no estn totalmente caracterizadas en humanos.
Tambin a este nivel, los metabolitos generados pueden ejercer importantes funciones como
antioxidantes [127]. Las concentraciones de polifenoles en el colon pueden alcanzar varios
cientos de micromoles por litro y junto con los carotenoides son los principales antioxidantes
que se encuentran en este lugar, ya que las vitaminas C y D son absorbidas en el intestino
delgado.
12 3
El colon puede llegar a contener alrededor de 10 microorganismos por cm con un potencial
hidroltico y cataltico enorme. Las reacciones de deconjugacin ocurren fcilmente. Podemos
encontrar microorganismos como Bacteroides distasonis (que poseen actividad ramnosidasa y
glucosidasa), Bacteroides uniformis (con glucosidasa) y Bacteroides ovatus (tambin con
74
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
En esta etapa es muy importante tener en cuenta las variedades interindividuales y la influencia
de la composicin de la microbiota [21]. Pese a ello no debe dejarse de lado, pues en bastantes
ocasiones el grado metablico de algunos fenoles es mucho mas intenso a nivel de colon que a
nivel tisular [149, 175]. Por tanto, la identificacin y cuantificacin de los metabolitos
microbianos constituyen un importante campo de investigacin pues alguno de ellos podran
tener efectos fisiolgicos o podran servir como biomarcadores de la ingesta de polifenoles[178,
179].
Simultneamente a los estudios sobre biodisponibilidad del aceite de oliva, se han llevado a
cabo numerosos proyectos de investigacin para analizar la respuesta de determinados
marcadores relacionados con algunas patologas, como los marcadores de estrs oxidativo, a la
ingestin de aceite de oliva. Durante una poca la investigacin sobre la repercusin del aceite
en la salud se centr en la influencia de su capacidad antioxidante sobre los procesos
aterosclerticos.
Por ello en los ltimos aos se han intensificado los esfuerzos encaminados a descubrir nuevos
factores de riesgo cardiovascular, sus mecanismos de actuacin intermedios y los tratamientos
que intentan reducirlos.
75
Captulo I: Introduccin
Los mecanismos a nivel celular (clulas endoteliales, monocitos, clulas de msculo liso y
plaquetas) y los mecanismos a nivel molecular (alteracin de la lisura endotelial y lesin con
aumento de la permeabilidad)
Todo ello puede transcurrir sin sintomatologas hasta estadios avanzados en los que se
manifiestan complicaciones coronarias, cerebrales, digestivas o enfermedades oclusivas de las
arterias perifricas[183].
LAS LIPOPROTEINAS
76
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
esterificada, triglicridos (TG) y fosfolpidos (FL) [189]. La albmina se encarga de los cidos
grasos libres. Los lpidos no polares, como el colesterol esterificado y los triglicridos,
conforman el ncleo hidrofbico de la estructura lipoproteica, mientras que la superficie
hidroflica esta compuesta por grupos lipdicos ms polares, como el colesterol libre y los
fosfolpidos, intercalados con molculas proteicas, lo cual permite la solubilidad de los
complejos. La fraccin proteica de las lipoprotenas se halla integrada por diferentes
polipptidos especficos, denominados apoprotenas (Apo) que se designan con las letras A1, A2,
A4, B, C1, C2, C3, D, E, F, G, y H. Estas intervienen activamente en el metabolismo de las
lipoprotenas, desempeando funciones especficas, tales como cofactores enzimticos o
mediadores, en la interaccin con receptores especficos de membrana [190]. Todas ellas son
sintetizadas y secretadas por el hgado y el intestino [191].
Es una partcula de 18 a 26 mm de dimetro, con una densidad de 1.006-1.063 kg/l y una masa
molecular de 2.5 millones de Daltons [181, 192]. La superficie representa el 54% de la partcula,
siendo el resto el ncleo. Esta formada por un 22-27% de protenas, siendo la principal la Apo
B100 (el 19% de estas protenas est localizado en la superficie), un 73-78% de lpidos (40-50% es
colesterol) de los que el 8% se localiza en la superficie, y el resto se acumula en el ncleo. Dentro
de esta fraccin de colesterol, un 32-38% se encuentra en forma esterificada, mientras que un 8-
8.5 % aparece en forma no esterificada. Dentro de la fraccin de lpidos, el 4-10% corresponde a
triacilglicridos situados en el ncleo y un 15-26% a fosfolpidos, situados mayoritariamente en
la superficie de la partcula [193, 194] [195]. Los cidos grasos poliinsaturados son mayoritarios,
en especial el acido linolnico. Dentro de la LDL, podemos hablar de diferentes subclases en
funcin del tamao, el cual resulta inversamente proporcional a la concentracin de
triacilgliceroles, siendo las partculas ms pequeas y densas las ms susceptibles a la oxidacin
(Figura I.11).
77
Captulo I: Introduccin
Es importante para nuestro estudio tener en cuenta el contenido de antioxidantes que puede
contener la LDL. El -tocoferol es el antioxidante que aparece en ms concentracin, con una
estimacin de 6 molculas por partcula[181] , adems puede contener alrededor de 7-93 g de
vitamina E por mg de protena [196]. La concentracin de compuestos fenlicos est en torno a
los 6.61 g/mg de protena [105]. Adems, contiene otros antioxidantes en concentraciones
minoritarias como -caroteno, -caroteno, licopeno, cripotoxantina, cantaxantina, luteina,
fitoflueno y ubiquinol-10 [195, 197, 198].
Los mecanismos precisos por los cuales las LDL producen aterosclerosis, es decir, los pasos que
median entre la infiltracin de la LDL en la pared arterial y la formacin de una lesin
aterosclerotica, no se conocen completamente. En la actualidad se mantiene que la LDL ha de
sufrir una serie de modificaciones antes de convertirse en aterognica.
No obstante, durante la ltima dcada los diferentes estudios han permitido establecer una
relacin directa entre la oxidacin de las LDL y la aterognesis[199-206]. La susceptibilidad de
las LDL a su oxidacin est relacionada con tres factores clave:
78
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
estructura de la LDL, a partir de los cuales dejan de ser reconocidas por los receptores B/E y
pasan a ser captadas por los macrfagos a travs de los receptores scavenger.
- a nivel proteico, los aldehdos formados actan sobre los grupos amino de la lisina
presente en la Apo B, unindose covalentemente y neutralizando las cargas positivas de la
cadena peptdica, de manera que sta se torna ms frgil y finalmente se fragmenta.
Estas modificaciones son desencadenadas por los radicales libres. Un radical libre es una
especie qumica definida que tiene en su estructura uno o ms electrones desapareados, lo que
le hace ser un compuesto altamente inestable y reactivo. Con el fn de estabilizarse, el electrn
desapareado busca aparearse, generando otros radicales libres al mismo tiempo que daan de
forma reversible o irreversible cualquier tipo de molcula, incluyendo cidos nucleicos,
protenas, aminocidos libres, lpidos e hidratos de carbono. Por tanto, los radicales libres tienen
una gran capacidad para formar otros radicales libres, desencadenando una reaccin en cadena,
donde tambin pueden generarse otras sustancias toxicas [208, 209].
Los radicales libres son producidos por las tres principales clulas presentes en la pared arterial:
las clulas endoteliales, las clulas del msculo liso y los macrfagos. Los radicales libres se
producen de forma general durante el metabolismo celular, principalmente a travs de
mecanismos oxidativos [210], como la cadena de transporte electrnico mitocondrial o la
actividad de las enzimas NADPH oxidasa, mieloperoxidasa, citocromo P450, xantina oxidasa,
ceruloplasmina y lipooxigenasa [211].
Durante estos procesos, se produce una reduccin parcial de la molcula de oxigeno que dan
lugar al hidroperoxido de hidrogeno (H2O2) , superoxido (O2..), hidroperoxilo (HO2..) e
hidroxilo(OH..) entre otros. Cuando los niveles de colesterol srico estn elevados se producen
radicales superxido en grandes cantidades (O2-) que inactivan el NO y promueven la
formacin de otros radicales de oxgeno como el peroxinitrito y el radical hidroxilo[212]. La
definicin de radical libre tambin incluye los metales de transicin cuando estos tienen uno o
ms electrones desapareados[213].
Antes de describir las etapas que compone el proceso de oxidacin de las LDL, hay que
recordar que el trmino LDL oxidada no define una especie molecular especfica. La LDL
oxidada hace referencia a un conjunto heterogneo de formas de la LDL, que difieren entre ellas
tanto en composicin qumica como en propiedades funcionales [214]. Estas aparecen cada una
de ellas en diferentes niveles o grados de oxidacin.
79
Captulo I: Introduccin
Adems de la fragmentacin proteica, se induce una unin covalente de los aldehdos con los
grupos N-amino, principalmente de los residuos de lisina de la apo B-100 pero tambin con los
de arginina y prolina. Esto produce unas modificaciones que dan lugar a nuevos grupos
funcionales como protena-carbonilos, cidos sulfnicos y cidos carboxlicos, lo cual completa
el proceso de oxidacin y aumenta la movilidad electrofortica de la partcula de LDL [215].
80
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
Figura I.12. Representacin esquemtica de la conversin de la LDL nativa en LDL oxidada y los cambios
fsicoqumicos que acompaan dicha oxidacin[1].
La confirmacin del importante papel de las lipoprotenas de baja densidad (LDL) oxidadas en
el inicio de la aterosclerosis [199], dio lugar a diferentes hiptesis sobre las posibles vas de
prevencin de esta enfermedad, concretamente a la incorporacin de antioxidantes en la dieta.
Los primeros estudios in vitro que se llevaron a cabo se centraron en inducir la oxidacin de las
LDL aisladas mediante sulfato de cobre, y observar la capacidad protectora que tenan la
oleuropena y el hidroxitirosol en concentraciones entre 1 y 100 M. Los resultados mostraron
una relacin dosis dependiente de estos dos fenoles frente a la inhibicin de la oxidacin[221,
222].
Tambin se ha podido observar, que la ingesta de bajas dosis de hidroxitirosol (414 g /Kg de
peso corporal), es capaz de inhibir el estrs oxidativo inducido en los animales de
experimentacin al convertirlos en fumadores pasivos. Se detecta una disminucin en las
excreciones urinarias del F2-isopropano-8-iso-PGF2, producto no enzimtico proveniente de la
oxidacin del acido araquidnico, que es considerado uno de los mejores marcadores del estrs
oxidativo in vivo [223].
Estos estudios tambin se han realizado en humanos, observndose una inhibicin dependiente
de la dosis de la excrecin del F2-isopropano-8-iso-PGF2 en voluntarios a los que se les ha
suministrado aceite de oliva enriquecido con cierta cantidad de compuestos fenlicos [224].
81
Captulo I: Introduccin
Estos estudios han permitido establecer que la cantidad de isoprostanos excretados por la orina
es inversamente proporcional a la cantidad de alcohol homovanllico cuantificado en plasma,
que a su vez es un derivado metablico del hidroxitirosol formado mediante la enzima catecol-
O-fenil-transferasa. De aqu se deduce que los compuestos fenlicos del aceite de oliva,
concretamente los metabolitos del hidroxitirosol, alcanzan los compartimentos celulares en
donde puede ejercer su actividad antioxidante.
Recientemente [226] Covas y col. (2006), en el marco del proyecto EUROLIVE, llevaron a cabo
un estudio in vivo en el que analizaron diversos parmetros relacionados con el estado oxidativo
de las LDL durante el periodo posprandial despus de una ingesta aguda de 40 mL de aceite.
Analizaron tirosol, hidroxitirosol y alcohol homovainllico en plasma, encontrando una
concentracin mxima de estos compuestos entre las 0.7 y 1.3 horas despus de la ingesta,
siendo mxima la concentracin de fenoles en el plasma de los individuos que haban ingerido
aceite con mayor contenido fenlico. Por otra parte, el contenido en fenoles en las LDL de los
individuos que consumieron el aceite ms rico en fenoles tambin experiment un incremento
despus de la ingesta. Otros marcadores del estado de oxidacin de las LDL mostraron que los
cambios posprandiales en LDL oxidadas in vivo muestran una relacin dosis dependiente con la
concentracin de fenoles en el aceite ingerido.
Ruano y col., (2007)[227], considerando que el estrs oxidativo asociado con la lipemia
posprandial contribuye a la disfuncin endotelial que podra alcanzar un estado trombognico,
plantearon un estudio orientado a establecer la relacin entre el efecto de la ingesta de aceite de
oliva virgen rico en fenoles con la mejora del perfil protrombtico posprandial asociado a una
ingesta aguda de grasa. Los resultados mostraron evidencias de una mejora del dicho perfil.
Adems de poseer actividad antioxidante, los fenoles del aceite de oliva presentan otras
cualidades biolgicas que les hacen participar en la proteccin de la salud humana.
Experimentos in vitro con varios modelos celulares, plaquetas, leucocitos y macrfagos, han
servido para demostrar la capacidad de algunos fenoles para modular la expresin o actividad
de ciertos enzimas. Esto es posible gracias al carcter anfiptico de estos compuestos, que les
82
Biodisponibilidad y propiedades biolgicas
confiere una solubilidad adecuada tanto en fase acuosa como en fase lipdica, pudiendo acceder
a los sistemas enzimticos independientemente del medio que les rodea[86] .
83
Captulo I: Introduccin
Fue este organismo el que elabor el Reglamento CE n 1924/2006 (modificado por 107/2008 y
109/2008), relativo a las declaraciones nutricionales y de propiedades saludables de los
alimentos, que se encuentra en vigor desde el 1 de Julio del 2007. Durante la redaccin de este
documento se tuvo muy presente la gran importancia que supona el etiquetado, la
presentacin, la publicidad y la promocin de los alimentos, as como la falta de reglamentacin
en esta rea de la industria alimentaria. Con este reglamento se pretende armonizar a escala
comunitaria lo que se consideran declaraciones nutricionales y de salud, las cuales deben estar
basadas en pruebas cientficas generalmente aceptadas y ser bien comprendidas por el
consumidor medio.
Se entiende por declaracin cualquier mensaje o representacin que no sea obligatorio con
arreglo a la legislacin comunitaria o nacional, incluida cualquier forma de representacin
pictrica, grfica o simblica, que afirme, sugiera o d a entender que un alimento posee unas
caractersticas especficas. En el artculo 2 se definen tres tipos de declaraciones: nutricionales,
de propiedades saludables y de reduccin de riesgo de enfermedad.
84
Actualidad en el rea de los alimentos funcionales
CONCEPTO ALEGACIN
Bajo contenido Contenido reducido Sin
VALOR < 40 kcal (170 Inferior al 30 % del < 4 kcal (17 kJ)/100
ENERGTICO kJ)/100 g <20 kcal original ml.
(80 kJ)/100 ml
Bajo contenido Sin
< 3 g de grasa por 100 g < 0,5 g de grasa por 100 g o 100
GRASA < 1,5 g de grasa por 100 ml ml.
< 1,8 g de grasa por 100 ml
leche semidesnatada
Suma de cidos grasos Suma de grasas saturadas y de
GRASA saturados y de cidos grasos cidos grasos trans < 0,1 g por
SATURADA trans: 100 g o 100 ml.
< 1,5 g/100 g < 0,75 g/100 ml
85
Captulo I: Introduccin
Fuente de Alto en
VITAMINAS 15 de la CDR 30 de la CDR
Y MINERALES
Contiene Mayor contenido Contenido reducido
Si el producto El producto cumple Contenido est
NUTRIENTES cumple todas las las condiciones de reducido ms del 30
(U OTRAS disposiciones fuente de y el % en comparacin
SUSTANCIAS) aplicables previstas incremento de su con un producto
en el presente contenido es > 30 % similar, excepto para
Reglamento, y en en comparacin micronutrientes, en
particular en el con un producto los que ser
artculo 5. Por lo similar. admisible una
que respecta a las diferencia del 10 %
vitaminas y en los valores de
minerales, se referencia as como
aplicarn las para el sodio, o el
condiciones valor equivalente
para la sal, en que
correspondientes a
ser admisible una
la declaracin
diferencia del 25 %.
fuente de.
Light/Lite
Las mismas condiciones que las establecidas para el trmino
ENERGA contenido reducido; asimismo, la declaracin deber estar
acompaada por una indicacin de la caracterstica o
caractersticas que hacen que el alimento sea light o lite
(ligero).
En los tres casos, el nutriente o sustancia acerca de la cual se hace la declaracin debe estar
contenido en el producto final en una cantidad significativa con la cual produzca el efecto
declarado de forma representativa en la poblacin y en una forma asimilable por el organismo.
Este efecto adems, siempre debe quedar establecido a travs de pruebas cientficas aceptadas
de forma consensuada, las cuales pueden ir acompaadas de una solicitud de proteccin de
datos sujetos a derechos de propiedad industrial (Artculo 18). Por otro lado, la cantidad de
producto que cabe razonablemente esperar que se consuma debe proporcionar la cantidad
significativa de nutriente o sustancia sobre la cual se declara el efecto nutricional o fisiolgico.
Por supuesto el efecto benfico debe ser relevante para la salud humana.
Por el contrario, estas no podrn ser falsas, ambiguas o engaosas. No podrn dar lugar a dudas
sobre la seguridad y/o la adecuacin nutricional de otros alimentos, as como alentar o aprobar
el consumo excesivo de un alimento. No podrn hacer referencia a recomendaciones de
86
Actualidad en el rea de los alimentos funcionales
mdicos individuales u otros profesionales de la salud. Tampoco podrn sugerir que una dieta
equilibrada y variada no puede proporcionar todos los nutrientes necesarios, ni afirmar, sugerir
o implicar que el alimento tiene propiedades de prevencin, tratamiento o curacin de una
enfermedad humana. Por ltimo, ninguno de los tres tipos de alegaciones podr referirse a
cambios en las funciones corporales con trminos o representaciones alarmistas.
El Reglamento 1924/2006 tambin regula las condiciones de uso y los procedimientos para
conseguir la autorizacin para el uso de declaraciones nutricionales y declaraciones de
propiedades saludables distintas de las relacionadas con reducir el riesgo de enfermedades y
relativas al desarrollo y la salud de los nios (Artculo 13) y las declaraciones de reduccin del
riesgo de enfermedad y declaracin relativas al desarrollo y salud de los nios (Artculo 14).
Bsicamente, las declaraciones se referirn a que un nutriente o una sustancia ejerzan una
funcin en el crecimiento, desarrollo y funciones corporales, as como en las funciones
psicolgicas y de comportamiento. Tambin se incluirn nutrientes o alimentos que faciliten el
adelgazamiento, el control de peso, la disminucin de la sensacin de hambre, el aumento de la
sensacin de saciedad y la reduccin del aporte energtico en la dieta, aunque en estas
alegaciones nunca se indicar la magnitud o ritmo de la perdida de peso.
La EFSA, que engloba al grupo cientfico encargado de los productos dietticos, la nutricin y
las alergias (NDA), ser el encargado de evaluar el fundamento cientfico de estas declaraciones,
las cuales primero estn recogidas en una preclasificacin realizada por los Estados miembros y
la Comisin. Para lograr su cometido, dejaron fijados los criterios bsicos para garantizar la
completa y coherente seleccin de las declaraciones.
Debido al alto nmero de declaraciones de salud recibidas por la EFSA en los ltimos aos
existe la probabilidad de que no se pueda entregar a la Comisin el dictamen sobre la lista
prevista en el artculo 13 en el plazo estimado, pudiendo retrasarse al 2010.
Pero no todos los alimentos podrn utilizar una declaracin nutricional. El artculo 4 del
reglamento seala que los alimentos promocionados con declaraciones van a ser percibidos por
los consumidores como alimentos con ventajas nutricionales, fisiolgicas o de otro tipo para la
salud respecto a otros productos similares o distintos a los que no se atribuyan declaraciones.
Por tanto, para que un alimento pueda presentar alegaciones de salud primero debe ajustarse a
unos perfiles nutricionales, teniendo en cuenta las cantidades de determinados nutrientes y
otras sustancias que contenga, como por ejemplo grasas, cidos grasos saturados, cidos grasos
trans, azcares y sal o sodio.
87
Captulo I: Introduccin
El uso de los perfiles nutricionales pretende evitar una situacin en la que las declaraciones
nutricionales o de salud podran inducir a error a los consumidores sobre la calidad nutricional
de un producto alimentario cuando se trata de tomar decisiones saludables en el contexto de
una dieta equilibrada. Por ello, la industria agroalimentaria podr incluir este tipo de
informacin siempre que los productos no sobrepasen las cantidades de sal, grasa o azcar
fijadas en el llamado perfil nutricional, si lo hicieran en alguno de los casos y no en los otros,
debera indicarse.
Pero para el aceite de oliva se debera conseguir alguna otra alegacin basada en su fraccin no
glicrida, principalmente por su contenido en determinados compuestos fenlicos. De hecho,
hay varias solicitudes en estudio por parte de la EFSA que se resumen a continuacin, se debe
tener en cuenta que estas solicitudes todava no estn aprobadas y es ahora cuando empiezan a
surgir las primeras decisiones:
88
Actualidad en el rea de los alimentos funcionales
A groso modo se desea que sean reconocidas las siguientes propiedades relacionadas
con el olivo y todo lo que de el derive: contribuir con las defensas del organismo contra
los agentes externos, favorecer al sistema respiratorio, regular el correcto
funcionamiento del tracto gastrointestinal, la accin antioxidante, la regulacin positiva
de la presin sangunea y de los niveles de azcares en el organismo.
A nivel del aceite de oliva en su conjunto, se alega que posee propiedades antioxidantes
con las que reduce el estrs oxidativo. Adems, junto con el aceite de orujo de oliva
presentan acciones reguladoras beneficiosas en el sistema cardiovascular, protegiendo a
este nivel la salud en toda la poblacin en general que lo consume. Por ejemplo, mejora
el perfil lipdico en sangre con lo que repercute positivamente sobre la salud
cardiovascular y regula el nivel de glucosa en sangre. Todo ello debido a las
peculiaridades en su composicin, en especial para el aceite de oliva virgen extra.
Determinados extractos del fruto del olivo puede influenciar en el metabolismo de las
grasas a nivel de la etapa de almacenamiento en adipocitos, induciendo a una prdida
de peso corporal.
El extracto de las hojas del olivo, ricos en oleuropena, puede ayudar a regular la
presin sangunea. A su vez se considera un antioxidante natural con capacidad de
proteger al organismo del dao oxidativo. Adems, el extracto de hoja de olivo junto con
un extracto de Melisa enriquecido con monoestearato de cido lurico presenta
funciones inmunolgicas.
A nivel de compuestos, por un lado los polifenoles de la oliva, del aceite de oliva y del
alpechin pueden regular el metabolismo de los lpidos, gracias al hecho de ser
absorbidos y metabolizados en el intestino, tras lo cual se combinarn con las LDL y
ejercern un efecto antioxidante. Por ello, a su vez podrn ayudar a mantener los niveles
saludables de colesterol-LDL y evitar la oxidacin lipdica. En concreto el hidroxitirosol
y la oleuropena, por su poder antioxidante, actan protegiendo del dao oxidativo al
colesterol LDL, as como a otras clulas del organismo.
Por otro lado el Omega 6 (cido linolnico) presente en el aceite de oliva es un nutriente
beneficioso para la piel, sugiriendose que una ingesta apropiada de aceite de oliva
disminuiria el dao actnico cutneo.
89
Captulo I: Introduccin
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106
5. JUSTIFICACIN DEL ESTUDIO
Justificacin del estudio
Optimizar la alimentacin es uno de los retos actuales para prevenir las enfermedades crnicas
[235], en especial las enfermedades cardiovasculares por ser la causa de mortalidad y
morbilidad mas importante del mundo occidental.
Los efectos cardioprotectores del aceite de oliva son bien conocidos. Un hecho destacable que
viene a confirmar los beneficios del aceite de oliva ha sido la reciente calificacin (Health claim)
de este alimento por parte de la la Food and Drugs Administration de EEUU (FDA) publicada
el 1 de Noviembre del 2004 en la que se considera:
Una evidencia limitada y no concluyente sugiere que la ingesta de 23g/da de Aceite de Oliva puede
reducir el riesgo de enfermedades crnicas atribuidas a la grasa monoinsaturada del aceite de oliva. Para
conseguir esto el aceite de oliva ha de remplazar una cantidad similar de grasa saturada y no incrementar
el total de caloras de la ingesta diaria.
Pero los cientficos han seguido trabajando en la relacin entre aceite de oliva y salud y quieren
ir ms all, ya que creen, que las alegaciones a la calidad nutricional del aceite de oliva no tienen
porque estar nicamente basadas en su perfil monoinsaturado, tambin se hipotetiza con que
las fracciones minoritarias del aceite tienen un alto valor nutricional. Por tanto, si
consiguisemos profundizar en las propiedades de los compuestos minoritarios, en particular
en los de tipo fenlico, y demostrar nuevos efectos cardioprotectores, se podra afirmar que el
incremento en el consumo de aceite de oliva contribuira a la optimizacin de la dieta de sus
consumidores. Para cumplir con esta alegain de salud, es necesario completar una serie de
estudios que proporcionen mayor informacin sobre la actividad biolgica de los componentes
minoritarios.
Por el momento, es indudable el inters del estudio de la fraccin fenlica como antioxidante. El
recuento de trabajos cientficos publicados, recogidos en la base de datos Scopus, durante los
ltimos veinte aos muestra una tendencia creciente en la que se ha pasado de unos 50 artculos
por ao al inicio de los aos 90 a ms de 900 artculos en el ao 2008. En ellos se abordan temas
tales como la caracterizacin de la fraccin fenlica, los mecanismos de proteccin frente a la
oxidacin, estudios in vitro e in vivo de capacidad antioxidante, estudios de biodisponibilidad y
estudios de intervencin con dietas.
109
Justificacin del estudio
Se sabe que a nivel in vivo, existen evidencias crecientes de los beneficios del consumo de aceite
de oliva sobre el desarrollo de enfermedades asociadas al estrs oxidativo como las
enfermedades cardiovasculares, el cncer y las enfermedades neurodegenerativas[25, 62, 148,
237-239]. Pero el tema sigue siendo controvertido, pues la magnitud de la mejora conseguida
tras el tratamiento con aceites de oliva de alto contenido fenlico es sin embargo modesta para
poder afirmar su valor como factor protector del riesgo cardiovascular.
Esto es explicable porque, a pesar de tener un perfil fenlico muy interesante incluso tras su
procesado, la magnitud del aporte de compuestos fenlicos (3-15 mg/dia) que se consigue a
travs de una dosis ajustada a la vida real, 25 a 50mL de aceite de oliva en su forma natural, es
baja. Sin olvidar que esta fraccin est fuertemente afectada por distintos factores agronmicos
y tecnolgicos, que hacen muy irregular su presencia en el producto final.
Aun as, su eficacia antioxidante est bien demostrada y documentada y se sabe que su
absorcin se realiza de forma dosis-dependiente, establecindose la hiptesis de que es la matriz
alimentaria del aceite de oliva (tanto los triglicridos como los compuestos minoritarios) la que
favorece la absorcin y la biodisponibilidad de los fenoles.
Por ello, pese a que generalmente en la preparacin de alimentos funcionales se tiende a aadir
el compuesto activo fenlico, previamente aislado, sobre matrices neutras o sobre matrices
alimentarias en las que se encuentra de forma natural, una buena alternativa a esta prctica
podra ser la seleccin de materias primas que contuviesen ya el principio activo, pudindose
enriquecer con extractos de sus propios compuestos bioactivos y aumentar de esta manera su
funcionalidad natural.
As, se podran conseguir efectos ms marcados con un aceite funcional enriquecido con
compuestos fenlicos, seleccionados en base a su actividad biolgica y absorbabilidad y por
tanto con mayor capacidad protectora frente a la oxidacin y disfunciones endoteliales como
110
Justificacin del estudio
las antiinflamatorias y antitrombticas. Frente al caso de los aceites de oliva naturales cuya
composicin fenlica esta condicionada por distintos factores agronmicos y tecnolgicos.
Asimismo, el hecho de ser elaborado enriqueciendo el aceite con sus propios compuestos
fenlicos podra favorecer la aceptacin del producto final por parte del consumidor.
Para ello, se disear un aceite de oliva que contenga una mayor cantidad de compuestos
fenlicos, potencialmente ms beneficiosos y ms absorbibles, y donde se demuestren nuevos
efectos saludables mesurables, cumpliendo as con el criterio de aceite funcional. Paralelamente
a ello, es imprescindible descartar la posible toxicidad de los compuestos fenlicos.
111
Justificacin del estudio
112
6. OBJETIVOS
Objetivos
El trabajo de tesis doctoral forma parte de un proyecto con financiacin del Plan Nacional de
I+D que lleva por ttulo: ACEITE DE OLIVA VIRGEN ENRIQUECIDO EN COMPUESTOS
FENLICOS PARA OPTIMIZAR LA PROTECCIN CARDIOVASCULAR.
El OBJETIVO GLOBAL de este proyecto es optimizar la composicin del aceite de oliva virgen
o de un producto de matriz grasa, a partir de la eleccin de componentes recientemente
descritos de la fraccin fenlica del aceite de oliva virgen con demostrada actividad biolgica y
comprobar despus su biodisponibilidad, junto con los efectos cardioprotectores de este aceite,
sobre el hombre.
Para la consecucin de este objetivo se han planteado los siguientes objetivos parciales:
115
Objetivos
116
7. PLAN DE TRABAJO
el siguiente:
AO 1 AO 2 AO 3 AO 4
T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
1. Revisin bibliogrfica del tema y elaboracin de una base de datos.
119
2. Seleccin de metodologas de evaluacin de la actividad
antioxidante in vitro.
AO 1 AO 2 AO 3 AO 4
T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
4. Aplicacin del modelo celular Caco2/TC7 para el estudio del
metabolismo y transporte de los principales componentes de la
fraccin fenlica del aceite de oliva virgen.
120
Se han analizado los datos obtenidos mediante distintas tcnicas
estadsticas que permiten establecer diferencias entre los
diferentes compuestos fenlicos, con especial nfasis en la
relacin actividad-estructura de la molcula.
Se ha realizado un anlisis de los resultados para establecer las
conclusiones de la investigacin.
7.Redaccindelaspublicacionescientficas,comunicaciones a
congresosylamemoriadelatesis.
8. CAPTULO II: RESULTADOS.
Determinacin de la capacidad antioxidante
de los compuestos fenlicos del aceite de
oliva
Phenolic compounds of virgin olive oil (VOO) with strong antioxidant LDL properties could
protect against cardiovascular diseases. Prior studies focused on the phenolic compounds
hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein while other phenolic fractions were not considered. Moreover,
these phenolic compounds VOO can exert an antioxidant synergic effect. The antioxidant
activities of 19 phenolic compounds of VOO were measured as the resistance (lag phase, in
minutes) of LDL oxidation induced by Cu2+ in vitro. Flavonoids (luteolin and rutin) and
secoiridoids (oleuropein, a dialdehydic form of elenolic acid linked to hydroxytyrosol 3,4-
DHPEA-EDA, and hydroxytyrosol) induced the highest resistance to oxidation, and a
combination of these 5 phenolic compounds (0.2 M each) acted synergistically by increasing
the LDL oxidation resistance 1.8-fold relative to the sum of each individual phenolic
compounds antioxidant capacity (p<0.05). We identified, using a clean-up solid-phase
extraction procedure with HPLC coupled to a TQDTM mass spectrometer, 4 of these 5 phenolic
compounds in the plasma of volunteers consuming 40 ml of VOO. These were 3,4-DHPEA-EDA
(identified for the first time in the literature), luteolin, hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein aglycone.
Rutin was undetectable in these post-prandial plasmas.
We have described the in vitro antioxidant effects of phenolic compounds found in VOO and
the identification of some of them in postprandial plasma following VOO intake. Our study
supports the human antioxidant potential of these compounds in vivo.
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
INTRODUCTION
Consensus scientific opinions support the beneficial effects of virgin olive oil (VOO) on
coronary heart disease risk factors. These effects have been related not only to the high level of
monounsaturated fatty acid content of VOO [1], but also to the presence of minor components
such as phenolic compounds [2-4]. In experimental studies, these phenolic compounds have
been shown to have strong antioxidant properties [5-8]. Oxidized low density lipoprotein
(oxLDL) is currently thought to be more damaging to the arterial wall than native LDL [9-11].
Recently, results of randomized, crossover, controlled, clinical trials on the antioxidant effect of
polyphenols derived from real-life daily doses of olive oil administered to healthy human
volunteers, showed that plasma concentrations of oxLDL were reduced in a dose-dependant
manner in relation to the increasing phenolic content of the ingested VOO [9]. The majority of
these studies attributed the antioxidant properties of the VOO phenols to some specific
components, mainly hydroxytyrosol and the precursor oleuropein [9, 12]. However, the
phenolic fraction of VOO contains a broad spectrum of components, which concentrations
depend on several agricultural and technological factors related to VOO production [13].
The secoiridoids, oleuropein and ligstroside are characteristic of oleaceae plants that include Olea
europaea L. and are the major components of the phenolic fraction of olive fruits [14-16].
Oleuropein and ligstroside are esters of elenolic acid with hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA) and
tyrosol (p-HPEA), respectively, linked to a glucosidic residue (oleosidic skeleton common to the
secoiridoid glycosides of oleaceae). During the crushing and malaxation steps of the VOO
extraction process, the main transformations are related to the loss of the glucose residue, and
the formation of aglycon forms of secoiridoids [14-16]. Besides of these major phenols, the VOO
phenolic fraction contains flavonoids, lignans, phenolic acids, phenyl ethyl alcohols and
hydroxy-isochromans in minor concentration.
Preliminar studies have shown the antioxidant activity of some of these individual and
combined phenolic compounds using different test and lipid matrices that supported their
contribution to the oxidative stability of virgin olive oil [7, 9, 19]. The highest activity was found
with phenolic compounds that possess 3,4- dihydroxyl and 3,4,5-trihydroxy structures linked to
an aromatic ring (oleuropein and some of their derivatives, such as 3,4- DHPEA-EDA, and some
flavones, such as luteolin and apigenin) that conferred a higher proton dislocation to the
moiety, thus facilitating the scavenging activity. Besides the antioxidant function in food
systems, little attention has focused on the potential antioxidant activity of the minor
components, or even of their potential synergistic effect in biological models.
Moreover, while polyphenols act as antioxidants in the test tube, it is not clear whether they are
absorbed into the bloodstream and, if they are, how rapidly they are metabolized. Hence, more
extensive knowledge of the identification in plasma and the bioavailability of the antioxidants,
particularly phenolic compounds, in VOO would appear to be necessary.
Recently, new and more sensitive analytical methodologies have enabled the identification,
structural characterization, and quantitative analysis of a large number of phenolic compounds
of VOO [16-19].
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Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin lipdica de las LDL
Although several studies have demonstrated the in vivo antioxidant capacity of some phenolic
compounds from olive oil [16], the low absolute amount of these individual phenolic
compounds ingested in a real-life intake of VOO prompted us to hypothesize that, if detected in
human plasma, these VOO phenolic compounds would lead to protection against LDL
oxidation, with concomitant health benefits.
The aims of the present study were: firstly, to evaluate the antioxidant effect of a broad
spectrum of phenolic compounds found in VOO; secondly, to explore if a synergy exists among
them; and thirdly, to assess whether the phenolic compounds with the highest antioxidant
combination were identificable in plasma following an oral load of VOO.
Phenolic compounds
Some phenolic compounds included in the study have been isolated from VOO, and other are
commercially available. The phenolic compounds purchased and used without further
purification were: a) phenolic acids: p-coumaric acid and vanillin purchased from Extrasynthese
(Genay, France); caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and gallic acid purchased from Fluka Co. (Buchs,
Switzerland); b) phenyl ethyl alcohols: hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol; c) secoiridoids: oleuropein
purchased from Extrasynthese (Genay, France); d) the hydrocinnamic derivative as
verbascoside purchased from Extrasynthese (Genay, France); e) lignan (+)-pinoresinol
purchased from Arbonova Sales (Turku, Finland); f) flavonoids: apigenin, apigenin 7-O-
glucoside, luteolin, luteolin 7-O-glucoside and rutin purchased from Extrasynthese (Genay,
France); -tocopherol used as antioxidant control in in vitro LDL oxidation experiments
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co.
Phenolic compounds isolated from VOO by semi-preparative HPLC [19] were: a) secoiridoid
derivatives as 4-(acetoxyethyl)-1,2-dihydroxybenzene (3,4-DHPEA-AC), dialdehydic form of
elenolic acid linked to hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA-EDA), dialdehydic form of elenolic acid
linked to tyrosol (p-HPEA-EDA); and b) lignan as (+)-1-acetoxipinoresinol. Stock solutions of
commercial standards and phenolic compounds isolated from VOO were dissolved in
methanol: water (80:20 v/v) and stored at -40 C before being used in the evaluation of
antioxidant activity. Figure 8.1 1 shows the olive oil phenols included in the study.
Structures Compounds
Phenolic acids Caffeic
125
CAPTULO II: Resultados
p-Coumaric
Ferulic
Gallic
Tyrosol
Hydroxytyrosol
126
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin lipdica de las LDL
Secoiridoids 3,4-DHPEA-EDA
3,4-DHPEA-AC
p-HPEA-EDA
Oleuropein
127
CAPTULO II: Resultados
Lignans (+)-Pinoresinol
(+)-1-Acetoxypinoresinol
Apigenin-7-O-Glu
H
OH
OGlu O
OH O
Luteolin
Luteolin-7-O-Glu
OH
OH
OGlu O
OH
OH O
128
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin lipdica de las LDL
Flavonols Rutin
LDL isolation
Plasma was collected from healthy human volunteers and LDL (d=1.019-1.063) was isolated by
sequential ultracentrifugation in a Kontron Centrikon T-1075 ultracentrifuge. Protein was
measured by Bradford method [20] using BSA as a standard.
Dialyzed LDL was adjusted to 50 g/ml with PBS, pH 7.4. LDL oxidation was initiated by
adding a freshly prepared CuCl22H2O solution (final concentration 6M) and incubating at
30C for 5h in 96 multi-well plates (Corning, Spain) in a final volume of 200 L. The kinetic
parameters of LDL oxidation were determined by monitoring the change in absorbance at 234
nm at 30C with a Lambda 5 UV-spectrophotometer (Synergy HT, Biotek, Spain). This allowed
for as many as 96 samples to be measured simultaneously. LDL not treated with test
polyphenols was used as a control sample (control LDL). The blanks were prepared with the
same volume of methanol as in the test samples. The phenolic compounds were dissolved in
methanol at the desired concentration. To assess whether methanol interferes with the LDL
oxidation, we prepared a control sample with LDL, PBS, methanol and cupric ions. No
interferences in the conjugated dienes by the methanol were observed in these determinations.
The lag phase was defined, using the method of Kleinveld et al [21], as the interval (in minutes)
between the linear least-square slope of the curve intercept with the initial-absorbance axis.
To compare the antioxidant capacity of 19 individual phenolic compounds, the maximal
concentration that produces the inhibition of lag phase was determined using the dose-response
kinetic curves of each phenolic compounds inhibition of Cu2+-mediated LDL oxidation. The
range of each individual compound used was 0 to 20 M, with - tocopherol at 0.5 M being
used as control.
The effects of the 19 individual phenolic compounds on the lag phase of Cu2+-induced LDL
oxidation were tested at a concentration of 0.5 M using, as reference, the LDL incubated
without phenols and with -tocopherol as antioxidant control.
129
CAPTULO II: Resultados
The antioxidant phenolic compounds observed to be the most active were selected and assayed
individually at more physiologically-appropriate concentrations. Also, different combinations
of the five compounds (each at 0.2 M) were tested.
VOO was obtained directly from an olive oil mill in Catalunya (Spain) during the harvest
season and was from the Arbequina variety of olives. LC tandem MS technology was used for
the quantification of phenolic compounds (phenyl alcohols, phenyl acids, secoiridoid
derivatives, lignans and flavonoids) in virgin olive oil [22].
Two healthy individuals (aged 58 and 57 years) ingested a single 40 ml dose of VOO spread on
60 g of bread. The phenolic compound profile in post-prandial plasma taken from these
individuals was determined at 0, 30, 60, 120 and 240 minutes following the VOO ingestion. The
study was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of Hospital Universitari Sant Joan
(Reus). All participants provided written informed consent before being enrolled.
The phenolic extracts of human plasma were obtained with a solid phase extraction procedure
using a slightly modified method of Ruiz-Gutierrez et al. [23]. Briefly, just prior to the extraction
procedure, a solution (10 g/ml) of caffeic acid was added as an internal standard and 30 L of
phosphoric acid (85% v/v) was added to 3 ml aliquots of defrosted plasma, and vortex mixed
for 1 min. Solid phase purification of phenols from plasma samples was performed on an Oasis
HLB extraction cartridge (200 mg, 6ml; WAT 106202) purchased from Waters (Milford, USA).
Prior to use, the cartridge was primed with 3 ml of methanol followed by equilibration with 3
ml of water. A 3 ml aliquot of spiked acidified plasma was slowly loaded into the cartridge,
followed by 1.5 ml of Milli-Q purified water, followed by 3 ml of 5% (v/v) methanol/water.
The phenolic fraction was eluted under vacuum with 6 ml of methanol and collected in a tube
containing 30 L of 1% ascorbic acid solution. The phenolic fraction was dried under a nitrogen
stream. Before the HPLC analysis, the residue was re-dissolved with 200 L methanol and 100
L water/2% acetic acid.
Phenolic extracts from postprandial human plasma were quantified by HPLC coupled to a
TQDTM mass spectrometer (Waters, Milford, MA, USA). The HPLC system consisted of an
AcQuityTM equipped with a binary pump (Waters, Milford, MA, USA). The column was an
Inertsil ODS-3 column (5_m, 15cm4.6mm) (GL Sciences Inc.) equipped with a Spherisorb S5
ODS-2 precolumn (5_m, 1 cm4.6mm) (Technokroma, Barcelona). During the analysis, the
column was kept at 30C and the flow rate at 0.4 ml/min. The mobile phase was eluent A: Milli-
Q water/acetic acid (100/0.2, v/v) and eluent B: acetonitrile. The HPLC was coupled to a
130
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin lipdica de las LDL
TQDTM mass spectrometer and the software used was MassLynx 4.1 (Waters, Milford, MA,
USA). Ionization was achieved using electrospray interface (ESI) operating in the negative
mode [M-H]- and the data were collected using selected reaction monitoring (SRM). The
ionization source parameters were capillary voltage 3kV, source temperature 150C and gas
temperature 400C, with a flow rate of 800 L/h. Nitrogen (99.99% purity, N2LCMS nitrogen
generator, Claind, Lenno, Italy) and argon ( 99.99% purity, Aphagaz, Madrid, Spain) were
used as cone and collision gases, respectively. The SRM transitions and the individual cone
voltage and collision energy for each phenolic compound were evaluated by introducing 10
mg/L of each pure compound in order to set the optimum instrumentation conditions. Phenols
of the plasma samples were quantified by a four-point regression curve using standards
obtained from commercial suppliers, or by semi-preparative HPLC [19]. The results are
expressed as M phenol concentration.
Statistical analyses
Results are expressed as mean SEM. Results of the lag phase of polyphenolic compounds were
expressed as the prolongation of the lag phase of LDL (min) by subtracting the lag phase of
control LDL (min) (without phenolic compound addition). The dose-response of each
compound was analyzed by Spearmans correlation test. One-way ANOVA was used to
compare the means, followed by post-hoc Bonferroni test for multiple comparisons. The Student
t-test was used to determine the significance of the interactions (synergy) between the
polyphenolic compounds by comparing the observed (actual) values with the expected
(calculated) sums of the individual polyphenolic compounds [24]. Statistical significance was
set at p<0.05. Statistical analyses were performed with the Statistical Package for the Social
Science software package (SPSS version 15.0). Unless otherwise specified, all experiments were
performed at least in triplicate.
RESULTS
The criteria of selection of 19 phenolic compounds was based on the interest to evaluate the
potential activity of the different phenol groups that form the VOO phenol fraction even though
some of them are low concentration: phenolic acids, phenyl ethyl alcohols, secoiridoids, lignans
and flavonoids. The 19 phenolic were evaluated for know the concentrations that produce the
inhibition of diene formation lag phase; a measure of the inhibitory (antioxidant) effect on Cu2+-
mediated LDL oxidation. The dose-response kinetic curves of the phenolic compounds against
Cu2+-mediated LDL oxidation were determined in the range of 0 to 20 M, with 0.5 M -
tocopherol as antioxidant control. Eighteen of the 19 compounds tested reduced the
susceptibility of LDL to Cu2+-induced oxidation in a dose-dependent and linear manner
(p<0.0001). Ferulic acid showed a prooxidant effect at concentrations below 5M. To compare
the antioxidant capacity of different phenols, the minimum concentration that produces the
inhibition of lag phase was determined. The data are presented in Figure 2. Hydroxytirosol and
131
CAPTULO II: Resultados
25
Concentration (M)
20
15
10
0
O co n
ur de
pi c A n
p- ore cid
in
co d
PE DA
pi C
O ic A
C yty de
-G R n
ni ou EA lin
Fe Tyr de
or cid
Lu cid
ic ol
D -E l
)-P lic ol
ol
4- A o
l u ti
xy ali ei
i
lu ci
A -A
7- ar D
4- V en
ol
fe s
3, PE sin
(+ ru os
in
le si
ge -C HP inil
x si
si
u
af ro
to G op
n- m -E
-G A
in A
A
te
es
ro co
g
a
yd s
H rba
H
n
H
-O
D
Ve
-7
3,
in
pi p
ce
ol
-A
te
)-1
Lu
A
(+
Figure 8.1 2 Concentrations of the different olive oil phenols (luteolin, rutin, hydroxytyrosol, oleuropin,
3,4-DHPEA-EDA, galic acid, acetoxypinoresinol, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, p-HPEA-EDA, caffeic acid,
vanilin, 3,4-DHPEA-AC, pinoresinol, p-coumaric acid, tyrosol, apigenin, verbascoside, apigenin-7-O-
glucoside, ferulic acid) required for the inhibition of the LDL lag phase (in minutes). Each compound was
tested in the range of 0 to 20 M; - tocopherol at a concentration of 0.5 M was used as control.
The dose-response kinetic curves of each phenolic compound showed that 0.5 M was the
minimum concentration that produced a prolongation of the lag-phase of LDL, relative to
control LDL (without phenolic compound addition). Thus, 0.5 M was the concentration of
phenolic compounds used in subsequent experiments to compare the antioxidant capacity of
each phenolic compound.
Effect of the individual VOO phenolic compounds on the lag phase of Cu2+-mediated
LDL oxidation
Each of the 19 phenolic compounds was tested at a concentration of 0.5 M using, as reference,
the LDL without added phenolic compounds and -tocopherol as antioxidant control. The
132
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin lipdica de las LDL
findings are presented in Figure 3. Results are expressed as the prolongation of the lag phase of
LDL (in minutes) by subtracting the lag phase of control LDL (without phenolic compound
addition). LDL incubated with -tocopherol showed an increase in the lag phase of 16.2 4.07
min compared to control LDL (without phenolic compound addition). Five phenolic
compounds showed significant (p<0.05) prolongations in the lag phase relative to control LDL.
The ranking values were luteolin (L; 30.2 4.69 min, p<0.0001) > rutin (R; 29.2 4.69 min,
p<0.0001) > hydroxytyrosol (H; 27.6 4.06 min, p<0.0001) > oleuropein (O; 25.2 4.69 min,
p<0.001) > 3,4-DHPEA-EDA (D; 23.7 5.38 min, p<0.05). Apigenin-7-O-glucoside,
verbascoside, apigenin and tyrosol showed no effect. The rest of the phenols tested also had lag
phase prolongation times, but without reaching statistical significance. Ferulic acid showed a
mild reduction in the lag phase relative to control LDL, suggesting a prooxidant effect (5.3
5.38 min).
Luteolin
Rutin
Hydroxytyrosol
Oleuropein
3,4-DHPEA-EDA
Galic Acid
Acetoxypinoresinol
Luteolin-7-O-Glucoside
p-HPEA-EDA
Cafeic acid
Vanillin
3,4-DHPEA-AC
Pinoresinol
p-Coumaric Acid
Tyrosol
Apigenin
Verbascoside
Apigenin-7-O-Glucoside
Ferulic Acid
a-Tocopherol
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Lag Phase (min)
Figure 8.1 3 Prolongation of the lag phase of LDL following incubation with olive oil phenols (0.5 M),
luteolin, rutin, hydroxytyrosol, oleuropin, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA, galic acid, acetoxypinoresinol, luteolin-7-O-
glucoside, p-HPEA-EDA, caffeic acid, vanilin, 3,4-DHPEA-AC, pinoresinol, p-coumaric acid, tyrosol,
apigenin, verbascoside, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, ferulic acid, and -tocoferol. The values are relative to
control LDL. Results are expressed as in minutes (mean SEM) increased with respect to control LDL. *
Mean significant different from control LDL p<0.05 by Bonferroni test. Measurements were performed in
triplicate.
133
CAPTULO II: Resultados
Synergistic effect of phenolic compounds on the increase in the lag phase of Cu2+
induced LDL oxidation
Compounds showing the highest antioxidant effect in the experiment described above (section
3.2) were L > R > H > O > D and, in the present in vitro assay, the lowest concentration used was
0.2M in order to mimic the phenolic concentration detection levels in human plasma (Table 1).
Table 1 shows an increase in the lag phase of the 5 compounds at 0.2M, similar to that
observed with the same compounds at 0.5M.
Table 8.1 1. Prolongation of the lag-phase of LDL after incubation with 0.2 M of phenolic compounds
alone or in combination relative to control LDL (without phenolic compounds) and the expected effect.
aMean (actual observation) significantly different from the control LDL (p<0.05 by ANOVA)
bMean (actual observation) significantly different from the sum of the individual effects (p<0.05 by
Student t-test). A value of p<0.05 indicates synergy.
1 Numbers in parentheses indicate the ratio of observed to calculated value of individual effects.
134
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin lipdica de las LDL
1.5, 1.8 and 1.9-fold that of the sum of the individual component effects (HLOD, HLRD, LORD,
HORD and HLOR, respectively, p<0.05). Also the mixture of 5 compounds increased 1.8-fold
(p<0.05) the sum of the individual effects. These effects were higher than the sum of the
individual effects (expected effect). Thus, the overall effect of the 4 and/or 5 phenolic
compounds was synergistic.
The phenolic composition of VOO consumed by the volunteers is shown in Table 8.1 2. Of the 5
phenolic compounds with the highest antioxidant activity observed in the in vitro assays, 4 were
present in human plasma following the 40 ml VOO ingestion, as observed in Figure8.1 4.
Luteolin concentration increased to 0.013 M at 60 min, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA to 1.17 M,
oleuropein aglycone to 0.067 M at 120 min, and hydroxytyrosol to 1.66 M at 240 min post-
ingestion of the VOO. Rutin was not detected in the human plasma following VOO ingestion.
Table 8.1 2. Concentration of phenolic compounds in the virgin olive oil consumed by the volunteers
Compound Concentration
(M)
Phenolic acids
Cinnamic acid 0.29
Coumaric acid 1.14
Ferulic Acid 0.28
Vanillic acid 0.78
Vanillin 1.77
Phenyl ethyl alcohols
Hydroxytyrosol 13.01
Tyrosol 20.85
Secoiridoid aglycons
3,4-DHPEA-AC 0.26
3,4-DHPEA-EDA 76.11
3,4-DHPEA-EA 45.34
Methyl 3,4-DHPEA- 7.05
EA
Oleuropein derivative 1.48
p-HPEA-EDA 21.76
p-HPEA-EA 28.39
Ligstroside derivative 2.50
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
Flavonoids
Apigenin 1.39
Luteolin 6.96
Lignans
Pinoresinol 2.60
Acetoxipinoresinol 29.71
Total phenols 261.75
Plasma phenol concentration (M)
2.0
Hydroxytyrosol
3,4-DHPEA-EDA
1.5
Oleuropein Aglycone
1.0 Luteolin
0.5
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
30
60
0
0
12
24
Figure 8.1 4 Phenol compounds concentrations (M) in post-prandial human plasma (240 min) following
the oral intake of a single bolus of 40 ml of VOO.
DISCUSSION
The in vitro antioxidant activity of 19 VOO phenolic compounds on LDL showed that half of
them exert their activity at 10 M (mol/L) concentration; values at the low end of the range of
concentrations (from <0.1 mol/L to >100 mol/L) required to elicit effects in vitro [25, 26].
Luteolin, rutin, hydroxytyrosol, oleuropein, and 3,4-DHPEA-EDA were the most effective
compounds in increasing the lag phase of Cu2+-induced LDL oxidation. When these 5 phenolic
compounds were mixed (at 0.2 M each), a synergistic effect was observed i.e. the lag phase was
approximately 2-fold that of the sum of lag phases of the individual phenolic compounds. The
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Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin lipdica de las LDL
phenolic compounds studied were identified following 40 ml intake of VOO (the average daily
intake of VOO in Mediterranean countries). The plasma concentration of these compounds was
of the order of <2 M and is similar to the concentration of other phenolic compounds detected
in human plasma, and which rarely reach 10 M [25, 26]. 3,4 DHPEA-EDA had not been
previously identified in post-prandial human plasma. Also detected were luteolin,
hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein (as the aglycon form). Rutin had been described previously [28]
in post-prandial plasma following VOO ingestion, but we were unable to confirm this finding.
It could be because rutin is not a constituent of the VOO we had used, or was below the
detection limit of our analytical procedures.
The antioxidant activities of the different phenolic compounds evaluated in the present study
were related, in part, to their chemical structures [29]. For secoiridoids, an early study by
Leenen et al [5] showed that the ortho-dihydroxy structure on the phenol rings (hydroxytyrosol
and oleuropein in its glucosidic and aglycon forms) were more efficient than their mono-
hydroxy counterparts (tyrosol and ligstroside in its glucosidal and aglycon forms) in increasing
the resistance of LDL to oxidation. As such, the antioxidative capacity of luteolin was greater
than that of luteolin-7-O-glucoside in which the glucose is linked to the ortho-dihydroxyl group
at the C7 position linked to an aromatic ring.
Oleuropein, in its glucosidic form, was not detected in human post-prandial plasma, probably
because it was not a constituent, or was below the level of detection, of the VOO consumed in
the present study. Also, in the case of VOO that contains low concentrations of oleuropein, the
human digestive system causes the loss of the glucose molecule [16] and, as a consequence, the
oleuropein available in human plasma following the ingestion of VOO corresponds to the
aglycone chemical structure. Nevertheless, oleuropein aglycones retain the oleosidic skeleton
common to the secoiridoid glucosides (hydroxytyrosol esters of elenolic acid) which is
responsible for the antioxidant activity of oleuropein [16], and which could explain their role in
increased resistance of LDL to oxidation in vivo. Our identification, in postprandial plasma, of
the secoiridoid 3,4-DHPEA-EDA, is of special interest because it is the major component of
phenolic compounds of VOO [22]. In the post-prandial plasma, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA concentration
reached 1.17 mol/L at 120 min post-VOO ingestion.
Future studies need to focus on the in vivo biological effects of VOO phenolic compounds in
humans. It is clear that food components need to be, by definition, in bioavailable forms in
order to exert biological effects. In the past few years there have been major advances in our
knowledge of phenolic compound absorption and metabolism [1-4], and it is apparent that most
classes of polyphenols are sufficiently absorbed to have the potential to exert biological effects
[25, 26]. For example, quercetin from onions, catechins from red wine, and isoflavones from soy
reach micromolar concentrations in post-prandial plasma [25, 26]. These findings demonstrate
that phenolic compounds cross the intestinal barrier and reach concentrations in the
bloodstream that have been shown, in some studies, to exert effects in vitro [25, 26]. However,
the precise effects depend on the class of phenolic compounds studied, and there are clear gaps
in the current knowledge. For VOO, there is a need to demonstrate the dose, particularly with
respect to secoiridoids, that is effective in reducing CVD risk in humans.
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Further, in most studies (with the exception of studies on isoflavones), food items have been
administred instead of pure compounds and, so, the effects noted could be attributable to some
other component in that food item. Finally, the role of microflora needs to be understood in
greater depth because gut microflora could play a major role in the metabolism of phenolic
compounds determining their bioavailability and biological activity. This is an interesting
approach since current debate focuses on whether individuals need to consume a food item or a
pure phenolic compound as a dietary supplement [25, 26]. In our case of a Mediterranean diet,
this option would be VOO.
A limitation of this study is that the antioxidant effect of phenolic compounds has been
evaluated by only one type of assay i.e. the resistance of LDL to oxidation, as measured by
conjugated dienes formation (which is an early stage of lipid peroxidation). Confirming our in
vitro antioxidant findings, a recent study [30] demonstrated 3,4-DHPEA-EDA to have a
protective role against oxidative injury in human cells in vitro caused by reactive oxygen species
[30].
A further limitation of our study is that we approached only 2 volunteers to take part in the
VOO intake study. Building on our findings, we are currently exploring VOO enriched with
these phenolic compounds in order to demonstrate advantageous physiological effects.
CONCLUSIONS
In summary, our results suggest that VOO phenolic compounds luteolin, rutin, 3,4-DHPEA-
EDA, hydroxytyrosol, and oleuropein can act synergistically in increasing the resistance of LDL
to oxidation. Our novel finding of the identification of 3,4-DHPEA-EDA in post-prandial
plasma, together with confirmation of luteolin, hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein (in the aglycone
form) support the in vivo antioxidant potential in humans of these compounds derived from
virgin olive oil.
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REFERENCES
[1] Aguilera CM, Mesa MD, Ramirez-Tortosa MC, Nestares MT, et al.: Sunflower oil does
not protect against LDL oxidation as virgin olive oil does in patients with peripheral
vascular disease. Clinical Nutrition. 2004, 23: 673-681.
[2] Visioli F, Bogani P, Grande S, Galli C: Mediterranean food and health: building human
evidence. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 2005, 56(Suppl. 1): 37-49.
[3] Covas MI: Olive oil and the cardiovascular system. Pharmacological Research. 2007, 55:
175-86.
[4] Fito M, Guxens M, Corella D, Saez G, et al.: Effect of a traditional Mediterranean diet on
lipoprotein oxidation: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine.
2007, 167: 1195-1203.
[5] Leenen R, Roodenburg AJ, Vissers MN, Schuurbiers JA, et al.: Supplementation of
plasma with olive oil phenols and extracts: influence on LDL oxidation. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2002, 50: 1290-1297.
[6] Manna C, Galletti P, Cucciolla V, Moltedo O, et al.: The protective effect of the olive oil
polyphenol (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-ethanol counteracts reactive oxygen metabolite-
induced cytotoxicity in Caco-2 cells. Journal of Nutrition. 1997, 127: 286-292.
[7] Morell JR, Vuorela S, Romero MP, Motilva MJ, Heinonen M: Antioxidant activity of
olive pulp and olive oil phenolic compounds of the Arbequina cultivar. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005, 53: 20022008.
[8] Carrasco-Pancorbo A, Cerretani L, Bendini A, Segura-CarreteroA, et al.: Evaluation of
the antioxidant capacity of individual phenolic compounds in virgin olive oil. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005, 53: 8918-8925.
[9] Obied HK, Prenzler PD, Robards K: Potent antioxidant biophenols from olive mill
waste. Food Chemistry. 2008, 111: 171 178.
[10] Covas MI, Nyyssonen K, Poulsen HE, Kaikkonen J, et al.: The effect of polyphenols in
olive oil on heart disease risk factors: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine.
2006, 145: 333-341.
[11] Giovannini C, Straface E, Modesti D, Coni, E,, et al.: Tyrosol, the major olive oil
biophenol, protects against oxidized-LDL-induced injury in Caco-2 cells Journal of
Nutrition. 1999, 12: 1269-1277.
[12] De-la-Torre KJ, Castellote A, Lamuela-Ravents R, Covas MI, et al.: Rapid high-
performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry
method for qualitative and quantitative analysis of virgin olive oil metabolites in
human low-density lipoproteins. Journal of Chromatography A. 2006, 1116: 69-75.
[13] Oliveras-Lpez MJ, Innocenti M, Giaccherini C, Ieri F, et al.: Study of the phenolic
composition of Spanish and Italian monocultivar extra virgin olive oils: Distribution of
lignans, secoiridoidic, simple phenols and flavonoids. Talanta. 2007, 73: 726-732.
[14] Brenes M, Garcia A, Garcia P, Rios JJ, et al.: Phenolic compounds in Spanish olive oils.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1999, 47: 3535-3540.
[15] Ryan, D, Robards K, Prenzler P, Jardine D, et al.: Liquid chromatography with
electrospray ionisation mass spectrometric detection of phenolic compounds from Olea
europaea. Journal of Chromatography A. 1999, 855: 529-537.
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INTRODUCTION
The oxidative stress hypothesis of atherosclerosis is based on the fact that oxidation participates
in atherogenesis pathophysiology by means of LDL modification, among other mechanisms [1-
3]. Supporting this hypothesis, oxLDL have been detected in atherosclerotic lesions[4-6] and in
vitro oxLDL seemed to exhibit various proatherogenic activities[3,7] .
It is important to emphasize that oxLDL represents a heterogeneous population of modified
forms of LDL that differ greatly in their chemical composition and functional properties. The
conversion of native LDL into high-uptake LDL (completely oxidized) via oxidative processes
can occur by two major mechanisms: In the first case, the events start with the complete loss of
LDLs endogenous antioxidants (i.e., -tocopherol, ubiquinol-10), followed by the conversion of
a majority of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) into their corresponding hydroperoxides.
These primary lipid oxidation products then fragment into secondary lipid oxidation products,
such as malonyldialdehyde or 4-hydroxynonenal. Then the secondary lipid oxidation products
react with the N-amino group of lysine residues from LDL apoprotein (Apo B-100) so that the
particles electrophoretic mobility increases and the lipoprotein becomes high uptake[8].
Additionally, in the subendothelial space, oxLDL may exert a Trojan horse effect, e.g.
allowing the diffusion of those lipid mediators modifying endothelial and vascular smooth
muscle cells. The second case is characterized by the immediate and preferential oxidation of
amino acid residues from Apo B-100 in the absence of substantial consumption of lipid soluble
antioxidants nor occurrence of lipid peroxidation [9].
With regard to the influence of diet on atherosclerosis, it is known that, besides -tocopherol,
other compounds could protect against LDL oxidation. In this line, polyphenolic compounds
from virgin olive oil, exhibiting a wide range of biological activity[10] reduce the susceptibility
of the LDL to oxidation. This property has been attributed to some components, mainly tyrosol
and OH-tyrosol and their precursor, oleuropein. However, the phenolic fraction of virgin olive
oils is very complex and contains numerous groups of phenolic structures whose concentration
depends on several agronomical and technological factors[11].
Despite a great deal of research having been devoted to the prevention of lipid peroxidation in
LDL by antioxidants, including polyphenols[12][13-15], few studies have reported the
prevention of protein oxidation in LDL by exogenous antioxidants. Apo B-100 modifications,
e.g., the binding of lipid peroxidation products or direct oxidation of amino acid side-chain
residues, are thought to finally result in the formation of new epitopes that are specifically
recognized by scavenger receptors [16-19].
To fill those gaps, the antioxidant effect of 21 different phenolic compounds of olive fruit and
olive oil in the oxidation of apolipoprotein of human LDL was assessed in this study. For that
purpose, the quantification of carbonyl groups (detected by Western-Blot) was carried out in
LDL-model systems. The antioxidant behavior of the most active phenols was then further
characterized by measuring the protection of the lipidome changes induced by Cu++, the
accumulation of specific oxidation and lipid peroxidation markers in LDL apoproteins. Finally,
the preventive role on the loss of cell viability induced by Cu++-treated LDL was tested using
these olive-derived phenolic compounds.
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Phenolic compounds
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
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Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
Protein oxidation screening method: Oxidation of LDL and Western blot analysis.
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
sample SDS was added to a final concentration of 6%, and, after boiling for 3 min, 20 l of 10
mM DNP in 10% trifluoroacetic acid were added. After 7 min at room temperature, 20 l of a
solution containing 2M Tris base, 30% glycerol and 15% -mercaptoethanol was added for
neutralization and sample preparation for loading onto 4-20% gradient pre-made SDS-PAGE
gels (Invitrogen). For immunodetection after SDS-PAGE, proteins were transferred using a
Mini Trans-Blot Transfer Cell (BioRad) to PVDF membranes (Immobilon-P Millipore, Bedford,
MA). Immunodetection was performed using a rabbit anti-DNP antiserum as the primary
antibody (1:4000, Dako, Carpenteria, CA). Peroxidase-coupled secondary antibodies were used
from the Tropix chemiluminiscence kit (Tropix Inc, Bedford, MA). Luminiscence was recorded
and quantified in Chemidoc equipment (Biorad, Barcelona, Spain), using the Quantity-one
analysis software (Biorad). The average mode of background subtraction was chosen to
quantify. Control experiments showed that omission of derivatization step, primary or
secondary antibody addition produced blots with no detectable signal (data not shown). After
developing, the blots were silver-stained as described to check the protein load.[21]
GSA, AASA, and MDAL concentrations in LDL apoproteins were quantified by gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) as previously described [21]. Samples
containing 0.4 mg of protein were extensivelly delipidated using chloroform:methanol
extraction (2:1 v/v, 3x) in the presence of 0.01% butylated hydroxytoluene, and the proteins
were precipitated by adding 10% of trichloroacetic acid (final concentration) and subsequent
centrifugation. The protein samples were reduced overnight with 500 mM NaBH4 (final
concentration) in 0.2M borate buffer, pH 9.2, containing 1 drop of hexanol as an anti-foam
reagent. The proteins were then reprecipitated by adding 1 ml of 20% trichloroacetic acid and
then centrifuging. The following isotopically labelled internal standards were then added:
[2H8]Lysine (d8-Lys; CDN Isotopes); and [2H8]MDAL (d8-MDAL), [2H5] 5-hydroxy-2-
aminovaleric acid (for GSA quantization) and [2H4]6-hydroxy-2-aminocaproic acid (for AASA
quantization) as described[21],. The samples were hydrolysed at 155 C for 30 min in 1ml of 6N
HCl, and then vacuum dried. The N,O-trifluoroacetyl methyl ester derivatives of the protein
hydrolysate were prepared as previously described [21],. The GC/MS analyses were carried out
on a Hewlett-Packard model 6890 gas chromatograph equipped with a 30m HP-5MS capillary
column (30m x 0.25mm x 0.25 m) coupled to a Hewlett-Packard model 5973A mass selective
detector (Agilent, Barcelona, Spain). The injection port was maintained at 275 C; the
temperature program was 5 min at 110 C, then rising by 2 C/min to 150 C, then by 5 C/min
to 240 C, then 25 C/min to 300 C, and finally hold at 300 C for 5 min. Quantification was
performed by external standardization using standard curves constructed from mixtures of
deuterated and non-deuterated standards. The analytes were detected by selected ion-
monitoring GC/MS. The ions used were: lysine and d8-lysine, m/z 180 and 187, respectively;
5-hydroxy-2-aminovaleric acid and d5-5-hydroxy-2-aminovaleric acid (stable derivatives of
GSA), m/z 280 and 285, respectively; 6-hydroxy-2-aminocaproic acid and d4-6-hydroxy-2-
aminocaproic acid (stable derivatives of AASA), m/z 294 and 298, respectively; and MDAL and
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Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
d8-MDAL, m/z 474 and 482, respectively. The amounts of products were expressed as the ratio
mol GSA, AASA, or MDAL/mol lysine.
Lipidome analyses.
Lipid composition was assessed by fatty acid analysis and time of flight mass spectrometry
(TOF)-based lipid molecular species analyses. The total lipids from LDL were extracted with
chloroform:methanol (2:1, v/v) in the presence of 0.01% butylated hydroxytoluene.
Fatty acid analysis was performed as previously described[21]. The chloroform phase was
evaporated under nitrogen, and the fatty acids were transesterified by incubation in 2.5 ml of
5% methanolic HCl for 90 min at 75 C. The resulting fatty acid methyl esters were extracted by
adding 2.5 ml of n-pentane and 1 ml of saturated NaCl solution. The n-pentane phase was
separated, evaporated under nitrogen, redissolved in 75 l of hexane and 1 l was used for the
GC/MS analysis. Separation was performed in a SP2330 capillary column (30m x 0.25mm x
0.20m) in a Hewlett Packard 6890 Series II gas chromatograph (Agilent, Barcelona, Spain). A
Hewlett Packard 5973A mass spectrometer was used as the detector in the electron-impact
mode. The injection port was maintained at 220 C, and the detector at 250 C; the temperature
program was 2 min at 100 C, then rising by 10 C/min to 200 C, then 5 C/min to 240 C, and
finally held at 240 C for 10 min. Identification of fatty acid methyl esters was done by
comparison with authentic standards and based on mass spectra. Results are expressed as mol
%. The following indexes were calculated from the fatty acid composition: Saturated Fatty
Acids (SFA)= % of saturated fatty acids; Unsaturated Fatty Acids (UFA)= % unsaturated
fatty acids; Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA)= % of monoenoic fatty acids;
Polyunsaturated n-3 Fatty Acids (PUFAn-3)= % of polyunsaturated fatty acids n-3 serie;
Polyunsaturated n-6 Fatty Acids (PUFAn-6)= % of polyunsaturated fatty acids n-6 serie;
Average Chain Length (ACL)= [( %Total14 x 14) + + ( %Total n x n)]/100 (n= carbon atom
number); Peroxidizability index = [( mol% Monoenoic x 0.025) + ( mol% Dienoic x 1) + (
mol% Trienoic x 2) + ( mol% Tetraenoic x 4) + ( mol% Pentaenoic x 6) + ( mol% Hexaenoic x
8)].
For TOF-based lipid molecular species analyses, lipid extracts were submitted to mass-
spectrometry using a 6210 Agilent Q-TOF, coupled to a capillary LC module using an
untargeted approach as described recently [22]. Briefly, lipid samples, extracted as above, after
drying and reconstitution under N2 were injected into a reverse phase chromatography system,
using a Zorbax C18 column (150 x 0.5 mm x 5 m) at a flow rate of 8 l/min in a LC system
consisting of a capillary pump (Agilent 1200). Buffer A was water with 0.1% formic acid, and
buffer B was acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid. The column was equilibrated in 5% B and the
gradient was 5%--95%B over 50 min. The eluant was directed to an ESI source, with a nebulizer
gas flow of 15 l/min at 300 C with a capillary voltage of 3500 V operating in positive mode,
with a dual spray for reference mass (m/z 121.05087 and m/z 922.0098). The instrument was
calibrated immediately prior to the test. For the data analysis with the Agilent MassHunter
Profiling software, five repeated injections of each extract sample were measured by the same
LC/MS method. The acquired MS data were extracted by the Molecular Feature Extractor in the
Agilent MassHunter Qualitative software. In this process, the identified ions were clustered to
molecular features comprising isotope compounds and adducts. The obtained files were
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
grouped according to the samples into two respective groups (control samples vs Cu++ treated
samples) and loaded into the Agilent MassHunter Profiling software. For the differential
analysis of both groups the features of each group were compared using Students T test. The
resulting masses were searched for in the Lipid Maps Databases
(http://www.lipidmaps.org/tools/index.html), and among 73 different molecular features
found, 17 were significantly increased (p<0.01) over values found in control incubations of LDL.
Among those, the three most abundant had masses compatible with 1-
palmitoyllysophosphatidylcholine PLPC- (measured mass: 495.3328, theoretical mass:
495.3325), 1-stearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine SGPC- (measured mass: 523.364, theoretical
mass: 523.3638) and 1-oleoylglycerophosphocholine OGPC- (measured mass: 521.3476,
theoretical mass: 521.3481). In order to offer a relative quantification of 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-
oxovaleryl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POVPC) and 1-palmitoyl-2-glutaryl-sn-glycero-3-
phosphocholine (PGPC), bioactive lipids present in oxLDL mass profiles [23] were integrated
for an m/z of 594.3 for POVPC and 610.2 for PGPC with a of 0.01 Da.
Cell viability.
HMVEC cells, kindly donated by Dr. A. Negre-Salvayre (INSERM, Toulouse, France) were
cultured in 100mm plates with high glucose DMEM containing 10% FBS until they were 70-80%
confluent. Afterwards, the cells were harvested, counted and seeded in 96-well microplates
(25,000 cells/well) with the same culture medium, leaving a strip of wells free of cells to be used
as a blank. The cells were immediately centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 4 min, without stop brake, in
order to obtain a fast and homogeneous attachment to the bottom of the wells. After 6 h, the cell
culture medium was removed and serum-free DMEM was added to the cells. One hour later,
the culture medium was removed again and 100 l of serum-free DMEM containing non-
oxidized LDL, oxLDL, oxLDL in the presence of polyphenols or the vehicles alone, was added
to each well. The final concentration of LDL in all conditions was 200 g/ml. Eighteen hours
later, the culture medium was removed and 100 l of PBS was added to each well in order to
avoid possible interferences, immediately before determining viability. The effect of
polyphenols on the cellular capacity to withstand tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BOOH) challenge
was measured as described [24,25]. The HepG2 cells were serum starved (0.5% FCS) in the
presence of selected phenolics (5 M) for 8 h. The cells were then challenged with 200 M t-
BOOH as peroxide donor, and 2 h later, cell viability was estimated with the 3-(4,5-
Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) test.
Both HMEC and HepG2 viability were measured with the MTT-based Cell Toxicity
Colorimetric Assay Kit (Sigma) according to the manufacturers instructions. The results were
expressed as the percentage of viability versus cells exposed to non-oxidized LDL or untreated
with t-BOOH.
Statistical analyses.
All statistics were analyzed using the SPSS software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Differences
between the groups were analyzed by the Student's T tests or ANOVA (with post-hoc analyses
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Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
for detecting differences between specific pairs), after assessment of normal distribution of
variables by the Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test. Correlations between variables were evaluated by
the Pearson statistic. The 0.05 level was selected as the point of minimal statistical significance
in every comparison.
RESULTS
The antioxidant capacity was quantified after western-blot of DNP reactive carbonyls in LDL
apoporotein (Figure 8.2 2) the value corresponding to oxLDL being considered 0 % of
antioxidant capacity. Positive percentage values corresponded to antioxidant capacity,
corresponding to anti-DNP immunoreactivities below the oxLDL. Negative percentage values
corresponded to prooxidant activities, showing higher values than OxLDL. The results of the
percentage of the oxidation inhibition of the different phenols tested at three concentrations, 5,
50 and 100 M, are shown in Figure8.2 2B, , using -tocopherol as reference. Apoprotein
oxidation was significantly inhibited by the majority of the phenols tested. The OH-tyrosol
showed the maximal efficiency even at 5 M, higher than the efficiency of -tocopherol.
Luteolin (flavonoid), pinoresinol (lignan), gallic and caffeic acids showed a good efficiency that
was concentration-dependent. These phenols reduced the Cu++ inducted oxidation by between
60 and 80%. The secoiridoid derivatives (3,4-DHPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EDA) showed a slight
activity, similarly to -tocopherol. Other phenols, such as verbascoside, vanillin, 3,4-DHPEA-
AC and the methylated form of the oleuropein aglycone (ME 3,4-DHPEA-EA) showed lower
antioxidant activity with oxidation inhibition values below 20 %. The prooxidant effect shown
by some phenols, such as oleuropein, tyrosol and apigenin in its aglycone and glucosidic forms
should also be noted.
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
Figure 8.2 2. Olive-derived polyphenols inhibit protein oxidation in oxLDL to varying degrees. A.
Representative western-blot of the screening phase for LDL apoproten protection in oxLDL. Data
are presented for 3,4-DHPEA-AC, apigenin, rutin, p-cumaric acid and apigenin-7-O-glucoside at
100 M. Veh:Vehicle, * indicates Apo B-100 molecular weight and arrow indicates protein
fragmentation induced by oxidation. B: Effect of olive-derived polyphenols in protein
carbonylation in Cu++-incubated LDL. All phenols were tested at three concentrations (5 M, 50
M and 100 M). LDL and Cu++ incubated LDL were used as control of native and oxidized
LDL. The antioxidant capacity of each phenol at different concentrations is expressed as
percentual values, considering that the immunoreactivity of Cu++-incubated LDL is considered 0
% of antioxidant capacity -positive values reveal decreased carbonyl formation and negative
values reveal increased protein carbonylation-. Data shown are meanS.D., (n=4 for each data
point).
As Figure 8.2 2 shows, different phenolic compounds exhibit differential effects in a dose
dependent fashion, over the potential for the formation of 2,4- DNPH reactive carbonyls, a
surrogate of protein oxidation, in the apoprotein moiety of human LDL. According with this
first screening, the more active phenols selected were: OH-tyrosol (OH-tyrosol), 3,4-DHPEA-
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Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
Taking into account that DNP reactive carbonyls could arise from either lipid peroxidative
damage or the direct modification of aminoacid residues by MCO [26], specific probes for each
of these oxidative modifications were measured by using GC/MS. The results show that Cu++
incubation led to significant increases in the MCO markers GSA, AASA and an even greater
increase in the lipoxidation marker MDAL (Figure 8.2 3). OH-tyrosol and the lignans were the
most effective compounds for inhibiting GSA accumulation. Caffeic acid and luteolin also
prevented its accumulation in Cu++-treated LDL. Neither gallic acid, nor p-HPEA-EDA or 3,4-
DHPEA-EDA were effective (Figure 8.2 3A). A similar pattern was observed for AASA
accumulation, but in this case, both gallic acid and the p-HPEA-EDA were significant inhibitors
of its formation (Figure 8.2 3B). Finally, OH-tyrosol and pinoresinol were potent antioxidants in
considering MDAL accumulation, while p-HPEA-EDA and 3,4-DHPEA-EDA, and specially
luteolin (with no significant effect), were among the lowest in this sense (Figure 3C). To
reinforce the importance of the lipid composition in relation with the lipoxidative modifications
of proteins, a significant correlation was observed (r2=0.91; p<0.0001) between peroxidizability
index (PI) (see below) and MDAL formation (Figure 8.2 3D).
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
Figure 8.2 3. Proteins from Cu++-incubated LDL show significant increases in the amounts of oxidation
markers whose formation is inhibited by selected olive-derived polyphenols. A-C show GC/MS analyses
of GSA and AASA (markers of metal-catalyzed oxidation), and MDAL, originated from lipoxidation.
Values shown are % changes of mean S.E.M. over values from control LDL (GSA: 594561 mol/mol
lysine; AASA: 112820 mol/mol lysine; and MDAL: 17723 mol/mol lysine); *p<0,05; ** p<0,01 and ***
p<0,001 respect to Cu++ incubated LDL. D: protein lipoxidative damage shows a quadratic relationship
with peroxidizability index (PI) (r2=0,911;p<0,0001; model:[MDAL] = 1,03*[PI]2-151,26*[PI]+5698)
152
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
Carbonyl modification of apoproteins can arise from lipid peroxidation. In such a case, the LDL
fatty acid composition exhibits polyunsaturated fatty acid consumption. To test this, the fatty
acid composition of LDL was analyzed after Cu++-induced oxidation, demonstrating
significant losses in PI and PUFA content (Table8.2 1). For this reason we examined the
potential for prevention of this phenomenon. OH-tyrosol, caffeic acid and lignanes were among
the most potent compounds, almost preventing the effect of Cu++. The phenolic acids and p-
HPEA-EDA were less potent, and luteolin and 3,4-DHPEA-EDA had almost no effect on the
oxidative modification of LDL lipids.
153
3,4-
p-HPEA- OH- DHPEA-
Ctl Cu++ EDA Tyrosol EDA Ac-Pin Caffeic Pin Lut Gall
.16:0 21,110,59* 24,780,78 24,920,79 23,390,84 24,770,8 23,850,09 23,630,16 23,320,10 26,550,91 24,250,65
16:1n-7 3,060,28* 3,270,55 3,150,93 3,000,66* 3,100,7 3,590,59 3,300,30 3,260,15 3,330,26 3,250,87
.18:0 11,550,16 11,080,93 8,990,72* 8,900,30* 11,410,0 8,670,68* 9,430,36* 9,360,46* 11,630,35 10,080,41
CAPTULO II: Resultados
.18:1n-9 22,770,97** 26,380,26 25,290,06 24,910,27 25,740,0 24,440,49 24,270,57 24,610,69 25,370,06 25,240,93
.18:2n-6 28,840,50** 24,970,21 29,410,43** 30,390,33** 26,090,9* 30,470,14** 29,590,5** 29,780,13** 23,110,81 28,020,8**
.20:3n-6 1,590,47* 0,980,07 1,130,214* 1,390,85* 1,010,1 1,170,11* 1,280,63* 1,240,22* 0,880,02 1,180,14*
.20:4n-6 6,050,96** 3,080,70 3,790,50 4,620,19* 3,320,6 4,140,82* 4,270,56* 4,290,65* 2,670,25 3,770,14*
154
ACL 17,740,9 17,50,7 17,50,5 17,60,2 17,50,7 17,50,7 17,50,8 17,60,1 17,50,1 17,50,8
SFA 34,411,2* 38,10,3 35,30,9* 33,80,0* 37,90,8 34,20,4* 35,20,1* 34,60,3* 40,20,6* 36,10,4
DBI 124,583,2** 104,60,6 112,50,8* 119,00,6** 106,60,5 117,00,1** 115,90,6** 117,30,7** 103,20,0 111,60,8*
PI 69,262,3** 49,10,1 54,50,5* 60,60,1** 51,10,1 58,60,2* 58,70,2* 59,80,6* 50,40,2 54,60,9*
PUFA n-6/n-3, polyunsaturated fatty acids n-6 or n-3 series; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; DBI,
Values: meanS.E. ACL, average chain length; SFA, saturated fatty acids; UFA, unsaturated fatty acids;
double bond index; PI, peroxidizability index, *p<0,05 and ** p<0,01 respect to values in Cu++ incubated
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
Figure 8.2 4. Olive-derived polyphenols inhibit changes in LDL lipidome induced by Cu++. A: Pie plot
showing distribution of differential lipid species between control and Cu++-incubated LDL. B: Effect of
olive-derived polyphenols in the accumulation of PLPC induced by Cu++-incubation. C: Effect of olive-
derived polyphenols in the accumulation of SGPC induced by Cu++-incubation. D: Effect of olive-
derived polyphenols in the accumulation of POVPC induced by Cu++-incubation. E: Effect of olive-
derived polyphenols in the accumulation of PGPC induced by Cu++-incubation. Values shown are mean
S.E.M over values from Cu++-incubated LDL, *** p<0,001 (n=4 for each data point).
To further reinforce the biological relevance of the antioxidant potential of those compounds
and the methodology described here for its identification, we examined the cytotoxic potential
of Cu++ incubated LDL in an endothelial cell culture. For this purpose, the endothelial cell line
HMEC-1 was treated with Cu++-treated LDL and 18 h later, the viability of the cultures was
assessed with the MTT assay. The results demonstrate that oxLDL led to a loss of 60% of
viability and OH-tyrosol and caffeic acid prevented partially those effects (Figure 8.2 5A),
inducing only a 10% of viability loss. Unexpectedly, luteolin, a compound with a low
155
CAPTULO II: Resultados
antioxidant potential, showed a significant preventive effect on the oxLDL induced loss of
viability.
To ascertain whether this was due to a cellular effect (e.g. by modulation of antioxidant cellular
responses), we examined the potential influence of those compounds in tert-BOOH-mediated
cell death in a HepG2 cell line, an unrelated cell line. Those analyses demonstrate that, apart
from the secoiridoid derivatives, luteolin was the only compound able significantly to prevent
the loss of viability secondary to treatment with tert-BOOH (Figure 8.2 5B).
The correlation of cell viability with antioxidant capacity reinforced the pathogenic importance
of LDL apoprotein oxidative modification, as that GSA amount showed the most significant
correlation with the loss of viability induced by oxLDL (Figure 8.2 5C).
Figure 8.2 5 Olive-derived polyphenols inhibit to various extents oxidative-stress induced loss of
viability in endothelial and hepatocyte cell-lines. A: Effect of olive-derived polyphenols in cell death in
HMEC (endothelial cell line) induced by Cu++-incubated LDL; ** p<0,01 and *** p<0,001 respect to cell
death induced by Cu++ incubated LDL (n=6 for each data point). Values shown are mean S.E.M. over
values from samples treated with control LDL B: Effect of olive-derived polyphenols in HepG2 capability
to withstand t-BOOH induced cell death; *** p<0,001 respect to cell death induced by t-BOOH (n=6 for
each data point). Values shown are % changes of mean S.E. over values from control samples. C:
Endothelial cell death induced by Cu++-incubated LDL is strongly correlated with GSA content (r=-0.734;
p<0,016 by the Pearson correlation test).
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Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
DISCUSSION
The present work demonstrates the high heterogeneity of the antioxidant properties of olive-
derived phenolics in LDL oxidation. We offer a novel approach for analyzing and screening the
antioxidant properties of natural products over LDL modification, especially in its protein
components. After a screening phase, eight different compounds were selected for further
analysis. We demonstrated for the first time, the effect of those nutritional compounds on the
accrual of structurally characterized markers of both protein (GSA, AASA and MDAL) and
lipid peroxidation (POVPC, PGPC) in oxLDL. The pathogenic importance of LDL protein
oxidation is shown by the fact that it was the only factor that correlated with oxLDL-induced
cell death.
In order to establish whether structural features determine the effect on the resistance of LDL to
copper-induced oxidation, the chemical structures of the phenolic compounds should be
considered (Figure 1). Important differences in the protection of the apoprotein oxidation were
observed in this study, similar to those observed by other authors using the lag time of LDL as
oxidation marker [27,28]. The differences between those phenols are attributable to their
chemical structure, e.g. OH-tyrosol possesses a 3,4-dihydroxy structure linked to an aromatic
ring that confers the moiety with a higher proton dislocation, facilitating a higher scavenging
activity than the one observed with tyrosol, which only has a hydroxyl group linked to an
aromatic ring (Figure 1). The protective effect of the OH-tyrosol structure has biological
relevance as OH-tyrosol and tyrosol are the most simple phenols detected in plasma and LDL
after the ingestion of virgin olive oil [29]. It should be noted that OH-tyrosol, with the highest
potential for inhibition of MDAL, has been previously described as a potent inducer of cellular
antioxidant responses, both in oxLDL-induced and in tert-BOOH-induced cell stress [24][30]
The antioxidant capacity shown by oleuropein and its secoiridoid derivatives was quite
different. The aglicon derivative of oleuropein (3,4-DHPEA-EDA) and the ligstroside derivative
(p-HPEA-EDA) showed a positive result as antioxidants, mainly at the maximum concentration
tested. These compounds exhibit a high selectivity for lipid-related changes since they mainly
prevented Cu++ induced changes in lipidome and MDAL in LDL. Although no previous results
were available on lipid or protein antioxidant properties, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA is a compound of
special interest because of its presence as one of the major phenolic antioxidant compounds in
virgin olive oil. Moreover, is the most important source of OH-tyrosol in plasma, derived from
the ingestion of virgin olive oil. In contrast with these data, a similar phenolic structure, the 3,4-
DHPEA-AC showed no significant antioxidant activity in this system. This may be attributed to
the potential proton dislocation due to double bonds in the elenolic structure in 3,4-DHPEA-
EDA.
Reinforcing the importance of conjugation, oleuropein, or glucose-conjugated elenolic acid,
showed the most remarkable prooxidant activity of all phenols included in the study in
agreement with its previous reported pro-oxidant activities [31,32].More interestingly, as
oleuropein is considered a proapoptotic agent with potential use as an anti-tumoral agent
[33,34], it may be suggested that those protein prooxidant properties could be involved in the
beneficial effects of oleuropein.
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CAPTULO II: Resultados
Flavonoids from olive pulp and olive oil include flavonol glycosides such as rutin, flavones
(apigenin and luteolin), and their glucosides (apigenin-7-O-glucoside and luteolin-7-O-
glucoside). Polyphenolic flavonoids can scavenge reactive oxygen radicals, by donating a
hydrogen atom or electron [35][36]. Their radical scavenging activity seems to be substantially
dependent on three structural groups : (i) the orto-dihydroxyl structure (catechol structure) in
the B ring, which is the obvious radical target site, (ii) the 2,3 double bond in conjunction with 4-
oxo function, which is responsible for electron delocalization, and (iii) the additional presence of
both the 3- and the 5-OH groups for maximal radical scavenging potential and the strongest
radical absorption. Our data suggest the importance of the ortho-dihydroxyl structure in the
prevention of protein modification, as luteolin and rutin -both containing this structure- act as
more effective antioxidants than apigenin, a very similar molecule. Comparing the antioxidant
activity in the copper-induced LDL oxidation of the luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside, the
antioxidant capacity of both structures was similar. Despite the described preventive effects of
those flavonoids in the diminution of the lag-phase of LDL induced by Cu++ and other oxidants
[37,38] no data were available on their role as inhibitors of protein oxidation markers. In fact,
luteolin can be classified as an agent with more potential for preventing direct oxidation (i.e.
GSA and AASA accumulation) than for preventing lipid peroxidation, as it shows a lower
power for protecting against Cu++-induced lipidome changes in LDL, in agreement with recent
data showing a modest inhibition in the formation of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances
driven by Cu++ [39]. In contrast with this relative low in vitro potential, it shows a high
efficiency in both cell systems as it is able to completely block tert-BOOH-induced changes in
cell viability and it shows a high potential against oxLDL-induced cell death, in agreement with
the reported inhibitory effect of luteolin in oxidized LDL-induced endothelial monocyte
adhesion and/or oxidised LDL uptake[39].
Other major phenols quantified in virgin olive oils are lignans, with a 2,3-dibenzylbutane
skeleton, whose concentration is related with the olive cultivar of origin [11]. Although they are
important as sources of lignans metabolite enterodiol and enterolactone by colonic flora
metabolism, our data reveal that acetoxypinoresinol and pinoresinol possess antioxidant
activity, in agreement with previous reports, where it was shown that some vegetable extracts,
rich in pinoresinol, were able to inhibit LDL oxidation [40,41]. Their antioxidant activity could
be more closely related to their chelating properties than scavenging activity, as they only
exhibit a hydroxyl group linked to an aromatic ring. Globally, acetoxypinoresinol and
pinoresinol exhibit similar potencies in the inhibition of direct protein oxidation and lipid
peroxidative damage, as well as in the prevention of lipidome changes induced by Cu++.
With regard to the phenolic acids group (ferulic, cumaric, caffeic and gallic acids) (Figure 1), all
the phenols showed antioxidant capacity at 50 and 100 M. Ferulic and p-cumaric acids showed
a slight prooxidant activity at 5 M, that may be attributed to H2O2 in vitro production from
phenolic compounds [42,43]. According to how they act, the phenolic acids may be classified as
free radical terminators interfering with lipid oxidation by rapid donation of a hydrogen atom
to peroxy radicals. Their antioxidant activity is related to the molecule containing at least two
neighboring phenolic hydroxyl groups; three such groups are even more desirable facilitating
the interference. Results of the present study showed that the caffeic (with two neighboring
phenolic hydroxyl groups) and gallic acids (three hydroxyl groups) to have the highest
158
Accin antioxidante sobre la fraccin proteica de las LDL
antioxidant capacity. Previous results have demonstrated the antioxidant capability of gallic
and caffeic acids on lipid peroxidation [44-46], but only one reported the effect of gallic acids on
protein modification, and that was related to nitrosative stress [47]. Concerning their cellular
effects, gallic and caffeic acid differed in their effects: while gallic acid was unable to prevent
oxLDL-induced or tBOOH-induced loss of viability, caffeic acid inhibited the toxic effects of
oxLDL. This agrees with the known effect of gallic acid as a proapoptotic agent [48-50] and the
reported protective effect of caffeic acid in endothelial cell survival after oxLDL treatment [51].
All the phenols studied showed antioxidant capacity in the LDL model, the OH-tyrosol being
the most effective. In general, all the phenols showed higher antioxidant activity than -
tocopherol, which could be attributed to the hydrophilic nature of the phenolic structures. In
the biphasic microenvironment constituting core lipids and water phase, such as biomembranes
and plasma lipoproteins, the location of phenols should be taken into account for
understanding their antioxidant activity. Vitamin E (-tocopherol) seems to be located within
the membrane lipids or lipoprotein particles because of its high lipophilicity. However, it is
demonstrated that flavonoid aglycones interact in the polar surface region of the phospholipids
bilayers in membranes [52], offering a higher protection.
In summary, these data show novel antioxidant properties of olive-derived polyphenols in LDL
oxidation. It is also demonstrated that in vitro antioxidant measurements could only partially
predict biologic responses to oxidized LDL, thus reinforcing the importance of a
multidisciplinary approach for the description of oxidative phenomena in atherosclerosis
pathogenesis and its dietary modulation.
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164
9. CAPTULO III: RESULTADOS
Biodisponibilidad de los compuestos
fenlicos del aceite de oliva
9.1 ESTUDIOS IN VITRO: EFECTOS DE LA DIGESTIN
SOBRE LOS COMPUESTOS FENLICOS DEL ACEITE DE OLIVA
The aims of this study were to investigate (i) the metabolism of olive oil phenolics by
intestinal epithelial cells and (ii) their transport across epithelial cell monolayers. The various
conjugates and derivatives produced by the intestinal epithelial cells were identified
following separation by ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) using a
combination of UV/visible spectra, mass spectrometry and specific enzyme treatments (-
glucuronidase and aryl-sulfatase). Limited metabolism of olive oil phenolics was observed
using Caco 2/Tc7 cells as a model of the human intestinal epithelium, and the methylated
conjugates were the major metabolites detected. The results of the transport rate data for
phenols and their metabolites to the apical, cellular, and basolateral compartments after
apical loading of the phenol at 100 M showed a time dependent efflux of various free and
conjugated forms of phenols.
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CAPTULO III: Resultados
INTRODUCTION
The beneficial effects of a Mediterranean diet on human health are widely known and it is
commonly considered that the presence of a variety of antioxidant-rich foods in such diets is
at least partly responsible. Virgin olive oil represents the principal fat component of the
Mediterranean diet and it is a source of at least 30 phenolic compounds. The most important
phenolic compounds that have been identified in olive oil are phenolic alcohols (such as
hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol), secoiridoid derivatives (such as the dialdehydic form of elenolic
acid linked to tyrosol (p-HPEA-EDA), the aldehydic form of elenolic acid linked to tyrosol (p-
HPEA-EA), the dialdehydic form of elenolic acid linked to hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA-
EDA), 4-(acetoxyethyl)-1,2-dihydroxybenzene (3,4-DHPEA-AC), oleuropein aglycone (3,4-
DHPEA-EA) and its methylated form (methyl 3,4-DHPEA-EA)), phenolic acids and
derivatives (such as vanillic acid and vanillin respectively), lignans (pinoresinol and
acetoxypinoresinol) and flavonoids (including luteolin and apigenin) [1].
Phenolic compounds are of fundamental importance in virgin olive oil for their nutritional
properties, sensory characteristics, and the shelf life of the product [2, 3] . In particular, the
phenolic compounds are potent antioxidants, and can confer a marked bitter taste or a sweet
taste typical of some virgin olive oil [4, 5]. In addition, they are thought to play an important
role in human diets as preventative agents against several diseases [6, 7].
In experimental studies, olive oil phenolics have been shown to: 1) be powerful antioxidants ,
more potent than vitamin E in preventing lipids and DNA oxidation [8, 9]; 2) prevent
endothelial dysfunction by decreasing the expression of cell adhesion molecules [10],
increasing nitric oxide (NO) production by increasing endothelial NO synthase activity [11]
and quenching vascular endothelium intracellular free radicals [12]; 3) inhibit platelet
induced aggregation[13]; and 4) enhance transcription of the antioxidant enzymes
glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) [9]. Recently, an ibuprofen-like activity has been described
for oleocanthal or p-HPEA-EDA, a ligstroside aglycone present in olive oil [14]. Other
potential activities of olive oil phenolic compounds include chemopreventive activity [7].
Nevertheless, to achieve any effect in a specific tissue or organ, these bioactive compounds
must be bioavailable, which refers to the compounds tendency to be extracted from the food
matrix, and they must then be absorbed from the gut via the intestinal cells. Experimental
results from in vitro cellular systems have shown that hydroxytyrosol is quantitatively
transported into the small intestinal epithelial cells by passive diffusion [15]. Data from in
vivo experiments with animals and humans have confirmed that olive oil phenolics are well
absorbed at the intestinal level [16]. Tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol are absorbed by humans in a
dose-dependent manner (i.e. the olive oils with the highest concentration of phenolics deliver
the highest concentrations of hydroxytyrosol to blood) [17]. Even from moderate doses (25
mL/d), which are lower than the traditional daily dietary intake in Mediterranean countries
[18], it has been shown that around 98% of these phenolics are present in plasma and urine in
conjugated forms, mainly glucurono-conjugates. These observations indicate that the first-
pass intestinal / hepatic metabolism of the ingested phenolics is extensive [19].
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However, data regarding the metabolism of olive oil phenolics in the human body are very
limited, and contrasting results have been obtained regarding the amounts and forms in
which they are present in plasma and excreted in urine [20]. A first step would be trying to
know the fate of olive oil phenolic compounds during the digestion, metabolism and
absorption processes, how rapidly they are released from the food matrix under the
physiological conditions occurring in vivo, and the stability of these compounds under these
conditions.
The studies of bioavailability of phytochemicals carried out in animals or human subjects are
complex, expensive and lengthy. In this sense, in vitro digestion models permit the
characterization of phenolics during digestion under physiological conditions, caused by
alimentary enzymes, and to obtain information going beyond that gained by the chemical
analysis of food. Furthermore, the in vitro digestion models allow the screening of multiple
samples and may provide data on the relative bioavailability of different polyphenolic
components. In combination with a cultured cell model that facilitates studies of small-
intestinal absorption and metabolism, it is possible to determine the relationship between the
molecular structures, gastrointestinal stability, conjugation and extent of absorption for virgin
olive oil phenols as an important step towards elucidating the potential impact of these
compounds on human health.
The first objective of the present study was to evaluate the digestive stability of phenols from
virgin olive oil, using an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion method simulating gastric and
small-intestinal phases. The second part of the study was focused on investigating (i) the
metabolism of olive oil phenolics by intestinal epithelial cells and (ii) their transport across
epithelial cell monolayers using a Caco2/TC7 cell culture model. For the second objective, the
most representative components of the phenolic fraction of virgin olive oil that were
transferred to the aqueous fraction during the simulated digestion were selected for
investigation.
Phenol Standards
Hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, p-coumaric acid, and luteolin were purchased from Extrasynthese
(Genay, France). (+)-Pinoresinol was acquired from Arbo Nova (Turku, Finland).
Triplicate samples of virgin olive oil were digested. The procedure was adapted from the
method outlined by Gil-Izquierdo et al., 2002 [21] slightly modified. The method consists of
two sequential steps; an initial pepsin/HCl digestion for 2h at 37 C, to simulate gastric
conditions, followed by a digestion with bile salts/pancreatin for 2h at 37C to simulate
duodenal digestion. For the pepsin/HCl digestion, a sample of olive oil (15g) was mixed with
pepsin (14800 U) in 20 mL of water acidified with HCl to reach pH=2 and was then
incubated in a 37 C orbital shaking (250 rpm) (Infors AG CH-4103, Bottmingen, Switherland)
for 2 h. After gastric digestion, the pancreatic digestion was simulated. The pH was increased
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to 6.5 with NaHCO3 (0.5N) and then 5 mL (1:1; v/v) of pancreatin (8 mg/mL) bile salt (50
mg/mL) were added and incubated in a 37 C orbital shaking (250 rpm) for 2h.
After each step of digestion, lipid (oil digesta) and water (aqueous micellar) phases were
separated by ultracentrifugation at 30000g for 20 min at 4 C. The phenols present in both
phases from the pepsin-HCl and pancreatin-bile digestions were extracted and analysed by
liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, as described by Suarez et al., 2008 [22].
The manipulation of the cell line was carried out in an Envair Class II model safety cabinet
with laminar flow. Aseptic techniques were used to ensure the sterility of cells and growing
medium, so all glassware was sterilised in an autoclave, consumables were packaged and
sterilised or pre-sterilised also in the autoclave and water was purified using a Millipore
filtration unit (Millipore Corporation, Billerica, MA) and was subsequently sterilised in an
autoclave. Both the media and the solutions were pre-warmed in the bathroom at 37 C
before they established contact with the cells.
The Caco2/TC7 cells were used between passages 51 and 61 in the metabolism experiments
and between 49 and 51 for transport experiments. Cells were grown in 75 cm2 flasks,
maintained in DMEM+ at 37 C with 5% CO2 and 95% air, and new flasks were seeded at a
concentration of 2-4 104 cells / cm2.
Metabolism Experiments
Caco-2/TC7 cells were seeded at 2-4 104 cells / cm2 on six-well plates. All metabolic
experiments were carried out in triplicate, such that two six-well plates were required per
compound. Three of the 12 wells were not seeded with cells for use as a control that would
contain only medium and phenolic compound. The medium was changed every 2nd day,
and the cells were allowed to grow and differentiate up to 7 days after reaching confluence.
At this point the media was aspirated and cells were washed three times with phosphate-
buffered saline (PBS). Phenols dissolved in methanol (final methanol concentration in the
medium= 0.04%) were added to the media of treatment cells at a final concentration of 40, 50
and 100 M, and to control cells a solution of the same volume and concentration of HPLC-
grade methanol was added. Control and treated cells were incubated at 37 C, for 1, 6 or 24 h.
The medium also contained ascorbic acid (100 M) as a protective antioxidant. After
incubation, the culture medium was split into two aliquots of 1 mL in Eppendorf vials and
methanol (25 L) and glacial acetic acid (25 L) were added. The cells were washed three
times with PBS and then harvested by scraping after addition of water (400 L), methanol (25
L) and glacial acetic acid (50 L). For all samples, galangin (50 M final concentration) was
added as an internal standard. All samples were kept frozen at -20 C until phenolic analysis.
On the day of the phenolic analysis, medium and cell samples were thawed if necessary,
mixed on a bench-top vortex mixer, and centrifuged for 10 min at 13,000 rpm at 4 C in a
bench-top micro-centrifuge and the supernatant removed and placed in an HPLC vial for
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analysis. Cell samples were sonicated for 10 min at room temperature to break down the cell
membrane before centrifugation.
The results of the metabolism experiments were expressed as total nmols in culture media or
cells after the incubation. Additionally, the metabolism yield is expressed as the percentage of
the molar amount transformed for each phenol in relation to the initial concentration in the
culture media (40 M= 80 nmol; 100 M= 200 nmol; 50 M= 100 nmol).
A fraction of the medium from cell incubations was subjected to an enzymatic hydrolysis
prior to HPLC analysis. For that purpose, media samples (1 ml) were treated with 23 mg (150
U) of -glucuronidase, or with 10 mg (150 U) of aryl-sulphatase (Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, UK)
or with both enzymes simultaneously. The hydrolysis solutions were shaken for a minute to
disperse the enzymes and incubated at 37 C for 2 h prior to preparation for phenol analysis
as indicated above.
Transport Experiments
(i) Measuring the trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER): The TEER of the transwells was
routinely measured directly before the change of culture medium. A Millicell-ERS volt
ohmmeter (Millipore corporation), was used to take the measurements as per the supplied
instructions. The TEER was expressed in cm2 after subtracting the reading of the resistance
of the supporting filter (well without monolayer of cells) and multiplying it by the area of the
monolayer (1.1 cm2). The monolayer was considered to be sufficiently integrated the TEER
was greater than180 cm2.
(ii) Phenol red transport: The culture medium was removed from apical and basolateral
compartments and both areas were washed three times with PBS. After this, 0.6 mL of
DMEM+ medium containing phenol red was added to the apical compartment, while the
basolateral compartment was loaded with 1.5 mL DMEM+ without phenol red. Cells were
incubated at 37 C for 60 min and then the diffusion of phenol red across the monolayer from
the apical compartment to the lower basoalteral was determined by measuring absorbance at
479 nm. Wells that supported <0.1% of phenol red transport under these conditions were
considered suitable for use.
First, the medium was aspirated from both apical and basolateral compartments and the cells
were washed three times with PBS.
For 9 of the 12 wells, medium (0.6 mL) containing 100 M ascorbic acid was added to the
apical compartment and the phenolic added at the appropriate concentration. To the other
three wells, medium containing ascorbic acid and methanol (vehicle) was added to serve as a
control. The basolateral compartment of all 12 wells was filled with 1.5 mL of DMEM
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containing 100 M ascorbic acid. Plates were incubated at 37 C, for 1, 6 and 24 h (three wells
per time period). Following incubation, apical medium (0.6 mL), basolateral medium (1.5 mL)
and cells (collected by adding 400 L of water and scraping the monolayer after washing the
cells three times with PBS) were placed in clean Eppendorf tubes. Methanol (25, 50 and 25 L)
and glacial acetic acid (25, 50 and 50 L) were added to the apical medium, basolateral
medium and cell samples, respectively. Galangin (final concentration 50 M) was added to
all samples as an internal standard and samples were frozen until analysis. Prior to analysis
the samples were thawed, mixed on a bench-top vortex mixer, and centrifuged for 10 min at
13,000 rpm at 4C. Before centrifugation, suspension cells were sonicated for 10 min at room
temperature to break down the cell membrane and the supernatant was analysed. The results
of transport experiments were expressed as relative transport rate in the apical, cellular and
basolateral compartments.
The analyses were performed by UPLC-PDA-MS as described by Suarez et al., 2008 [22].
Ionization was achieved using electrospray (ESI) interface operating in the negative mode
[M-H]-. Mass spectra in the full-scan mode were collected by scanning between m/z 80 and
800, and the most abundant ions for each phenolic compound were monitored by selected-
ion monitoring (SIM) acquisition. The ionization source parameters were similar to described
by Suarez et al., 2008 [22].
Due to the absence of pure standards, the phenolic metabolites produced were quantified on
the basis of the response factors for the corresponding parent compounds. The mass
spectrometer was managed in the full-scan and the SIM modes simultaneously. In order to
characterise and identify their structures, full-scan mode at different cone voltages (from 20
to 60 V) was used. First, a low cone voltage was applied to determine the pseudomolecular
ion [M-H]-. Then, in order to obtain further structural information, high cone voltages were
applied and specific fragment ions were generated. As we wanted to detect the phenolic
metabolites at low concentrations, the SIM mode was used for the quantification because in
the scan mode there was no response at these levels of concentration.
The impact of both gastric and small-intestinal phases of digestion on olive oil phenols was
examined. The extent of digestion was evaluated by quantifying the phenolics in both the
lipid (oil digesta) and water (aqueous micellar) phases, calculated back to a 1 g sample of the
virgin olive oil test food (Table 9.1-2 1). All the major olive oil phenolics (tyrosol,
hydroxytyrosol and the related secoiridoid structures (3,4-DHPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EDA)
and elenolic acid) showed good stability in the gastric digestion model. Although the profile
of phenolics was similar in the oil digesta and aqueous micellar phases, the relative
distribution between the phases was different for each of the phenolic compounds. The
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amphiphilic characteristics of the secoiridoids permit their partition between the oily phase
and the water phase, and they tended to be more concentrated in the aqueous phase because
of their polar functional groups. On the other hand, the more hydrophobic flavonoids
(apigenin and luteolin) were mainly present in the oily phase after the gastric digestion.
Table 9.1-2 1. Relative amounts of phenols in test oil, digesta and aqueous micellar fraction after in
vitro digestion of virgin olive oil (VOO). The results are expressed as total nmols of phenol in each
phase per gram of virgin olive oil digested.
The resistance to these phenol structures to the acid conditions of the stomach may be related
with the conditions they have encountered during the oil extraction process. Indeed, the
major forms of phenolics in the olive fruits are glycosides, and the aglycones (oleuropein,
ligstroside, flavonoids and lignans) that are the predominant forms of phenolics in the olive
oil are formed as a consequence of the acidic conditions and the presence of -glucosidase
activity when the olives are pasted during olive oil production [1]. Moreover, the resistance
of olive oil phenolics to acidic gastric conditions may explain the increase in concentration of
plasma tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, and 3-O-methyl-hydroxytyrosol at 60 minutes after the
intake of the olive oil with high phenolic content [23].
In contrast, the stability of these dietary phenols when exposed to small-intestinal conditions
(incubation at pH 6.5 with pancreatin and bile salts at 37 C for 2 h) was very low (Table 9.1-2
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1). In fact, of the main phenols of virgin olive oil, only 10% of the secoridoids 3,4-DHPEA-
EDA and p-HPEA-EDA, were recovered in the aqueous phase. The flavonoids were also
unstable, but these phenolics were mainly recovered from the oil digesta fraction. In contrast,
lignans were quite stable to gastrointestinal and duodenal digestion conditions.
In addition to determining their stability under gastric and duodenal digestion conditions,
the potential bioavailability of some olive oil phenolics transferred to the aqueous phase after
the duodenal digestion was determined. It is known that the rate at which phenolics are
taken up by enterocytes from aqueous environments (the first step in absorption) is
dependent on their concentration in solution. Therefore, the concentration of phenolic in
solution is an important factor in determining bioavailability because the phenolics can be
considered bioavailable. However, it is necessary to remember that the digested aqueous
phase almost certainly contains micelles and therefore will include phenolic components that
are not truly in solution, but associated with these hydrophobic-centred micelles. It is not
currently known whether micelle-borne phenolics are more or less bioavailable for intestinal
uptake.
Having determined the extent to which olive oil phenolics are released to the aqueous phase
during gastro-duodenal digestion, it was next necessary to measure the relative rates of
uptake and trans-epithelial transport of the phenolics by intestinal epithelial cells.
The intestinal metabolism of the major virgin olive oil phenols quantified in the aqueous
duodenal phase (Table 9.1-2 1) (tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, and luteolin) was studied following
application at different concentrations (40 M, 50 M and 100 M) for different incubation
periods (1, 6 and 24 hours), using differentiated Caco 2/TC7 cell monolayers as a model of
the human intestinal epithelium. As consequence of the lack of commercial standards, p-
coumaric acid and pinoresinol were used instead elenolic acid and acetoxypinoresinol,
respectively. The human colon adenocarcinoma cell line TC7 corresponds to a spontaneously
differentiating clone derived from the original Caco2 cell population [24]. The main
advantage of this cellular line is related with its stability when grown as monolayers on
Transwell inserts in relation to the parental CaCo-2 parent cell line.
Cells were grown on dishes, and the metabolites were determined in the medium and in the
cell. After the incubation, the resulting putative metabolites of the phenols produced by the
intestinal epithelial cells were detected and identified following separation by UPLC using a
combination of UV/visible spectra and mass spectrometry. Additionally confirmation of the
conjugation was obtained by treatment of the medium samples with specific enzymes, -
glucuronidase and aryl-sulphatase, resulting in the disappearance of the respective
conjugates.
The native forms were identified by comparing the ESI-MS spectra of media / cell samples in
full-scan mode and their retention time with those of pure standards. The various metabolites
formed after incubation of the phenolic compounds with the cells were identified using ESI-
MS spectra with additional information provided by specific enzymatic hydrolyses, i.e. with
-glucuronidase and aryl-sulphatase. Table 9.1-2 2 shows chromatographic and mass
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characteristics of hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, p-coumaric acid, pinoresinol and luteolin and their
metabolites, and the reaction to the -glucuronidase and aryl-sulfatase treatments. Figures
9.1-2 1 - 9.1-2 5 show the extracted ion chromatograms and the ESI-MS spectra of the native
forms and the respective metabolites of hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, p-coumaric acid, pinoresinol
and luteolin, respectively.
Hydroxytyrosol was identified on the basis that the putative peak gave rise to the
pseudomolecular ion [M-H]- at m/z 153 and the ion fragments at m/z 135 and 123. These
fragment ions are due to the loss of a water molecule and the CH2OH group, respectively.
The ESI-MS spectrum of the compound eluted at 7.11 min showed an intense ion at m/z 233,
which formed two major fragment ions, one at m/z 153 and the other at m/z 123. These ions
could be related to the loss of the sulphate molecule and the hydroxytyrosol rupture,
respectively, and this evidence allowed putative identification of the metabolite as
hydroxytyrosol sulphate (M1). At retention times of 8.36 and 9.50 min, another
hydroxytyrosol metabolite was observed by examination of the ESI-MS spectra and it was
characterized by an intense ion at m/z 247. The presence of the two peaks could be attributed
to structural isomers. This metabolite presents a fragment ion at m/z 233 which can be
explained by the loss of the methyl group, and a fragment at m/z 167 which can be described
by the loss of the sulfate molecule. Therefore, this metabolite could be identified as
hydroxytyrosol methyl-sulphate (M2). The metabolite hydroxytyrosol methyl (M3), gave the
pseudomolecular ion [M-H]- at m/z 167 and the fragment ion at m/z 153, due to the loss of the
methyl group.
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Figure 9.1-2 1. Extracted ion chromatogram and the ESI-MS spectrums of the native form of
hydroxytyrosol and the generated metabolites: hydroxytyrosol-sulfate (M1), hydroxytyrosol-methyl-
sulfate (M2) and hydroxytyrosol-methyl (M3).
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The spectrum generated for this compound gave the pseudomolecular ion [M-H]- at m/z 137
and a ion fragment at m/z 119. M4 and M5 are tyrosol metabolites indicated by the
production of fragment ions at m/z 137, which demonstrates the existence of the tyrosol
molecule. The first metabolite (M4) gave the pseudomolecular [M-H]- at m/z 151 and the
second one (M5) at m/z 217, which can be explained by the loss of the methyl group and the
sulphate molecule, respectively.
Figure 9.1-2 2. Extracted ion chromatogram and the ESI-MS spectrums of the native form of tyrosol
and the generated metabolites: tyrosol-methyl (M4) and tyrosol-sulphate (M5).
177
Peak MW a RT b Comparison [M-H]- Fragment ions Reaction Proposed compound
(min) to standard to (G) or
(S) c
1 154 2.24 Available 153 123 - Hydroxytyrosol
M1 234 7.11 Not available 233 153, 123 S Hydroxytyrosol sulfate
M2 248 8.36, Not available 247 233, 167, 153, S Hydroxytyrosol methyl-sulfate
CAPTULO III: Resultados
9.50 123
M3 168 8.96 Not available 167 153, 123 - Hydroxytyrosol methyl
2 138 3.34 Available 137 119 - Tyrosol
M4 152 4.80 Not available 151 137, 119 - Tyrosol methyl
M5 218 8.40 Not available 217 137, 119 S Tyrosol sulfate
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3 164 7.40 Available 163 119 - Coumaric acid
M6 324 7.80 Not available 323 163, 119 S Coumaric acid disulfate
M7 178 15.06 Not available 177 145, 119 - Coumaric acid methyl
4 358 16.34 Available 357 212, 151, 117 Pinoresinol
M8 438 13.09 Not available 437 357, 151 S Pinoresinol sulfate
M9 534 14.00 Not available 533 357, 151 G Pinoresinol glucuronide
5 286 15.01 Available 285 212, 119 - Luteolin
M10 462 13.5 Not available 461 285 G Luteolin glucuronide
M11 300 16.65 Not available 299 285 - Luteolin methyl
M12 476 17.60 Not available 475 461, 299, 285 G Luteolin methyl-glucuronide
Table 9.1-.2 2. Chromatographic and mass characteristics of hydroxytyrosol (1), tyrosol (2), p-
using differentiated Caco-2/Tc7 cells monolayer as a model of the human intestinal epithelium.
coumaric acid (3), pinoresinol (4) and luteolin (5) and the metabolites (M) formed after incubation
Estudios IN VIVO y Estudios IN VITRO
The spectrum generated for this compound gave the pseudomolecular [M-H]- at m/z 163.
The fragment ion at m/z 119 is due to the loss of the carboxylic group (CO2). M6 and M7
are coumaric acid metabolites by the fact that their fragment ion spectra include ions at
m/z 163, which demonstrates the existence of the coumaric acid molecule and the
additional fragment ion at m/z 119. The fragment m/z 145 is consistent with the loss of a
water molecule. M6 was putatively identified as coumaric acid disulphate (evidence for
the loss of two sulphate molecules). M7 was putatively identified as p-coumaric acid
methyl (loss of methyl group on fragmentation).
Figure 9.1-2 3. Extracted ion chromatogram and the ESI-MS spectrums of the native form of p-
coumaric acid and the generated metabolites: p-coumaric acid-disulfate (M6) and p-coumaric acid-
methyl (M7).
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The spectrum generated for this compound gave the pseudomolecular molecule [M-H]- at
m/z 357. M8 and M9 are pinoresinol metabolites on the basis that their fragments produce
ions at m/z 357, which demonstrates the existence of the pinoresinol molecule. The first one
(M8) gave the pseudomolecular [M-H]- at m/z 437 and the second one (M9) at m/z 533,
which can be explained by the loss of the sulphate and the glucuronide molecule,
respectively.
Figure 9.1-2 4. Extracted ion chromatogram and the ESI-MS spectrums of the native form of
pinoresinol and the generated metabolites: pinoresinol-sulfate (M8) and pinoresinol-glucuronide
(M9).
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The spectrum generated for this compound gave the pseudomolecular ion [M-H]- at m/z
285. As can be seen in Table 9.1-2 2, four metabolites could be identified (M10, M11, M12
and M13) by the fact that their fragment ions produce ions at m/z 285, which demonstrates
the existence of the luteolin molecule. M10 and M11 could be identified as luteolin
monoglucuronides ([M-H]- = 461 m/z) and luteolin methyl ([M-H]- = 299 m/z) due to the
loss of glucuronide molecule and the methyl group, respectively. M12 showed fragment
ions at m/z 461 and 299 and M12 was tenatively identified as luteolin methyl-
monoglucuronide ([M-H]- = 475 m/z). The last luteolin metabolite identified could be
luteolin dimethyl ([M-H]- = 313 m/z) the fragment ions of which were m/z 299 and m/z 285.
These could be explained by the loss of a single methyl group and two methyl groups,
respectively.
Figure 9.1-2 5. Extracted ion chromatogram and the ESI-MS spectrums of the native form of luteolin
and the generated metabolites: luteolin-glucuronide (M10), luteolin-methyl (M11) and luteolin-
methyl-glucuronide (M12).
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CAPTULO III: Resultados
The phenolic compounds and their metabolites were quantified (or tentatively quantified
with respect to metabolites) in the SIM mode, because it has the advantage of increasing
sensitivity in addition to reduce noise from interfering compounds.
A previous study by Manna et al., 2000 [15] focusing on molecular transport, using
differentiated Caco-2 cell monolayers demonstrated that hydroxytyrosol transport
occurred via a passive bidirectional diffusion mechanism. The only hydroxytyrosol
metabolite, with a 10% conversion, detectable in the culture medium was 3-hydroxy-4-
methoxyphenylethanol, the product of catechol-O-methyltransferase activity. In keeping
with these earlier findings, in the present study the highest metabolism yield
corresponded with the formation of methyl hydroxytyrosol, ranging from 10.7 to 18.6%
dependent on the incubation period. In addition, small quantities of sulphated and
methyl-sulphated conjugates of hydroxytyrosol were also formed after the 6 and 24 h of
incubation. The major metabolism of hydroxytyrosol observed in our study could be
related with a better conjugation efficacy of the Caco-2/TC7 compared with the parental
CaCo-2 cell line that was used in the previous study by Mamma etal., 2000 [15]. Incubation
of Caco-2/TC7 cells with tyrosol resulted in slow conjugation; the methyl and sulphate
conjugates were only quantifiable after 24 h of incubation showing similar metabolism
yields as with hydroxytyrosol. Similarly p-coumaric acid conjugate production was
observed only when the initial concentration of the substrate was 100 M, indicating a
slow rate of conjugate production. At initial substrate concentrations of 40 and 50 M, no
conjugation was observed, regardless of the period of incubation. This slow conjugation of
olive oil phenolics by CaCo2/TC7 cells is in contrast to the previously reported rapid and
efficient conjugation of flavonoids such as flavonols in this model system [25].
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Phenols and metabolites Amount in cell culture media (nmols) Amount in cells (nmols)
40 Ma, 1 h 100 Mb, 6 h 50 Mc, 24 h 40 Ma, 1 h 100 Mb, 6 h 50 Mc, 24 h
Hydroxytyrosol 18.1 126 30.1 7.28 n.d. n.d.
8.58 (10.7%) 28.8 (14.4%) 18.6 (18.6%) n.d. 29.8 (14.9%) n.d.
Hydroxytyrosol sulfate n.d. 6.01 (3.05%) 7.16 (7.16%) n.d. n.d. n.d.
Hydroxytyrosol methyl-sulfate n.d. 9.32 (4.66%) 6.18 (6.18%) n.d. n.d. n.d.
Total metabolism Hydroxytyrosol 10.7% 22.1% 31.9% 0% 14.9% 0%
Tyrosol 67.2 94.9 26.8 8.07 29.9 9.41
Tyrosol methyl n.d. n.d. 10.8 (10.8%) n.d. n.d. 13.7 (13.7%)
Tyrosol sulfate n.d. n.d. 9.78 (9.78%) n.d. n.d. n.d.
Total metabolism Tyrosol 0% 0% 20.6% 0% 0% 13.7%
p-coumaric acid 70.4 213 112 1.65 15.6 9.09
183
p-coumaric acid disulfate n.d. 3.04 (1.52%) n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
p-coumaric acid methyl n.d. 4.44 (2.22%) n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Total metabolism p-coumaric acid 0% 3.74% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Pinoresinol 74.32 167 31.7 1.80 15.2 12.3
Pinoresinol sulfate 2.28 (3.06%) 44.3 (22.2%) 20.5 (20.5%) n.d. 5.48 (2.74%) 3.67 (3.67%)
Pinoresinol glucuronide n.d. 12.18 (6.09%) 10.04 (10.0%) n.d. 9.37 (4.69%) 14.9 (14.9%)
Total metabolism Pinoresinol 3.06% 28.3% 30.5% 0% 7.43% 18.6%
Luteolin 34.1 31.2 9.54 n.d. 6.10 8.38
Luteolin glucuronide n.d. 8.96 (4.48%) 8.64 (8.64%) n.d. 6.37(3.19%) 6.83 (6.83%)
Luteolin methyl-glucuronide n.d. 8.54 (4.27%) 10.2 (10.2%) n.d. 15.5 (7.74%) 7.31 (7.31%)
Luteolin methyl 14.6 (18.3%) 21.6 (10.7%) 11.1 (11.1%) 0.65 7.03 (3.52%) 8.01 (8.01%)
Total metabolism Luteolin 18.3% 19.5% 29.9% 0.65% 14.5% 22.2%
metabolism yield is expressed as percentage of the nmols transformed of each phenol.
media (40 M= 80 nmols; 100 M= 200 nmols; 50 M= 100 nmols) and incubation periods, using
media) in cell culture media and cells after the incubation at different concentrations in the culture
Table 9.1-2 3. Amounts of various phenols and their metabolites (expressed as nmols/2 ml culture
differentiated Caco2/Tc7 cell monolayers as a model of the human small intestinal epithelium. The
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CAPTULO III: Resultados
While the absorption and metabolism of hydroxytyrosol, phenolic acids and flavonoids
have been quite extensively studied, the metabolism of lignans has not been reported in
any detail. When Caco-2/TC7 monolayers were incubated with pinoresinol over 24 h, the
highest concentrations of conjugates were observed at 100 M (6h) and 50 M (24 h)
(Table 9.1-2 3). A major metabolite, the sulphate derivative, was observed at highest
concentrations after 6 and 24 h of incubation. Pinoresinol glucuronide was also detected,
but its contribution to total conjugate levels was low (approximately 6-10 %). Metabolism
of the luteolin was more rapid than the rest of the phenols considered in this study, and
resulted mainly in the formation of the methyl conjugate, independent of the incubation
time. However, we could only detect the conjugation of luteolin to form glucuronide and
methyl-glucuronide conjugates after the longest incubation times, the concentration of
which remained stable in the medium up to 24 h.
The mechanism of absorption of virgin olive oil phenols is unclear despite the numerous
studies reported over the last few years. The different polarity of oleuropein and
ligstroside aglycones, tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, flavonoids and lignans probably results in
different mechanisms of absorption [26]. Some studies suggested that the oleuropein and
ligstroside aglycones (hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol esterified with elenolic acid) may be
hydrolyzed in the gastrointestinal tract [18, 26], after which the transport of the resulting
polar phenols, tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol, might occur via passive diffusion [15]. Other
postprandial studies provided evidence that the olive oil phenolic compounds undergo
extremely extensive first-pass intestinal/hepatic metabolism in the body, and glucuronide,
sulfate and methyl conjugates of hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol are the predominant forms in
plasma and urine [27, 28]. Both these reports concluded that the phenolic compounds of
virgin olive oil could modulate the oxidative/antioxidative balance in human plasma, in
an oxidative stress situation (e.g.the postprandial oxidative stress promoted by lipid-rich
diets), with oral doses of olive oil greater than 25 mL. The fact that phenolic compounds
from virgin olive oil are bioavailable in humans, even at low doses (22 grams per day),
supports their potential for a protective role [19].
The transport rate data for phenols and their metabolites to the apical, cellular, and
basolateral compartments after apical loading of the phenol at 100 M is shown in
Table9.1-2 4. In general apical loading of individual phenols resulted in time-dependent
efflux of different conjugates. After 1 h of incubation, the native forms of tyrosol and p-
coumaric acid, pinoresinol and luteolin were detected in the basolateral compartment as
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Estudios IN VIVO y Estudios IN VITRO
well as in the apical and cellular compartments. Similarly a basolaterally favoured efflux
was observed for the conjugates of pinoresinol, probably as a consequence of the efficient
metabolism of these phenols in the CaCo-2/TC7 model. When the incubation time was
increased to 6 hours, hydroxytyrosol and pinoresinol and their conjugated forms also
showed significant basolateral transport. All the phenols included in the study and their
metabolites showed preferential apical to basolateral transport after 24 hours of
incubation.
CONCLUSION
Limited metabolism of olive oil phenolics was observed using Caco 2/Tc7 cells as a model
of the human intestinal epithelium. Although all the phase II enzymes required
(methyltransferase, sulpho-transferase and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase)
have been shown to be present in CaCo-2 cells, in this study the methylated conjugates
were the major metabolites detected. Since it has been reported that sulphate and
glucuronide conjugates are found in plasma and urine of human subjects fed olive oil
phenolics, it is likely that these are products of hepatic metabolism. Also, we have shown
that there was extensive transport of the parent aglycones and their conjugates to the
basolateral side.
185
M.
Phenols and metabolites 1 hour 6 hours 24 hours
Apical Cellular Basolateral Apical Cellular Basolateral Apical Cellular Basolateral
Hydroxytyrosol ++ ++ ++ + +
Hydroxytyrosol methyl + + + ++
Hydroxytyrosol sulfate + ++ ++
CAPTULO III: Resultados
Hydroxytyrosol methyl- + ++
sulfate
Tyrosol ++ + + + + ++ + ++
Tyrosol methyl + +
Tyrosol sulfate + ++
Coumaric acid ++ + + ++ + + ++ + ++
186
Coumaric acid disulfate + + +
Coumaric acid methyl + + + +
Pinoresinol ++ + + ++ + ++ + + ++
Pinoresinol sulfate + + + + + ++ ++ + ++
Pinoresinol glucuronide + + + + + + ++
Luteolin ++ + + + + +
Luteolin glucuronide + +
Luteolin methyl-glucuronide + +
Luteolin methyl + + + + + + + + +
metabolites in the apical, cellular and basolateral compartments after apical loading of the phenol at 100
indicates the relative transport rate (+, relatively slow; ++, relatively fast) for phenols and their
different incubation periods (1, 6 and 24 hours). A indicates not detected while the number of +
Table 9.1-2 4. Transport profile of individual phenol metabolites in CaCo-2/TC7 cell monolayers after
Estudios IN VIVO y Estudios IN VITRO
REFERENCES
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[26] Vissers MN, Zock PL, Katan MB: Bioavailability and antioxidant effects of olive
oil in humans: A review. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004, 58 (8), : 955-
965.
[27] Covas MI, Ruiz-Gutierrez V, De La Torre R, Kafatos A, et a.l.: Minor components of
olive oil: Evidence to date of health benefits in humans. Nutrition Reviews. 2006, 64
(10 SUPPL. 1),: S20-S30.
[28] De la Torre-Carbot K, Chavez-Servin JL, Jauregui O, Castellote AI: Presence of
virgin olive oil phenolic metabolites in human low density lipoprotein fraction:
Determination by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization
tandem mass spectrometry. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2007, 583 (2) : 402-410.
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ABSTRACT
The effect of repeated consumption of virgin olive oil on endogenous phenolic metabolites of
fasting plasma is unknown. For this reason, we hypothesized that regular long-term virgin olive
oil intake could have an indirect protection effect on the endogenous phenols. Thus, the aim of
the study was to determine the phenolic profile of human plasma in a fasting state of long-term
regular virgin olive oil consumers, using the fasting plasma of non-consumers as a natural
control. Forty participants living in the area of Reus (Catalonia, Spain) were selected, 20 life-long
regular consumers of virgin olive oil and a natural control of 20 non-consumers, the latter being
Rumanians who dislike the taste of olive oil, leading to non-intake. The diet was obtained from
three-day food records. The results showed similar phenolic composition of fasting plasmas of
the two volunteer groups. Of special interest is that more of the compounds quantified showed
higher concentration in fasting plasma from habitual virgin olive oil consumers. Fasting
consumers plasma showed higher concentration of a flavonoid-type compound (2.900.04
mol/l vs 1.50.04 mol/l) and a catecholamine derivative (0.700.03 mol/l vs 0.560.03
mol/l) than the plasma of non-consumers (P< 0.05). The results suggest an indirect protective
mechanism of long-term regular virgin olive oil consumption related to the protection of the
endogenous antioxidant system.
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INTRODUCTION
Epidemiologic studies have clearly shown that the habitual consumption of olive oil, as a
principle fat source in the diet, is associated with a low incidence of coronary heart disease,
certain types of cancers and a modulation of immune and inflammatory responses. It seems that
this protection is due to diverse combinations of biological effects including antioxidant [1], anti-
inflammatory [2, 3] vasodilatation [4] and anti-platelet aggregation properties [2], as well as the
modulation of gene expression [5,6]. For years, the healthy properties of virgin olive oil (VOO)
were exclusively attributed to its high monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content, mostly in
the form of oleic acid (18:1n-9). The recent results of the EUROLIVE study have provided
evidence of the antioxidant in-vivo role of phenolic compounds from VOO in humans [7]. The
most important effects observed were related to the increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol levels and the decrease in lipid oxidation damage, after high phenolic oil
consumption.
The chemical composition of VOO is divided into major components, which include glycerols,
representing more than 98% of total oil weight, and minor components. These components,
which are present in very low amounts (about 2% of oil weight), include more than 230 chemical
compounds, such as aliphatic and triterpenic alcohols, sterols, hydrocarbons, volatile
compounds and antioxidants (carotenoids, and lipophilic and hydrophilic phenolic compounds)
[8]. Some of these minor components of olive oil, mainly the hydrophilic phenols, are removed
during the refining process. As a consequence, these compounds are specific to VOO.
The most abundant phenols in VOO are the secoiridoid derivatives formed during olive oil
extraction by enzymatic removal of glucose from the polar parent compounds oleuropein and
ligstroside, glycoside phenolic structures from the olive fruit. The final products are the polar
compounds hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol respectively [9], that are in minor concentration in
VOO. However, after VOO consumption, these compounds are extensively metabolized which
are subsequently absorbed into the systemic circulation and detected in plasma in their
conjugated forms. As a consequence, some of these polyphenol metabolites have been used as
VOO consumption markers in the most recent interventional studies [10, 11], that have
demonstrated the dose-dependent absorption of olive oil phenolics in humans and their urinary
excretion as glucuronide conjugates.
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Subjects
Forty healthy participants , 20 (10 women and 10 men) were regular long-term VOO consumers
and 20 (10 women and 10 men) were non-consumers, the latter being Rumanian people, who
never ingested any types of olive oil, because they disliked its taste. The criteria for the group of
consumers were long-term consumption of VOO (more than 23 g/day over a period of 10
years), and for the group of non-consumers, the total absence of VOO in the diet during the
previous 10 years. The criteria for exclusion, derived from medical history and a complete
physical examination, were diabetes mellitus, congestive heart failure, renal or hepatic
insufficiency, thyroid or other endocrine disease, blood pressure>140/90 mmHg and the current
use of drugs or vitamins.
The human study design was approved by the Ethical Committee of Clinical Research at Sant
Joan University Hospital, Reus, Spain (Reference 08-04-24/4 proj5). The study protocol was fully
explained to the patients and they gave their written consent on enrolment.
Human plasma samples were obtained by venipuncture from the forty healthy volunteers.
Blood samples (50 ml) were collected after a 12 h overnight fasting period. The samples were
stored in Vacutainer tubes containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) as an
anticoagulant. They were protected from the light with aluminium foil, and centrifuged for 15
min. at 1500 g and at 4 C (Kokusan, H-103RS, Japan), and the plasma was immediately
separated from the cells and kept at - 80 C until analysis.
Laboratory measurements
Total plasma cholesterol, very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and total triacylglycerol
concentrations were measured with enzymatic kits (Boehringer Mannheim, Mannheim,
Germany). HDL cholesterol was measured by a direct method (Immuno AG, Vienna, Austria)
and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol determined by the Friedewald algorithm [LDL-
cholesterol = total cholesterol (triacylglycerols/2.2 + HDL-cholesterol)] [12]. Inter-assay
coefficients of variation ranged from 2.5-3.0% for total plasma cholesterol, 2.4-3.1% for HDL-
cholesterol, and 2.6-4.8% for total plasma triacylglycerols.
The phenolic extracts of fasting human plasma were obtained by a solid-phase extraction
procedure using the method in Ruiz-Gutierrez et al. [13] with modifications. Just before
extraction, a standard solution (10 g/ml) of caffeic acid and 30 l of phosphoric acid (85% v/v)
was added to 3-ml aliquots of defrosted plasma and mixed in a vortex for 1 min. SPE of phenols
from plasma samples was carried out on an Oasis HLB extraction cartridge (200 mg, 6 ml; WAT
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CAPTULO III: Resultados
106202) purchased from Waters (Milford, USA). Prior to use, the cartridge was conditioned with
3 ml of methanol followed by equilibration with 3 ml of water. A 3-ml aliquot of spiked acidified
plasma was slowly loaded into the cartridge, followed by 1.5 ml of water Milli-Q, and then 3 ml
of 5% (v/v) methanol/water. The phenolic fraction was eluted under vacuum with 6 ml of
methanol and collected in a tube containing 30 l of 1% ascorbic acid solution. The phenolic
fraction was dried under a nitrogen stream. Before the high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) analysis the residue was resolved with 200 l of methanol and 100 l
of water/acetic acid 2.
The phenolic fraction obtained from the fasting plasma samples was analysed and quantified by
HPLC on Waters Inc. (Milford, USA) liquid chromatography equipment with a Waters 600 E
pump, Waters 717 plus auto sampler (loop 20 l) and Waters 996 diode-array detector (DAD).
The column was an Inertsil ODS-3 (5 m, 15 cm x 4.6 mm i.d) from GL Sciences Inc. (Tokyo,
Japan) equipped with a Spherisorb S5 ODS-2 pre-column (5 m, 1 cm x 4.6 mm i.d.) from
Teknokroma (Barcelona, Spain). Empower Software 2002 from Waters Corporation (Milford,
USA) was used to manage the system and to process the information. The phenolic extract was
filtered through the 0.20 m filter before injection. Water/acetic acid 2 was used as solvent A,
and methanol as solvent B. Solvent A was held isocratically at 95% for 2 min, then decreased to
75% at 10 min, followed by further linear reduction to 60% at 20 min, then decreased to 50% at
30 min, and reduced to 0% at 40 min with 5 min. isocratic time, followed by strong linear
ramping to 95% at 55 min and then held constant for 5 min. The chromatograms were obtained
at 278 nm and 339 nm. The phenols from the fasting plasma samples were quantified by the
internal standard method and the results are expressed as nmol caffeic acid/l of plasma.
For the tentative identification of the phenol plasma metabolites, the mass spectral
characteristics of the chromatographic peaks were obtained by mass spectroscopy with a TQDTM
mass spectrometer (Waters, Milford, MA, USA) using the electrospray ionisation (ESI) source Z-
sprayTM. The source working conditions were as follows: capillary voltage of 3.0 KV; source
temperature, 150 C; desolvation temperature, 400C; cone gas flow rate, 80 l/h; and desolvation
gas flow rate, 800 l/h. Nitrogen (99.9% purity) was used as a nebulising and desolvation gas and
was provided by a high-purity nitrogen generator N2LCMS (Claind, Como, Italy), and argon
(99.9999% purity, Air Liquide, Barcelona, Spain) was used as the collision gas. The MassLynx 4.1
software was used to collect and analyse the obtained data. Full-scan data were obtained by
scanning from m/z 80 to 1200 in both negative and positive modes. In the product ion scan
experiments, tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) product ions were produced by collision-
induced fragmentation of selected precursor ions in the collision cell of the triple quadrupole
mass spectrometer (MS) and their mass was analysed with the instruments second analyser.
Validation procedure
The SPE of phenols from human plasma followed by HPLC analysis was validated according to
the Food and Drug Administration [14]. In assessing the quality of the method, we examined
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For validation purposes, a homogeneous plasma matrix (without phenols) or blank plasma
was used. It was spiked with pool of hydroxytyrosol, caffeic acid and luteolin as standards,
representative compounds of simple phenols, phenolic acid family and flavonoid family,
respectively, covering the expected concentration range in the plasma matrix (0.05 to 50.0
mol/l). Calibration curves were constructed with six concentration points by spiking known
quantities of target compounds into blank plasma (plasma treated with SPE). The peak areas
of absorbance at 278 nm for hydroxytyrosol and caffeic acid, and 339 nm for luteolin, were
plotted against the concentration for each target compound. The linearity of the data was
checked by performing linear Least-squares regression analysis.
The percentage of SPE recovery of all standard compounds was determined. It was assessed at
all the concentration levels of the calibration curve. Four replicates (n=4) were done for each
concentration level. The chromatographic peak areas obtained from spiked blank plasma
samples with known concentrations were compared with the peak areas obtained from the free
methanol solutions.
The reproducibility study (system precision) was performed by injecting the standards
(hydroxytyrosol, caffeic acid and luteolin) in six replicates (n=6). The reproducibility was
expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD) (coefficient of variation). The inter-day precision
assay was carried out by performing the overall assay, SPE and chromatographic methods. The
peak areas were considered for calculating the concentration and establishing the precision that
was expressed as the relative standard deviation (coefficient of variation). The measurement
was repeated on a second day for the inter-day precision.
The LOD was defined as the analyte concentration that gave a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of 3.
The LOQ referred to the lowest concentration of the analyte (n=5) that could be determined with
20% of accuracy and precision.
Statistical Analysis
Data are expressed as the mean SEMs. Consumer and non-consumer groups were assumed to
be random samples drawn from a normally distributed population. In order to compare the
concentration of possible phenols among consumers and non-consumers, an analysis of variance
was performed using the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure ( = 0.05).
The variances of the two groups were equal. The factors of age, sex and olive oil consumption
and their interactions were tested on the possible phenol compound concentrations. If two
factors interacted, an LSMEANS analysis was carried out. TUKEYs multiple range tests were
conducted to determine significant differences among treatments. The statistical analyses were
performed with the Statistical Package for Social Science software package (SPSS version 15.0).
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CAPTULO III: Resultados
RESULTS
Recruitment for the study was carried out between September and November 2008. The
characteristics, anthropometrics and lipid profile of the human plasma volunteers are shown in
Table 9.3 1. No significant differences were observed between the two groups, except for age,
which was lower in the group of non-consumers (mean SEM; 35.0 6.5 y) than among
consumers (45.5 9.5 y) (P< 0.05).
The diet composition of the participants is shown in Table 9.3 2. This was similar except for a
higher intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the non-consumer group (P < 0.05) and
higher MUFA consumption in the virgin olive oil consumer group (P <0.001).
Table 9.3 1. Characteristics of the human volunteers and plasma biochemical parameters after
a 12 h overnight fasting period
Consumer Non-consumer
BMI: Body mass index; TCh: Total cholesterol; HDL Ch: HDL cholesterol;
VLDL cholesterol; LDL cholesterol; TG: Triacylglycerols.
Values are the means SEM, n=20
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Estudio de intervencin en humanos
Consumer Non-consumer
PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid; MUFA: monosaturated fatty acid; SFA: saturated fatty acid. Values
are the means SEM, n=20
The proposed method includes a clean-up SPE procedure using an Oasis HLB extraction system
(200 mg) with good recovery efficiency and a volume of 3 ml of the plasma sample. During the
optimization of the phenolic extraction procedure, three different plasma volumes were
assessed, these being 1, 2 and 3 ml. In parallel, three packed cartridges, of 30, 60 and 200 mg,
were evaluated. The best chromatogram was obtained when 3 ml of plasma were extracted
using a 200 mg packed cartridge. The recovery experiments were conducted using phenol-free
plasma spiked with hydroxytyrosol, caffeic acid and luteolin. The results showed that the
recovery by SPE extraction was found to be 104 to 97% for hydroxytyrosol, 93 to 89% for caffeic
acid and 75 to 70% for luteolin.
The method validation reveals good reproducibility, linearity and sensibility for the phenol
standards selected by using a plasmatic matrix free of phenols. The reproducibility (system
precision) was evaluated for all the calibration curve concentrations and found to be 0.01-9.3%
for hydroxytyrosol, 1.1-8.5% for caffeic acid and 0.51-3.8% for luteolin. Good linearity was
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CAPTULO III: Resultados
achieved for all the analytes with correlation coefficients (R2) of 0.999, 0.993 and 0.996 for
hydroxytyrosol, caffeic acid and luteolin respectively (Supporting information).
The sensitivity of the method, presented as its LOD, was found to be 2.4 nmol/ml for
hydroxytyrosol, 3.0 nmol/ml for caffeic acid and 5.0 nmol/ml for luteolin. The lower detection
limit for hydroxytyrosol was attributed to the fact that it exhibits significantly lower molar
absorptivity than the other phenols. The LOQ was 5.0 nmol/ml for hydroxytyrosol and caffeic
acid, and 8.0 nmol/ml for luteolin.
Phenolic compounds profile of the fasting plasma of regular VOO consumers and non-
consumers
The chromatograms of the fasting plasma samples of the two groups, regular VOO consumer
and non-consumers, are presented in Figure 1. A total of 17 chromatographic peaks with the
characteristic ultraviolet (UV) spectrum of the phenolic structures were selected for tentative
identification and quantification. The compounds selected were confirmed to be the same
compound in all the plasma samples from each group by HPLC-MS/MS. The comparative
analysis of the chromatographic profiles of the phenolic extracts of plasma samples from the two
volunteer groups showed no qualitative differences. Thus, no specific compound was detected
in the plasma samples from regular consumers of VOO that could be used as a biomarker of
olive oil consumption.
In order to obtain structural information about the phenolic compounds detected in the fasting
plasma samples, the deprotonated molecule by negative mode [M-H]- and by positive mode
[M+H]+ in full-scan mode was firstly studied. The mass spectral characteristics of the results
obtained by negative and positive modes are shown in Tables 9.3 3 and 9.3 4, respectively. The
ESI negative in full-scan mode (Table 9.3 3) showed that the peaks 2, 6, 10 and 11 of the fasting
plasma chromatogram (Figure 9.3 1) could be identified as carboxylic acids, because each of
them showed the characteristic tendency of carbon dioxide loss (m/z 44); and the product ion
[M-H-CO2]- was the most intense fragment ion for these peaks. For peak 1, the product ion was
m/z 115 generated by the expulsion of primary and secondary alcohols [M-H-C2H5O2]- that
corresponded to the loss of 60 m/z, and this compound was identified as ascorbic acid. This was
added to the plasma samples before phenolic extraction to improve the stability of the phenols
during the extraction phase. In addition, ascorbic acid forms part of the plasma endogenous
antioxidant defence system as an electron donor, 1O2 quencher or by regeneration of the -
tocopheryl radical [15]. Additionally, the analysis of the spectral characteristics of peaks 4, 11
and 13 permitted their identification as tryptophan, homovanillic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl
acetic acid, respectively. Peak 17 could be assigned to a flavonoid structure, based on its UV
spectrum with its maximum at 339 nm.
Afterwards, the ESI positive in full-scan mode (Table 4) showed the precursor ions with m/z
ranging from 154 to 242. This corresponded to the peaks 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 14, 15 and 16 of the fasting
plasma chromatogram (Figure 1). After the loss of different product ions that correspond to a
water molecule [M+H-H2O]+, to the amino [M+H-NH3]+ and carboxylic groups [M+H-HCO2H]+,
all the chromatographic peaks showed a common and very stable ion m/z 91 that could
correspond to an aromatic ring structure. By comparing the precursor and product ions with
those reported in the literature, peaks 3 and 5 were identified as dopamine and tyrosine
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Estudio de intervencin en humanos
respectively [16,17]. The identity of these compounds was also confirmed by comparing their
retention times and spectral characteristics with those obtained by analysing their commercial
standards.
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CAPTULO III: Resultados
Figure 9.3 1. Chromatographic profile of phenolic metabolites in the fasting human plasma of
regular VOO consumers and non-consumers.
200
Peak RT (min) Precursor ion (m/z) Product ions MW Proposed Concentration (mol cafeic acid/L plasma)
(m/z) Structure Consumer Non-consumer
P1 1.9 175 [M-H]- 115 [M-H-C2H5O2]- 176 Ascorbic acid 18.5 3.5 23.8 5.1
P2 2.1 344 [M-H]- 300 [M-H-CO2]- 345 Carboxilic acid 26.4 5.0 25.4 4.6
P4 10.9 203 [M-H]- 175 [M-H-28]- 204 Tryptophan 36.6 2.3 35.5 2.1
-
116 [M-H-CO2CH3]
P6 13.2 129 [M-H]- 85 [M-H-CO2]- 130 Carboxilic acid 0.65 0.17 0.50 0.15
201
P10 23.4 255 [M-H]- 211 [M-H-CO2]- 256 Carboxilic acid 0.58 0.09 0.52 0.08
P11 26.8 181 [M-H]- 137 [M-H-CO2]- 182 Homovanillic acid 0.97 0.23 0.45 0.22
P13 29.5 255 [M-H]- 211 [M-H-CO2]- 256 Carboxilic acid 0.71 0.11 0.55 0.10
-
195 [M-H-CO2CH3]
167 [M-H-2CO2]-
P17 40.1 239 [M-H]- 195 [M-H-CO2]- 240 Flavonoid 0.71 0.04* 0.56 0.04*
151 [M-H-2CO2]-
in human plasma of consumers and non-consumers of virgin olive oil
Values are the means SEM, n=20. A star (*) indicates that means differ significantly, p< 0.05
Table 9.3 3. Retention time, mass spectral characteristics of chromatographic peaks of the fasting
plasma phenolic extracts by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS in negative ESI (-) mode. Concentration of phenols
Estudio de intervencin en humanos
Peak RT Precursor Product ions MW Proposed Concentration (mol cafeic acid/L
(min) ion (m/z) (m/z) structure plasma)
Consumer Non-consumer
P3 2.8 154 [M+H]+ 137 [M+H-NH3]+ 153 Dopamine 4.9 0.8 4.3 0.8
119 [M+H-NH3-H2O]+
91 [aromatic structure]
CAPTULO III: Resultados
P5 11.6 182 [M+H]+ 165 [M+H-NH3]+ 181 Tyrosine 6.9 1.5 5.6 1.4
136 [M+H-CO2H]+
P7 13.8 181 [M+H]+ 163 [M+H-H2O]+ 180 Catecholamine 3.4 0.7 2.7 0.6
99 [aromatic structure]
P8 14.2 181 [M+H]+ 124 [M+H-57]+ 180 Catecholamine 1.02 0.18 0.92 0.16
99 [aromatic structure]
202
P9 16.7 195 [M+H]+ 177 [M+H-H2O]+ 194 Catecholamine 3.3 1.3 4.2 1.2
99 [aromatic structure]
P12 24.8 223 [M+H]+ 177 [M+H-CO2H]+ 222 Catecholamine 2.2 0.3 1.7 0.3
159 [M+H-CO2H-
H2O]+
99 [aromatic structure]
P14 29.9 188 [M+H]+ 189 Catecholamine 0.81 0.12 1.09 0.11
+
156 [M+H-32]
83 [aromatic structure]
P15 39.6 223 [M+H]+ 225 Catecholamine 3.20 0.03* 1.50 0.03*
+
159 [M+H-74]
in human plasma of consumers and non-consumers of virgin olive oil
+ 99 [aromatic structure]
P16 40.1 242 [M+H] 243 Catecholamine 0.81 0.14 0.76 0.13
Values are the means SEM, n=20. A star (*) indicates that means differ significantly, p< 0.05
130 [M+H-112]+
Table 9.3 4. Retention time, mass spectral characteristics of chromatographic peaks of the fasting
plasma phenolic extracts by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS in negative ESI (+) mode. Concentration of phenols
Estudio de intervencin en humanos
In order to confirm whether the other compounds quantified in the fasting plasma
corresponded to the catecholamines, their metabolites or their precursors, the plasma
samples were spiked with commercial standards. However, it was not possible to show a
complete correspondence between the molecular weight and the chromatographic and
spectral characteristics of the compounds quantified in plasma and the catecholamine
standards. The mass spectral characteristics showed maximum sensitivity operating in the
positive ionisation mode that resulted in the protonated molecule [M+H]+ similar to
catecholamines [16], and their molecular weight was between 130 and 345, similar to
catecholamine structures. The molecular weight of peaks 7 and 8 is the same as caffeic acid
(MW 180), and the molecular weight of peak 9 is the same as ferulic acid (MW 194).
Nevertheless, the positive ionisation is typical of molecules with an amino group similarly
to catecholamines. These amino structures could be formed by the reductive amination of
phenol acids into catecholamines.
After analysing the spectral characteristics of each chromatographic peak and their
structural elucidation, the chromatographic peaks corresponding to plasmas from VOO
consumers and non-consumers were quantified (Tables9.3 3 and 9.4 4). Inter-individual
variability was found to be high in both groups. Although no qualitative differences were
observed between the plasma samples of VOO consumers and non-consumers, the GLM
analysis reflected that there were significant quantitative differences in two compounds,
P17 (Table 3) and P15 (Table 4). Fasting consumers plasma showed higher concentration
of a flavonoid type compound (P17) (2.900.04 mol/L vs 1.50.04 mol/L) and a
catecholamine derivative (P15) (0.700.03 mol/L vs 0.560.03 mol/L) than the plasma of
non-consumers (p< 0.05).
Moreover, the results of the GLM procedure (Table 9.3 4) showed that the concentration of
some peaks was affected by the sex factor, besides the effect of olive oil consumption.
Concerning the interaction of oil consumption and sex, the concentration of some peaks
(P4 and P10), corresponding to tryptophan and a carboxylic acid structure respectively,
was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the fasting plasma of women.
The concentration of the compounds quantified in fasting plasmas were in the reference
intervals described in the literature for plasma catecholamines, showing a wide range
from 0.01 to 3.58 nmol/l [18]. Similarly, further refinements to HPLC-based procedures
have also been reported using strong and weak ion-exchange resins for the preliminary
isolation of catecholamines from plasma prior to their chromatographic quantification.
DISCUSSION
Our hypothesis, that the long-term consumption of virgin olive oil phenols could increase
the concentration of endogenous simple phenols, with a potential antioxidant function, in
fasting plasma from healthy individuals, is confirmed. There is limited data regarding the
effect of the repeat dosing of dietary phenols on the concentration of endogenous (i.e.,
non-dietary) simple phenols in the plasma from healthy individuals. Because of the low
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The comparative analysis between fasting plasmas of habitual VOO consumers and non-
consumers showed a similar phenolic profile (Figure 9.3 1). As a general rule, the
metabolites of polyphenols are rapidly eliminated from the plasma, which indicates that
the consumption of plant products on a daily basis is necessary to maintain high
concentrations of metabolites in the blood [19]. In general, the circulation rates of
polyphenols are relatively low (maximum concentrations around 5 mol/l) [20]. In the
case of the phenols that present a rapid absorption, such as catechins, the accumulation of
metabolites in plasma is reduced and is not obtained by continuous consumption [21].
Similarly, the pharmacokinetic study of tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, and 3-O-methyl-
hydroxytyrosol shows that the time taken to reach peak concentrations in plasma is
around one hour after the ingestion of VOO with medium and high phenol content [11]. In
parallel, their estimated elimination half-life is lower than 3.5 hours, so the concentration
of these phenols in plasma eight or ten hours after VOO consumption is negligible. This
rapid elimination of phenols could explain why no specific biomarker of long-term regular
VOO consumption was detected in our study in the plasma from the consumers under
fasting conditions.
The analysis of the MS characteristics showed that most of the compounds quantified in
fasting plasmas showed maximum sensitivity operating in the positive ionisation mode
that resulted in the protonated molecule [M+H]+ similar to catecholamines [16]. In
addition, the compounds quantified in the fasting plasma corresponded to a molecular
weight between 130 and 345, similar to catecholamine structures. On the other hand, the
analysis of the MS characteristics showed other compounds with the maximum sensitivity
operating in negative mode [M-H]- which is typical of the phenolic structures with
substitutive -OH groups that could correspond to endogenous simple phenols.
The inclusion criterion of the volunteers in our study was based on the long-term
consumption of VOO, or by total absence of VOO in the diet. As a result, the dietary
phenols in both groups were provided by fruits, vegetables, coffee, wine, etc. Not having
detected some specific food phenols in fasting plasma samples makes us think that the
structures quantified in our study could correspond to endogenous metabolites, such as
catecholamines or their metabolites with a similar catecholic structures. Phenols posses a
benzene ring bearing one or more hydroxyl groups, including functional derivatives [22],
and catecholamines are important natural molecules containing a benzene ring with two
vicinal hydroxyl groups (catechol) which act as neurotransmitters or hormones [18,23].
These monophenolic acids structured detected in the fasting plasma in both groups of
volunteers in our study could be the scission products of dietetic monomeric flavonoids by
the faecal microflora [24]. On the other hand, the amino catechol structures could result
from the phenol acids via reductive amination.
204
Estudio de intervencin en humanos
If no qualitative differences were observed between the plasmas from the two volunteers
groups, the quantification of the 17 compounds with the characteristic UV spectrum of
phenolic structures revealed quantitative differences. The concentration of most of the
compounds was higher in plasma from VOO consumers (Tables 9.3 3 and 9.3 4). As a
consequence of the interindividual variation in each group of volunteers, statistically
significant differences were only observed in the concentration of two compounds, a
flavonoid-type compound (P16) and a catecholamine structure (P15) without interaction
with other factors such as age and sex of volunteers. In addition, the more concentrated
compounds, corresponding to a carboxylic acid structure (P2), tryptophan (P4) and
tyrosine (P5), showed higher concentration in plasma of olive oil consumers. Both tyrosine
and tryptophan are metabolic precursors to catecholamines, e.g. dopamine, and
hydroxyindoleamines, e.g. serotonin, respectively, which function as essential central and
peripheral neurotransmitters. The monoamine oxidase catalyzed metabolism of the former
results in conversion to acetic acid derivatives, such as 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid
(DOPAC, derived from dopamine), or 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA, derived from
serotonin) [25]. These acetic acid derivatives have spectral characteristics similar to those
detected in the negative mode (Table 9.3 3) in our study, that we have identified as
carboxylic acids.
Therefore, our results could indicate an indirect protective effect of VOO, as the main diet
lipid source, on the plasmatic endogenous phenols with a potential antioxidant functions.
Catecholamines with dihydroxyphenyl and amine groups, including dopamine,
norepinephrine and epinephrine, are well known for their roles as central and peripheral
neurotransmitters or hormones. These three catecholamines are all derivatives of
dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), a catecholic amino acid which is produced from
tyrosine by tyrosine hydroxylase. Catecholamines are metabolized and inactivated by two
enzymes, catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and monoamine oxidase (MAO), leading
to a series of metabolites, such as 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic and homovanillic acids [17].
Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT; EC 2.1.1.6) catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group
from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to polyphenols having an o-diphenolic (catechol) moiety
and plays a crucial role in the metabolism of dopamine. There is a common functional
205
CAPTULO III: Resultados
genetic polymorphism in the COMT gene, which results in a three to fourfold difference in
COMT enzyme activity in humans [30]. This enzyme methylates polyphenols and occurs
in a wide range of tissues. The specificity for polyphenols will determine which hydroxyl
groups on the polyphenol ring are methylated. Flavonoids, such as quercetin and fisetin,
are better substrates for COMT than are its endogenous substrates, catecholamines and
catechol estrogens.
This way, the habitual ingestion of dietetic phenols from VOO could mean a competitive
inhibition of COMT that may explain the higher concentration of catecholamines and their
metabolites in the plasma. Thus, the potential competitive inhibition of the COMT-
catalyzed O-methylation of endogenous catecholamines and catechol estrogens by
polyphenols with catechol groups may have a beneficial effect on cardiovascular
pathologies. Another reason explaining the increased catecholamine derivatives in fasting
plasma with regular VOO consumption observed in our study, could be related to the
results of the study by Oi-Kano et al [31], who reported that the phenolic fraction of VOO
enhances the noradrenaline and adrenaline secretions in plasma, which explains the
enhanced triglyceride catabolism and thermogenesis. In that study, the average total
amount of phenols consumed in rats fed with the VOO diet (containing 30% virgin olive
oil) (in the case of diet intake of 17 g per day) were about 20 mg per rat during the 28-day
experimental period. In our study, the diet of the regular consumers of VOO contained
around 50 ml of VOO per day, which supposes about 7 mg of olive oil phenols. The
stimulation of noradrenaline and adrenaline secretions by olive oil phenols could be
related to the greater concentration of these compounds quantified in the plasma of
habitual consumers of VOO.
206
Estudio de intervencin en humanos
REFERENCES
[1] Visioli F, Grande S, Bogani P, Galli C. Antioxidant properties of olive oil phenolics. In:
Quiles JL, Ramirez-Tortosa MC, Yaqoob P, editors. Olive Oil and Health. Oxfordshire,
UK: CAB International; 2006. pp.109-116.
[2] Fito M, Cladellas M, De La Torre R, Mart J, Alcntara M, Pujadas-Bastardes M,
Marrugat J, Bruguea J, Lopez-Sabater M.C, Vila J. Antioxidant effect of virgin olive oil
in patients with stable coronary heart disease: A randomized, crossover, controlled,
clinical trial. Atherosclerosis 2005;181:149-58.
[3] Llor X, Cabr E, Gassul MA. The effect of olive oil on inflammatory bowel disease. In:
[236]Quiles JL, Ramirez-Tortosa MC, Yaqoob P, editors. Olive Oil and Health.
Oxfordshire, UK: CAB International; 2006. p. 309-314.
[4] Visiolli F, Galli C. Biological properties of olive oil phytochemicals. Crit Rev Food Sci
Nutr. 2002; 42: 209-21.
[5] Gill CIR, Boyd A, McDermott E, McCann M, Servili M, Selvaggini R, Taticchi A,
Esposto S, Montedoro GF, McGlynn H, Rowland I. Potential anti-cancer effects of
virgin olive oil phenols on colorectal carcinogenesis models in vitro. Int J Cancer
2005;117:1-7.
[6] Fabiani R, Rosignoli P, De Bartolomeo A, Fuccelli R, Morozzi G. Inhibition of cell cycle
progression by hydroxytyrosol is associated with upregulation of cyclin-dependent
protein kinase inhibitors p21 WAF1/Cip1 and p27Kip1 and with induction of
differentiation in HL60 cells. J Nutr. 2008; 138: 42-8.
[7] Covas MI. Olive oil and cardiovascular system. Review. Pharm Res. 2007; 55: 175-86.
[8] Servilli M, Selvaggini R, Esposto S, Taticchi A, Montedoro GF, Morozzi G. Health and
sensory properties of virgin olive oil hydrophilic properties of virgin olive oil
hydrophilic phenols: agronomic and technological aspects of production that affect
their occurrence in the oil. J Chrom A 2004; 1054: 113-27.
[9] Owen RW, Mier W, Giacosa A, Hull WE, Spiegelhalder B, Bartsch H. Phenolic
compounds and squalene in olive oils: The concentration and antioxidant potential of
total phenol, simple phenols, secoiridoids, lignans and squalene. Food Chem Toxicol.
2000; 38: 647-59.
[10] Miro-Casas E, Covas MI, Farre M, Fito M, Ortuo J, Weinbrenner T, et al.
Hidroxitirosol disposition in humans. Clin Chem. 2003; 49: 945-52.
[11] Covas MI, de la Torre K, Farre-Albaladejo M, Kaikkonen J, Fito M, Lopez Sabater MC,
et al. Postprandial LDL phenolic content and LDL oxidation are modulated by olive
oil phenolic compounds in humans. Free Radic Biol Med. 2006; 40: 608-16.
[12] Friedewald WT, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS. Estimation of the concentration of low-
density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative
ultracentrifuge. Clin Chem. 1972; 18: 499-502.
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208
Estudio de intervencin en humanos
[29] Clifford MN, Brown JE. Dietary flavonoides and health - Broadening the perspective.
In Andersen M, Markham KR., editors. Flavonoids: Chemistry, Biochemistry and
Applications. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Taylor & Francis, Group; 2006. pp. 319-70.
[30] Tiihonen J, Hallikainen T, Lachman H, Volavka J, Hietala J, Pohjalainen T, et al.
Association between the genetic polymorphism of the catechol-O-methyltransferase
(COMT) and type 1 alcoholism. Am J Med Genetics - Neuropsychiatric Genetics 1998; 81:
516.
[31] Oi-Kano Y, Kawada T, Watanabe T, Koyama F, Watanabe K, Senbongi R, et al. Extra
virgin olive oil increases uncoupling protein 1 content in brown adipose tissue and
enhances noradrenaline and adrenaline secretions in rats. J Nutr Biochem. 2007; 18:
685-92.
209
10. CAPTULO IV: DISCUSIN GLOBAL
CAPTULO II: Discusin
A pesar de los numerosos estudios que se han llevado a cabo durante las ltimas dcadas,
en la actualidad todava son necesarias numerosas evidencias cientficas que avalen la
funcin del aceite de oliva virgen en la prevencin del estrs oxidativo, una de las
primeras etapas de desarrollo de enfermedades cardiovasculares. Un aspecto que est
ntimamente relacionado con este papel es qu componentes de la fraccin fenlica del
aceite de oliva virgen son los de mayor inters y qu formas son las ms activas.
Por tanto, es necesario continuar estos estudios en dos direcciones. Por un lado, establecer
qu componentes de la fraccin fenlica poseen una mayor capacidad antioxidante y
cules son las concentraciones ptimas para ejercer su funcin, adems de las posibles
sinergias entre ellos. Hasta el momento, la mayor parte de los estudios se han centrado en
el hidroxitirosol y en el tirosol, ignorando otras fracciones con potencial inters como los
flavonoides, cidos fenlicos o lignanos. Un segundo tema de inters consiste en establecer
los mecanismos de absorcin y metabolismo, as como la biodisponibilidad de estos
grupos fenlicos.
En base a esta premisa, el trabajo de la presente tesis doctoral se plante haca dos grandes
objetivos: (i) la evaluacin de la capacidad antioxidante de los componentes de la fraccin
fenlica en diferentes modelos, cuyos resultados se han presentado en el Captulos II (ii) y
el estudio del metabolismo y biodisponibilidad de los componentes de la fraccin fenlica,
cuyos resultados se han presentado en el Captulo III , y parcialmente en el Captulo II.
El objetivo planteado para esta primera fase del estudio fue la evaluacin de la capacidad
antioxidante de los distintos componentes de la fraccin fenlica del aceite de oliva virgen
de forma individual. En este caso se seleccion como sustrato de oxidacin la LDL como
marcador de los estados iniciales del desarrollo de la aterosclerosis.
213
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
Figura D 1. Esquema de los procesos de oxidacin de las distintas estructuras que conforman
lasLDL.
Para evaluar la eficacia antioxidante en la primera fase del proceso de oxidacin lipdica
de la LDL, se emple el mtodo de determinacin de dienos conjugados. El mtodo
consiste en la induccin de la oxidacin con Cu++ y la posterior determinacin de la etapa
de latencia mediante la monitorizacin de la formacin de dienos conjugados
espectrofotomtricamente a 234 nm. Es el mtodo ms ampliamente aceptado a pesar de
ser una medida indirecta de la peroxidacin lipdica.
214
CAPTULO II: Discusin
Una vez evaluada la eficacia antioxidante de los compuestos fenlicos del aceite de oliva
en las diferentes etapas del proceso de oxidacin de la fraccin lipdica de la LDL, se llev
a cabo un estudio sobre su efectividad para inhibir la oxidacin de la fraccin proteica de
la LDL. La oxidacin de la parte proteica puede ser consecuencia de la oxidacin de la
parte lipdica, pero en ocasiones resulta ser la primera etapa de oxidacin de la LDL, por lo
que resulta muy interesante conocer qu compuestos minimizan este proceso. Con este
objetivo se llev a cabo un ensayo que permita monitorizar la formacin de grupos
carbonilo, productos de oxidacin de la ApoB, por el mtodo de Western-blot. En este
caso, la induccin de la oxidacin se realizo mediante 5 M de cobre a 37 C durante 4h.
215
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
primera columna se diferencia entre los efectos de una concentracin fisiolgica (0.5M) y
los efectos en funcin de la concentracin (0-20M). En las otras dos columnas se ordenan
de forma particular en funcin de los distintos marcadores seleccionados: fosfolpidos
oxidados y aldehdos. En la cuarta y quinta columna se recoge el orden de los compuestos
fenlicos en funcin de su poder para inhibir la oxidacin de la fraccin proteica de la
LDL. En primer lugar, en funcin de la inhibicin de grupos carbonilos. En segundo lugar,
en funcin de cmo se modifica el ndice de peroxidabilidad. En la ltima columna se
ordenan los compuestos en funcin de su capacidad para evitar la citotoxicidad celular,
tanto sobre clulas endoteliales como sobre clulas hepticas. Los nmeros de las
posiciones en rojo indican que los efectos de esos compuestos eran significativamente
diferentes a los resultados control (efecto del tocoferol), por el contrario los nmeros en
morado indican que los resultados no fueron diferentes al control de manera significativa.
Los nmeros en verde pertenecen a aquellos compuestos cuyo efecto antioxidante fue
inferior al producido por el control. Las siglas PO indican efecto peroxidante.
En general, los compuestos fenlicos estabilizan los radicales libres al ceder un hidrogeno
de sus grupos hidroxilo, formndose un puente de hidrogeno entre los dos grupos
cercanos lo que genera un radical libre relativamente estable que frena la cadena de
reacciones de oxidacin. Por tanto, y en trminos generales, a mayor nmero de grupos
hidroxilo y en posicin orto (grupo catecol) en la molcula fenlica, su capacidad
antioxidante es ms elevada [5-7]. Adems, la presencia del anillo aromtico les permite
mantener en resonancia al electrn desapareado, al igual que la presencia de dobles
enlaces, lo que hace que sus formas radicalarias sean mucho mas estables. Pero se debe
tener en cuenta que durante la peroxidacin un mayor nmero de grupos hidroxilo puede
disminuir la actividad antioxidante, pues estos hacen que la molcula sea menos lipfila,
teniendo ms dificultad de acceso a las membranas celulares [8].
Tambin es importante recordar que los compuestos fenlicos por un lado presentan
capacidad antioxidante pero por otro pueden actuar como prooxidantes. Existen dos
factores que minimizan este ltimo comportamiento: la mayor estabilidad del electrn
desapareado por resonancia debido a los dobles enlaces, y la esterificacin de los grupos
carboxilo terminales. En la TablaD2 se resumen las principales caractersticas moleculares
de los compuestos fenlicos del aceite de oliva que determinan su poder antioxidante.
Estas caractersticas son el nmero total de grupos OH y en especial el numero de OH
dentro del anillo y en posicin orto, el nmero de anillos aromticos, el hecho de ser o no
cidos cinmicos, el tener o no un grupo-CH3O, el tener o no un grupo dihidroxi en el
anillo B, el numero de dobles enlaces y en particular dentro de la estructura eleno, la
presencia de un grupo carboxilo terminal esterificado. Generalmente, a ms grupos o la
presencia de estas formas mejora la capacidad antioxidante. Todo lo contrario suele pasar
con la presencia de azcares en la estructura, su existencia tiende a disminuir la capacidad
antioxidante.
216
CAPTULO II: Discusin
Los antioxidantes primarios son aquellos que actan evitando el desarrollo de la 1 etapa
de oxidacin lipdica: Etapa de latencia. Su mecanismo de accin es diverso: (i) impiden
la formacin de radicales libres [6,9] (ii) quelan los metales de transicin que intervienen
en las reacciones de formacin de los radicales libres, adems de proteger as los
antioxidantes endognos o restaurar sus formas reducidas (iii) estn involucrados en la
liberacin de enzimas antioxidantes al interactuar con receptores de la membrana
(reducen la activacin de las lipooxigenasas, inducen la actividad de los enzimas
antioxidantes: superxido dismutasa, catalasas y glutatin peroxidada) (iv) estn
involucrados en la modulacin de la expresin de genes responsables de la sntesis de
enzimas antioxidantes o en la restauracin de la expresin del RNAm [10,11].
Los antioxidantes terciarios actan reparando el dao causado a las molculas, o bien
eliminando las molculas daadas. Aqu pueden incluirse los compuestos fenlicos que
eviten al mximo la citotoxicidad producida por la partcula de LDL oxidada sobre las
clulas endoteliales.
217
COMPUESTO Inhibicin de la 1 Inhibicin de la 2 etapa de Inhibicin de la 3 etapa de Inhibicin de Efectos sobre Citotoxicidad
etapa de oxidacion oxidacion de la fraccin lipdica de oxidacion de la fraccin la etapa de el ndice de
de la fraccin la LDL lipdica de la LDL oxidacion de Peroxidabilidad
lipdica de la LDL la fraccin
proteica de la
LDL
(0.5M) (0-20M) PLPC SGPC POVPC PGPC GSA AASA MDAL IP HMEC HepG2
luteina 1 2 8 8 8 8 5 7 8 5 8 2 1
rutina 2 2 16
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
hidroxitirosol 3 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
oleuropeina 4 3 PO
3,4-DHPEA-EDA 5 5 3 2 4 3 6 8 7 7 7 7 4
-tocoferol 6
p-HPEA-EDA 7 4 5 4 3 5 8 6 6 8 6 6 2
ac. cafeico 8 2 2 5 1 1 4 3 3 4 3 3 7
218
acetoxipinoresinol 9 3 4 3 2 2 3 2 4 6 4 5 6
luteina-7-O-g 10 2 9
distintos modelos.
vainillina 11 4 13
pinoresinol 12 5 6 6 6 4 2 4 2 3 2 4 8
ac. p- cumarico 13 4 14
apigenina 14 5 PO
tirosol 15 5 PO
apigenina-7-O-g 16 4 PO
verbascosido -- 1 10
3,4-DHPEA-AC -- 4 12
ac. glico -- 3 7 7 7 7 7 5 5 2 5 8 5
met 3,4-DHPEA-EA 11
ac. ferlico PO 5 15
.Numero: diferencia significativa. Numero: diferencia no significativa. Numero: menos capacidad antioxidante que el tocoferol
Tabla D 1. Clasificacin de los diferentes compuestos fenlicos en funcin su actividad antioxidante en los
COMPUESTO N de OH N de OH N total de N de N de cido Con En Presencia Presencia de N de dobles Grupo
en el fuera del OH en la OH anillos cinmico grupo anillo B de azcar dobles enlaces carboxilo
anillo anillo molcula posicin fenlicos CH3O un enlaces en la totales terminal
fenlico fenlico orto grupo estructura esterificad
diOH eleno o
rutina 4 5 9 1 3 ------------ no 2 de 6 ------------ 8 0
verbascosido 4 3 7 2 2 ------------ no 1 de 6 ------------ 8 0
luteina 4 0 4 1 3 ------------ no 0 ------------ 8 0
ac. glico 3 1 4 2 1 no no 0 ------------ 4 0
luteina-7-O-g 4 0 4 1 3 ------------ no 1 de 5 ------------ 8 0
hidroxitirosol 2 1 3 1 1 ------------ no 0 ------------ 3 0
ac. cafeico 2 1 3 1 1 si no 0 ------------ 5 0
vainillina 2 1 3 0 1 ------------ si 0 ------------ 4 0
apigenina 3 0 3 0 3 ------------ no 0 ------------ 8 0
219
3,4-DHPEA-EDA 2 0 2 1 1 ------------ no 0 si 7 0
acetoxipinoresinol 2 0 2 0 2 ------------ no 0 ------------ 7 1
pinoresinol 2 0 2 0 2 ------------ no 0 ------------ 6 0
capacidad antioxidante.
Los resultados de nuestro estudio muestran que muchos de los compuestos fenlicos
pueden actuar mediante ms de uno de los mecanismos descritos. Si comparamos los
resultados (Tablas D1) por subfamilias de compuestos fenlicos se pueden extraer
diferentes conclusiones.
220
CAPTULO II: Discusin
Los cidos fenlicos y sus derivados, a diferencia de otras fuentes vegetales, no son una
fraccin mayoritaria en el aceite de oliva virgen. Sin embargo, su introduccin en el
estudio se consider de inters y para ello se seleccionaron el cido cafeico, cido p-
cumrico, cido ferlico, cido glico y vanillina (Figura D3). Los resultados han
mostrado que la mxima actividad antioxidante frente a la fraccin lipdica de la LDL
corresponde al cido cafeco. Sin embargo, cuando la diana de la oxidacin es la fraccin
proteica o la unidad celular, el acido glico es el que mayor accin protectora ejerce frente
a la oxidacin. El acido cafeco pertenece al grupo de los cidos cinmicos. Se considera
que estos al tener mas dobles enlaces en su estructura bsica que los cidos benzoicos
(acido glico) presentan una mayor capacidad para deslocalizar los electrones
desapareados en su forma radicalaria y por tanto frenan las reacciones de oxidacin. Con
los resultados obtenidos se podra decir que esta condicin es importante en los procesos
de oxidacin lipdica, mientras que para evitar la oxidacin proteica o la muerte celular, la
existencia de un mayor nmero de grupos OH, con capacidad de donar protones y
neutralizar as los radicales libres resulta mucho ms efectiva. Tras estas diferencias, el
orden de capacidad antioxidante de mayor a menor grado tanto para la proteccin de la
fraccin lipdica como de la fraccin proteica es la siguiente: la vainillina, seguida del
acido p-cumrico y por ultimo el acido ferlico (TablaD1). En este caso el nmero de
grupos OH podra ser la explicacin de las diferencias de potencial, pues la vainillina
presenta dos grupos unidos al anillo aromtico, mientras que los otros dos cidos tan solo
tienen uno. La diferencia entre el cido p-cumrico y el cido ferlico, podra ser debida
a la nica diferencia estructural que mantienen, la existencia de un grupo CH3O- unido al
C5 del anillo fenlico en el cido ferlico.
221
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
Los flavonoides constituyen una de las fracciones mayoritarias del fruto de la oliva.
Durante el proceso de extraccin del aceite, en parte se transfieren al aceite constituyendo
una de las fracciones mayoritarias del aceite de oliva virgen que sin embargo no ha sido
muy estudiada. Se ha demostrado que el consumo de flavonoides est asociado a una
reduccin de la incidencia de enfermedades cardiovasculares en diversos estudios
epidemiolgicos prospectivos [19,20]. El efecto antioxidante y el protector cardiovascular
fue confirmado y aceptado por la comunidad cientfica en el estudio ZUTPHEN [21],
realizado con una cohorte de 800 individuos, en el que se describi una correlacin inversa
entre la cantidad de flavonoides procedentes de la dieta (principalmente t y cebollas) y la
incidencia de cardiopata isqumica. Asimismo se sabe que los flavonoides, adems de
captar radicales libres, tienen la propiedad de captar algunos enzimas responsables de la
produccin de radicales (ROS) como la xantina-oxidasa [22,23]. Esta capacidad depende en
gran medida de la estructura de la molcula. Para inhibir este enzima, el fenol debe
presentar una estructura coplanar (con un doble enlace en la posicin 2 y 3 del anillo C) y
los grupos hidroxilo en la posicin 5 y 7 del anillo A. Por el contrario, si aparecen formas
glicosiladas en la posicin 6 y 8, se crean interacciones estricas y la actividad disminuye
[22].
222
CAPTULO II: Discusin
R3 '
H 3' R4 '
2' 4'
B
R7 8
O 2
1
6'
5'
H
A C
6 4 3
5 R3
OH O
Estructura Flavonoides
Los secoiridodes son los componentes mayoritarios de la fraccin fenlica del aceite de
oliva virgen. Este grupo fenlico est formado por derivados de la oleuropena y del
ligustrsido, fenoles mayoritarios de la oliva, que durante el proceso de extraccin del
aceite, por efecto del medio cido de la pasta y de la actividad -glucosidasa, pierden la
molcula de glucosa formando los derivados secoiridoides o formas agliconas. Para la
evaluacin de la actividad antioxidante de esta fraccin se seleccionaron la forma
dialdehdica del acido elenlico unida al hidroxitirosol (3,4-DHPEA-EDA), la forma
dialdehdica del acido elenlico unida al tirosol (p-HPEA-EDA), el 4-acetoxietil-1,2-
dihidroxibenceno (3,4-DHPEA-AC), y la forma metilada de la oleuropeina aglicona
(metilada del 3,4-DHPEA-EA), adems de la oleuropeina como forma glucosilada. Los
resultados de la evaluacin de la capacidad antioxidante del 3,4-DHPEA-EDA (Figura D
5) han mostrado una buena actividad en todos los modelos, lo que indica una buena
eficacia independientemente de la etapa de oxidacin o de la fraccin oxidable (lipdica o
proteica). De forma similar a lo observado con el hidroxitirosol y el tirosol, el p-HPEA-
223
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
R1
O O
HO
H3C O
O
Derivados Secoiridoides (Formas dialdehdicas)
R1
3,4-DHPEA-EDA OH
p-HPEA-EDA H
El 3,4-DHPEA-AC (Figura D6)con una estructura catecol pero sin el cido elenlico, no ha
mostrado capacidad antioxidante a la hora de inhibir la oxidacin de la fraccin lipdica de
la LDL. Sin embargo, s ha mostrado un cierto grado de proteccin de la apoprotena
frente a la oxidacin inducida por Cu++. En base a los resultados obtenidos con el grupo de
los secoiridoides se podra decir que, con este grupo de compuestos, la facilidad de
deslocalizar el electrn podra mejorar algo mas la capacidad antioxidante durante la
etapa de oxidacin proteica de la LDL que el hecho de presentar un estructura catecol.
224
CAPTULO II: Discusin
Son numerosos los estudios in vitro que han demostrado que la oleuropena acta como
potente inhibidor de la oxidacin de la LDL [6,30,31], evidenciando una actividad
antioxidante igual o superior a la de otros antioxidantes conocidos como la vitamina E,
Vitamina C y el hidroxitolueno butirato (BHT) [32].
En relacin con la actividad antioxidante de los lignanos (Figura D8), los resultados han
mostrado una inhibicin de la oxidacin mucho ms eficaz por parte del
225
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
OH OH
O O
CH3 CH3
O O
H H H O
CH3
O O O
O OH O
OH
H 3C H3C
El mecanismo de accin antioxidante de este grupo fenlico no est del todo claro, aunque
la mayor parte de las hiptesis apuntan a que podran actuar como quelantes de metales.
Este mecanismo quelante fue evidenciado por [28] en un estudio en el que se evalu la
capacidad antioxidante de diferentes fenoles del aceite de oliva virgen por diferentes
mtodos. Los resultados mostraron que los lignanos actuaban como antioxidantes tan slo
en los modelos que utilizaban metales como inductores de la oxidacin. En esta lnea se ha
asociado la ingestin de alimentos ricos en lignanos con una proteccin frente a la
neoplasia de colon, prstata y mama [33].
226
CAPTULO II: Discusin
Como sntesis de los resultados obtenidos cabe destacar que los flavonoides con
estructura ortodihidroxifenlica muestran la mayor efectividad en la inhibicin de la
primera etapa de oxidacin de la LDL, mediante la inhibicin de la formacin de dienos
conjugados. Adems, muestran una mayor capacidad para contrarrestar la citotoxicidad
de la LDL oxidada en contacto con las clulas endoteliales y hepatcas. Sin embargo, la
defensa que ejercen frente a la oxidacin de la fraccin proteica de la LDL, as como frente
a la inhibicin de los marcadores seleccionados de oxidacin de las etapas 2 y 3 de la
peroxidacin, es bastante menos importante.
Estas diferencias podran estar relacionadas con los diferentes mecanismos de actividad
antioxidante de los flavonoides [34,35]: (i) la inactivacin radicalaria de ROS, para lo que
es bsico generar un radical ms estable y menos daino tras la reaccin con el radical
libre (ii) la regeneracin de antioxidantes endgenos (iii) la quelacin de cationes de
metales de transicin capaces de promover la formacin radicalaria por la reaccin de
Fenton y (iv) la inhibicin de enzimas involucrados en la produccin de los ROS.
Se podra decir que el primer (i) y ltimo (iv) mecanismo de accin justificaran el hecho
de que sean mas eficaces durante la 1 etapa de peroxidacin lipdica (etapa de latencia),
donde son los ROS los activadores de la oxidacin y los antioxidantes endgenos la
primera barrera defensiva. Tambin su accin quelante podra hacerlos ms efectivos en
estas etapas de iniciacin. Por otro lado su capacidad de inhibir enzimas productores de
ROS, podra detectarse mejor con los test celulares, y por ello de nuevo aqu aparecen en
los primeros puestos de capacidad antioxidante. Una vez desencadenada la oxidacin, sus
propiedades estructurales puede que ya no sean las idneas para ralentizarlo.
227
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
228
CAPTULO II: Discusin
dicha correlacin entre la aparicin del aldehdo GSA y la viabilidad de las clulas
endoteliales estudiadas.
Podemos observar que en los test celulares de los 8 compuestos estudiados, tan solo el
hidroxitirosol, la luteolina y el cido cafeco en el caso de las clulas endoteliales y la
luteina, el p-HPEA-EDA, el hidroxitirosol y el 3,4- DHPEA-EDA en las clulas hepticas,
mostraban un efecto protector frente a la muerte celular. Se debe tener en cuenta que la
seleccin de estos 8 compuestos de los 20 estudiados en un principio se realiz en base a
su capacidad protectora frente a la oxidacin de la fraccin proteica. Esta baja eficacia de la
mayora de los compuestos podra deberse a que los mecanismos de accin para evitar
oxidacin proteica no son los mismos que para evitar la perdida de viabilidad celular. Al
mismo tiempo se observa la diferencia de resultados en funcin de la clula que se quiere
proteger. Las particularidades especficas de cada una de las lineas celulares (ms
complejas que las lipoproteinas) podran explicar las diferencias de potencial
antioxidante de los compuestos fenlicos estudiados.
Por ltimo, destacar los resultados del estudio de sinergismo. Se ha comprobado en este
trabajo que la actividad antioxidante es mayor cuando se combina la actividad de
diferentes compuestos fenlicos. Por tanto, a pesar de aparecer en pequeas cantidades en
el aceite y tener que superar los procesos de digestin posiblemente la combinacin de
estos permita que su efecto se pueda potenciar. En la tablaD 3 se resumen los resultados
obtenidos. Se puede ver como el poder antioxidante es de 1.3 a 1.9 veces ms potente
cuando se combinan los compuestos fenlicos que cuando actan de forma independiente,
encontrndose diferencias significativas para todos los casos.
En todos los casos es importante tener en cuenta que los compuestos fenlicos estudiados
presentan diferentes grados de polaridad que les hacen ser ms liposolubles o
hidrosolubles. Segn este factor tendr mayor o menor facilidad de proteger la fraccin
229
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
proteica o lipdica de la LDL as como la unidad celular. Este puede ser otro factor clave
para explicar los diferentes grados de capacidad antioxidante de cada compuesto segn la
metodologa empleada.
Por lotanto, una dieta cuya principal fuente de grasa sea el aceite de oliva, puede ser una
herramienta til contra los factores de riesgo para las enfermedades cardiovasculares y
otras patologas.
Tabla D 3 Prolongacin de la etapa de latencia de las LDL despus de incubarse junto con 2 M de
los diferentes compuestos fenlicos de manera individual y en las diferentes combinaciones entre
ellos: Valores observados y valores esperados para las diferentes combinaciones.
R; rutina 21.445.06
O; oleuropeina 17.5613.64
H; hidroxitirosol 13.8711.83
230
CAPTULO II: Discusin
Min: minutos
231
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
Esta demostrado que el consumo de aceite de oliva virgen mejora la estabilidad oxidativa
del plasma, y en especial la resistencia a la oxidacin de las LDL, en base a su elevado
contenido de cidos grasos monoinsaturados y antioxidantes (tocoferol o vitamina E,
carotenoides y compuestos fenlicos) [40-47].
Durante los ltimos aos son numerosos los estudios que han demostrado el papel de la
fraccin fenlica del aceite de oliva virgen en la mejora de diferentes marcadores de stress
oxidativo. Los primeros estudios llevados a cabo con algunos compuestos de naturaleza
antioxidante, como la vitamina E [48-50] y los carotenos [51,52] no demostraron un papel
destacable en la mejora de la estabilidad oxidativa del plasma, por lo que los resultados de
estos estudios no fueron muy alentadores para demostrar el poder saludable del aceite de
oliva. Sin embargo, la falta de resultados podra estar relacionada con la forma de ingesta
de la vitamina E y los carotenos. En estos estudios la ingesta de estos antioxidantes se
llevaba a cabo en forma aislada, sin la presencia de otros antioxidantes como los
compuestos fenlicos, y a dosis muy por encima de las dosis habituales de ingesta con
aceite de oliva que podra dar lugar a una actividad pro-oxidante [4,48,51-53]. Por tanto, a
la hora de establecer la funcin de los componentes antioxidantes del aceite de oliva es
importante tener en cuenta las posibles sinergias y la influencia de la matriz alimentaria.
En relacin con la biodisponibilidad de los compuestos fenlicos del aceite de oliva, en los
ltimos aos se han llevado a cabo diferentes estudios en animales y humanos despus de
una dieta suplementada [18,43,54-66]. Estos estudios de biodisponibilidad se han centrado
bsicamente en la cuantificacin de tirosol e hidroxitirosol y sus metabolitos en plasma,
LDL y orina. El rango de biodisponibilidad observado vara entre el 15 y el 55% [67]. Sin
embargo, estas bajas concentraciones plasmticas parecen ser suficientes para ejercer su
actividad biolgica [68], bien en sus formas nativas o como formas conjugadas despus de
su paso por el sistema entero-heptico [69]. Se ha observado que aproximadamente un
98% de los fenoles detectados en plasma y orina, tras la ingesta moderada de aceite de
oliva (25mL/da), aparecen conjugados, principalmente como glucurnidos [43,70].
232
CAPTULO III: Discusin
233
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
A este nivel, hay que tener tambin en cuenta, que la fase que determina la
bioaccesibilidad, la fase acuosa, puede presentar estructuras micelares. Los fenoles
podran aparecer dentro de estas micelas por lo que no estaran realmente disueltos en la
fase acuosa. Hasta el momento no se sabe si esta relacin favorece o limita la absorcin.
Existen estudios que intentan elucidar el efecto de estas micelas sobre los polifenoles del
t, en concreto el efecto del tamao de las gotas de grasa dentro de la fase acuosa [73].
Adems de la transferencia de los fenoles desde la matriz aceite a la fase acuosa o digesta,
es necesario conocer de qu forma afectan las condiciones fisiolgicas de la digestin sobre
su estabilidad. Durante la digestin gstrica e intestinal se suceden una serie de cambios
importantes del pH, as como la secrecin de enzimas y sales biliares. Los resultados de
nuestro estudio han permitido observar cmo los principales compuestos fenlicos del
aceite: hidroxitirosol, tirosol, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA, p-HPEA-EDA y cido elenlico, se
mantienen bastante estables bajo las condiciones del estomago, donde destaca la acidez del
medio (Tabla D.4). Los fenoles del aceite provienen de formas glucosiladas presentes en la
oliva. Durante el proceso de obtencin del aceite, estas estructuras se ven sometidas a
condiciones acidas y a la accin de la enzima -glucosidasa, que libera el glucsido
apareciendo las formas agliconas. Esto podra explicar que estas estructuras agliconas,
producto de un medio acido, se muestren bastante estables en las condiciones de baja
acidez a las que estn sometidas durante la etapa de digestin gstrica. No obstante, en
esta etapa comienza la hidrlisis de los secoiridoides (3,4-DHPEA-EDA, p-HPEA-EDA)
que resulta en la disminucin de estos y el aumento de los fenoles simples y el acido
elenlico en la mezcla de digestin. La estabilidad del hidroxitirosol y el tirosol en esta
etapa y el hecho de ser transferido mayoritariamente a la fase acuosa podra explicar
234
CAPTULO III: Discusin
porqu se detectan tan rpidamente en el plasma, tanto en sus formas nativas como
metiladas, tras solo 60 minutos despus de la ingesta de aceite de oliva virgen [74].
Otros estudios tambin han demostrado cmo el pH del tracto intestinal o la accin de los
diferentes enzimas digestivos dan lugar a la hidrlisis de determinados compuestos
fenlicos del aceite de oliva. As la oleuropeina y el ligustrosido y sus derivados son
hidrolizados rpidamente a hidroxitirosol y tirosol, forma en la que son finalmente
absorbidos en el intestino. Este hecho puede explicar que la mayor parte de los fenoles
cuantificados en plasma y LDL despus de la ingesta de aceite de oliva corresponden a las
formas conjugadas de estos dos compuestos fenlicos, as como a sus derivados entre los
que destaca el acido homovainllico [18,54,59-61,64]. Por tanto, este intenso metabolismo
de los fenoles del aceite de oliva justifica la complejidad del estudio de su
biodisponibilidad, a diferencia por ejemplo de los flavonoides que en su mayor parte
aparecen en sus formas conjugadas (metiladas, sulfatadas y glucuronidadas) sin haber
sufrido una hidrlisis previa de la forma nativa durante el proceso de digestin gastro-
intestinal. Hecho que facilita su identificacin y cuantificacin en muestras complejas,
como es el caso del plasma.
Se puede concluir que el hidroxitirosol y el tirosol son los compuestos fenlicos que se
encuentran en mayor concentracin en la mezcla de digestin tras las etapas gstrica y
duodenal, a pesar de no ser los mayoritarios en la matriz originaria sometida a digestin
(aceite de oliva). Lo que podra justificar su mayor bioaccesibilidad, en relacin con otros
componentes de la fraccin fenlica, y que puedan ser utilizados con marcadores de
consumo de aceite de oliva virgen. Probablemente los secoiridoides actuarn como fuente
de estas estructuras, asegurando la llegada en cantidades importantes de estos fenoles ms
simples a las zonas de absorcin. Aunque los otros compuestos caracterizados tambin
235
Digestin gastrica Digestin duodenal
Fraccin Fraccin Fraccin Fraccin Digestin Digestin Total Aceite de
grasa acuosa grasa acuosa gstrica duodenal oliva
Fenol (nmols/ (nmols/ (nmols/ (nmols/ (nmols/ (nmols/ (nmols/ (nmols/ balance
g) g) g) g) g) g) g) g)
Hidroxitirosol 2.88 32.8 0.64 26.1 35.68 26.74 62.42 19.9 42.52
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
Tirosol 3.68 27.9 4.16 48.6 31.58 52.76 84.34 15.3 69.04
p-cuuarico 0.44 0.25 0 0 0.69 0 0.69 0.85 -0.16
cido elenlico 59.3 194 0.61 2.43 253.3 3.04 256.34 207 49.34
3,4-DHPEA-EDA 22.2 236 0 1.72 258.2 1.72 259.92 384 -124.08
236
p-HPEA-EDA 9.85 21.7 0 0 31.55 0 31.55 39.4 -7.85
Acetoxipinoresinol
positivos indican generacin durante la digestin.
Una vez evaluada la transferencia de los diferentes fenoles desde el aceite (matriz de
digestin) haca la fraccin acuosa o digesta durante el proceso de digestin gastro-
intestinal, la siguiente etapa del estudio se centr en la evaluacin del metabolismo y
transporte trans-epitelial de los fenoles a travs de la barrera del epitelio intestinal.
Conocer cual es el grado de absorcin (bioaccesibilidad) y el tipo de metabolismo de los
compuestos fenlicos del aceite de oliva a nivel de intestino se considera requisito
indispensable para establecer una relacin causal, entre los compuestos fenlicos presentes
en el aceite y sus efectos biolgicos asociados con la prevencin de enfermedades.
Para conseguir este objetivo, por un lado se seleccionaron los fenoles ms representativos
de los subgrupos que forman el conjunto del perfil fenlico del aceite de oliva y que
haban mostrado capacidades antioxidantes de inters en la primera parte del estudio
(Captulos II). Adems de haber sido cuantificados en el digerido (fase acuosa) despus
del proceso de digestin-gastrointestinal. Como modelo se emple una metodologa para
simular in vitro el proceso de absorcin y metabolismo a travs de los enterocitos de la
membrana en cepillo del intestino delgado, con el uso de cultivos celulares de Caco-2/TC7
y placas transwell. Los modelos de Caco-2 han sido reconocidos por la administracin
americana (FDA) para la determinacin in vitro de la permeabilidad y las caractersticas de
transporte de un frmaco a travs de la mucosa intestinal. Actualmente estos modelos
celulares son muy empleados para este tipo de estudios.
Cuando se plante este estudio, se desconoca la concentracin que alcanzaran los fenoles
en la mezcla de digestin y que estaran en contacto con los enterocitos para su posterior
metabolismo y transporte. En base a los resultados obtenidos tras la digestin in vitro y
teniendo en cuenta tanto la fase acuosa como la oleosa, los compuestos fenlicos podran
alcanzar las reas de absorcin en rangos de concentracin entre 5 y 20 M, con una
ingesta diaria de aproximadamente 25 g de aceite. Sin embargo, los datos de que se
dispona a travs de la literatura cientfica mostraban que las concentraciones empleadas
con estos modelos iban desde 500 M [57], hasta 10 M [77]. Por tanto, se decidi
comenzar con una concentracin en el medio celular de 40 M, e ir aumentndo hasta 50
M y 100 M con el objetivo de elucidar todas las posibilidades de metabolismo a nivel del
epitelio intestinal. El tiempo de incubacin tambin se fue alargando de 1 a 24 horas para
alcanzar el mismo objetivo.
En una primera etapa se estudio el metabolismo celular sobre los distintos compuestos
fenlicos escogidos. En el ao 2005, Mateos y col.[78] realizaron un estudio en clulas
HepG2 para caracterizar el metabolismo del hidroxitirosol, tirosol e hidroxitirosol acetato
en el hgado. La deteccin de diferentes metabolitos fue clara, siendo principalmente
formas glucuronidadas y sulfatadas, que coincidan con las formas mayoritarias
detectadas en plasma. Los resultados obtenidos sugeran que el metabolismo de fase II del
los fenoles del aceite de oliva tenia lugar principalmente en el hgado. Esta afirmacin la
realizaban al comparar sus resultados con los estudios de metabolismo en epitelio
intestinal tanto en modelos Caco-2 [57], como en segmentos de intestino prefusionado [54].
En el primer caso, [57] Manna y col., (2000) observaron, que una parte del hidroxitirosol se
puede absorber en el intestino por difusin pasiva, mientras que otra experimenta una
serie de conjugaciones. Encontraron que el 90% del hidroxitirosol y sus metabolitos (en
237
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
238
CAPTULO III: Discusin
Figura D 10. Esquema del posible metabolismo de fenoles del aceite de oliva (Fuente: [54]).
En estudios posteriores, realizados por [59] Corona y col. (2006) cuando estudiaban la
digestibilidad de la oleuropena, su absorcin, metabolismo y transformaciones en la
microflora del colon, se hicieron unos ensayos de transporte de tirosol e hidroxitirosol en
clulas Caco-2 y en segmentos de intestino de rata. Los resultados les llevaron a advertir
sobre la extrapolacin de los ensayos con clulas y animales a las condiciones in vivo en
humanos. En los ensayos con fragmentos de intestino detectaron como principales
metabolitos los derivados O-metilados del hidroxitirosol (alcohol homovainllico) y las
formas glucurnidadas del tirosol e hidroxitirosol; sin embargo, en el ensayo con clulas
Caco-2 no se detectaron los derivados glucurnidos, pero s un conjugado del
hidroxitirosol con glutation. En ninguno de los ensayos en modelo Caco-2 detectaron
otros metabolitos que si haban sido detectados en orina de rata, como el cido
homovanllico, 3-hidroxi-4-metoxifenilactico, 2,(3,4-dimetoxifeniletanol) y metabolitos
sulfatados, por lo que los autores sugieren que estos metabolitos probablemente se formen
en el hgado.
Sin embargo los resultados de nuestro trabajo con la lnea celular Caco-2/TC7 no han
mostrado un metabolismo muy intenso, desde el punto de vista cuantitativo, pero s
aparecen diversas formas conjugadas, algunas de ellas en muy baja concentracin.
Teniendo en cuenta los moles iniciales de cada fenol en el medio celular antes de la
incubacin y los diferentes metabolitos cuantificados en el medio despus de la incubacin
en presencia de la lnea celular, el rendimiento del metabolismo ha variado entre el 11%
239
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
para el cido p-cumarico hasta el 52% para la luteolina, siendo en la mayora de los casos el
rendimiento directamente proporcionales a los periodos de incubacin. Una revisin
llevada a cabo por [58] Vissers y col. (2004) sobre la biodisponibilidad de los fenoles de
aceite de oliva en humanos ha mostrado porcentajes de absorcin entre el 55 y el 66%, y
numerosos estudios hablan de una absorcin directamente proporcional a la dosis
consumida [18,61,62,80]. Por tanto, el bajo rendimiento del metabolismo en el modelo
celular empleado en nuestro estudio podra responder al hecho de que se ha trabajado con
los compuestos de forma aislada y no en la matriz del aceite de oliva, como corresponde a
los ensayos de ingesta en humanos. En este sentido, diferentes autores afirman que la
absorcin de estos fenoles se ve favorecida cuando estn dentro de la matriz de aceite de
oliva [60,65]. Esto podra confirmar la buena estabilidad de algunos fenoles observada en
nuestro estudio durante la digestin in vitro, al estar incluidos en la matriz de aceite de
oliva; y por otro lado su bajo rendimiento de metabolismo en el modelo celular en el que
se ha trabajado con los compuestos disueltos directamente en el tampn, omitiendo as el
potencial efecto protector del aceite de oliva. Se debe tener en cuenta que se produce una
prdida del compuesto fenlico durante el periodo de incubacin por efecto del tiempo y
de la temperatura que probablemente favorecen la degradacin oxidativa. Esto explicara
porqu el total de las formas nativas y sus metabolitos, tanto en el medio celular como en
el interior de las clulas, en algunos compuestos fenlicos son sensiblemente inferiores con
la concentracin inicial en el medio.
A nivel cualitativo, los resultados son destacables. En nuestro estudio se analizaron los
metabolitos presentes tanto en el interior de las clulas como en el medio de cultivo. La
presencia de metabolitos en el medio puede ser consecuencia de dos mecanismos: (i) la
clula metaboliza los compuestos fenlicos en su interior y luego los excreta al medio o (ii)
excreta los enzimas responsables del metabolismo de fase II al medio y es en ste donde
tienen lugar las conjugaciones. La deteccin de algunos metabolitos (formas
glucuronidadas, sulfatadas y metiladas) en el interior de las clulas permite afirmar que
los tres enzimas propios del metabolismo de fase II estn presentes y activos en estas
clulas. Los metabolitos que se identificaron de forma global, tanto en el interior de la
clula como en el medio apical y basolateral, se recogen en la Tabla D 5.
240
CAPTULO III: Discusin
En el cido p-cumrico, el grado de metabolismo tambin fue muy bajo, en este caso el
factor concentracin permiti la formacin de las formas conjugadas. Se necesitaron
concentraciones de 100 M para detectar cido cumrico disulfato y metil cumrico. Sin
embargo, estudios realizados por [84] Kern y col. (2003), centrados en la caracterizacin
del metabolismo de los cidos hidroxicinmicos, con la utilizacin de un modelo celular
241
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
similar, determinaron para el cido p-cumrico las formas metablicas metilsulfato, sulfato
y un posible metilglucuronido.
El bajo nivel de metabolismo, tanto del tirosol como del cido p-cumrico, contrasta con el
rpido y eficaz metabolismo detectado para los flavonoles en los estudios realizados con el
mismo modelo celular Caco-2/TC7 por [85] Barringto y col. (2009).
A diferencia de los fenoles simples, cidos fenlicos y flavonoides, existen muy pocos
estudios de metabolismo de lignanos en modelo celular. Los resultados de nuestro estudio
han mostrado que el metabolismo del pinoresinol es proporcional al tiempo de incubacin,
dando lugar a la formacin de formas sulfatadas y glucuronidadas. Finlamente, la
luteolina ha sido el compuesto fenlico que ha mostrado una mayor velocidad de
metabolismo, tambin dependiente del tiempo de incubacin. Destaca la forma metilada
como la mayoritaria en los tres tiempos de incubacin ensayados, habiendose detectado la
forma glucuronidada y metilglucuronidada tras 6 horas de incubacin. [77] Murota y col.
(2002) y [86] Siu Pong y col. (2005) detectaron tambin la forma glucuronidada en modelo
de clulas Caco-2, y en el caso del segundo estudio se identificaron adems formas
sulfatadas. [71] Boersma y col. (2002) comprobaron que la glucuronidacion en microsomas
de intestino humano es marcadamente mas elevada que en microsomas de hgado
humano.
Las diferencias encontradas entre los resultados de nuestro estudio y estudios previos
llevados a cabo por otros autores pueden ser consecuencia de las diferentes condiciones de
trabajo y a las lneas celulares utilizadas en el modelo.
De forma general se puede observar como tanto las formas nativas como sus metabolitos
terminan detectndose en la zona basolateral a mayor tiempo de incubacin. Esto es
indicativo de que son absorbidas, a excepcin de la forma metilglucuronidada de la
luteolina que solo se detecta en la zona apical. Este hecho concuerda con lo observado por
[87] Crespy (1999) y [88] Andlauer (2000), que indicaban que en la mayor parte de los
flavonoides, una amplia proporcin de los glucuronidos formados en la mucosa intestinal
se secretaban de nuevo al lumen intestinal (zona apical en nuestro estudio) lo cual reduca
la absorcin de dichos compuestos.
242
CAPTULO III: Discusin
Tras una hora de incubacin las formas nativas aparecen todas en la zona basolateral, a
excepcin del hidroxitirosol. Este compuesto fenlico muy caracterstico del aceite de
oliva, se absorbe por difusin pasiva al igual que el tirosol [57]. Este mecanismo de
absorcin no es comn a todos los fenoles del aceite. Se cree que la oleuropeina atraviesa el
epitelio a traves de un transporte transcelular o por movimientos paracelulares [63].
243
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
Luteolin methyl24
Luteolin methyl6
Luteolin methyl1
Luteolin methyl-glucuronide24
Basolateral
Luteolin methyl-glucuronide6
Luteolin methyl-glucuronide1
Cellular
Apical
Luteolin glucuronide24
Luteolin glucuronide6
Luteolin glucuronide1
Luteolin24
Luteolin6
Luteolin1
Pinoresinol glucuronide24
Pinoresinol glucuronide6
Pinoresinol glucuronide1
Pinoresinol sulfate24
Pinoresinol sulfate6
Pinoresinol sulfate1
Pinoresinol24
Pinoresinol6
Pinoresinol1
fenolesymetabolitos
Coumaric acid disulfate24
Coumaric acid disulfate6
Coumaric acid disulfate1
Coumaric acid24
Coumaric acid6
Coumaric acid1
Tyrosol sulfate24
Tyrosol sulfate6
Tyrosol sulfate1
Tyrosol methyl24
Tyrosol methyl6
Tyrosol methyl1
Tyrosol24
Tyrosol6
Tyrosol1
Hydroxytyrosol methyl-sulfate24
Hydroxytyrosol methyl-sulfate6
Hydroxytyrosol methyl-sulfate1
Hydroxytyrosol sulfate24
Hydroxytyrosol sulfate6
Hydroxytyrosol sulfate1
Hydroxytyrosol methyl24
Hydroxytyrosol methyl6
Hydroxytyrosol methyl1
Hydroxytyrosol24
Hydroxytyrosol6
Hydroxytyrosol1
6
244
CAPTULO III: Discusin
245
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
Por ultimo se llevaron a cabo dos estudios in vivo de intervencin en humanos. El objetivo
bsico, del Capitulo III: 9.3 y de un apartado del estudio recogido en el Capitulo II
(estudio de ingesta aguda) fu la identificacin de las formas nativas y los metabolitos de
los polifenoles del aceite de oliva en plasma humano. En el primer estudio de ingesta
aguda (Captulo II: 8.1) se pretende demostrar la biodisponibilidad de los compuestos
fenlicos del aceite de oliva, algunos de los cuales todava no se haban detectado en
plasma, as como reforzar la teora del efecto sinrgico de estos compuestos. Con el
segundo estudio de ingesta crnica, se quera determinar si existan o no diferencias en el
perfil fenlico entre consumidores habituales y no habituales de aceite de oliva. Estas
diferencias podran justificar el efecto positivo del consumo habitual de aceite de oliva
sobre la salud.
El estudio de ingesta aguda se llev a cabo con un grupo reducido de voluntarios que, tras
una ingesta de 40 mL de aceite de oliva virgen, se procedi a la extraccin de sangre a los
0, 30, 60, 120 y 240 minutos despus de la ingesta. En esta experiencia se pretendi
establecer la presencia conjunta en plasma postprandial de compuestos fenlicos de las
familias del hidroxitirosol y de los flavonoides que haban mostrado un efecto sinrgico de
inters en la inhibicin de la formacin de dienos conjugados en el modelo de oxidacin
de LDL inducido con cobre (Captulo II: 8.1). El anlisis del perfl fenlico del plasma
mostr la biodisponibilidad de una serie de compuestos fenlicos que a su vez haban
mostrado un importante potencial antioxidante en los test de dienos conjugados. Dado
que los test de capacidad antioxidante solo se realizaron con las formas nativas de los
fenoles (Captulos I y II), en este estudio de ingesta aguda el anlisis cromatogrfico de la
composicin fenlica del plasma estuvo orientado de forma especial a la identificacin de
las formas nativas de los fenoles. Pero la deteccin del 3,4-DHPEA-EDA en el plasma
indica que no todos se hidrolizan en formas ms simples y que pese a su mayor
complejidad tambin son absorbidas. Los resultados han permitido establecer su presencia
conjunta en plasma, alcanzando su concentracin mxima a la hora para la luteolina, a las
2 horas para el 3,4-DHPEA-EDA y la oleuropeina aglicona, y a las 4 horas para el
hidroxitirosol, despus de la ingesta. En todos los casos las concentraciones mximas
siempre han estado por debajo de una concentracin de 2 M. Por tanto, la presencia
conjunta de estos grupos fenlicos en plasma avala el inters del potencial efecto sinrgico
observado entre los compuestos fenlicos que tienen el grupo hidroxitirosol en su
molcula (secoiridoides) y los flavonoides, concretamente la luteolina observado en el
modelo in vitro (Captulo II). Esto podra explicar en parte la eficacia de los fenoles del
aceite de oliva en la prevencin de las enfermedades cardiovasculares, pese a que las
cantidades diarias ingeridas a travs de esta fuente son muy bajas, en relacin con otras
fuentes de fenoles de la dieta, como es el caso de las frutas.
Por ltimo se realizo un estudio de ingesta crnica (Capitulo III: 9.3). El objetivo inicial de
este estudio era comprobar si existan o no marcadores del consumo habitual de aceite de
oliva. Los estudios de intervencin en humanos haban demostrado que el hidroxitirosol y
el tirosol son biodisponibles tras una ingesta de aceite de oliva en su forma natural [18,43]
y pueden emplearse como marcadores de consumo de este aceite. Sin embargo, los
estudios llevados a cabo hasta el momento solo haban estado orientados a la deteccin de
estos marcadores en el periodo postpandrial tras la ingesta aguda de una dosis de aceite.
Por ello se plante buscar un marcador o marcadores de consumo habitual de aceite de
246
CAPTULO III: Discusin
oliva, que justificase los beneficios detectados en los estudios epidemiolgicos donde la
ingesta de aceite de oliva virgen forma parte de la dieta diaria y por lo tanto ms prxima
a la realidad.
Para ello se trabaj con dos grupos de voluntarios, en uno se encontraban los
consumidores habituales del aceite de oliva, entendiendo como habitual personas que
haban consumido mas de 23 g/da de aceite durante mas de 10 aos. En el grupo de no
consumidores, los participantes se caracterizaban por no incluir aceite de oliva en su dieta
habitual. En este caso se seleccionaron personas de origen rumano que en su vida haban
consumido este tipo de grasa. En ambos casos, la extraccin de sangre para obtener el
plasma se realiz en condiciones de ayuno.
El anlisis comparativo del perfil fenlico de ambos grupos, no permiti detectar alguna
diferencia cualitativa. Concluyndose que probablemente no existen marcadores de
consumo prolongado de aceite de oliva y que los compuestos determinados podan
corresponder a metabolitos endgenos. El estudio de identificacin de los diferentes
compuestos de naturaleza fenlica detectados en el plasma postprandial de los dos grupos
de voluntarios, mediante cromatografa lquida acoplada a espectrometra de masas, no
permiti identificar las formas nativas, ni las principales formas conjugadas de los
diferentes fenoles del aceite de oliva descritos como biomarcadores de consumo de aceite
de oliva. Estos resultados permitiran establecer que los compuestos de naturaleza fenlica
identificados en el plasma tras 12 horas de ayuno corresponden a metabolitos endgenos,
probablemente compuestos derivados de la ruta de las catecolaminas. Ya se ha comentado
anteriormente que estos compuestos se metabolizan de forma rpida (durante las 8 horas
tras su ingesta). Se ha observado que, tras una ingesta de 50 mL de aceite de oliva, la vida
media de eliminacin del hidroxitirosol y el tirosol en orina son de 7,7 horas y 8,6 horas
respectivamente, apareciendo los mximos de concentracin en orina entre las 0 y las 4
horas despus de la ingesta, y regresando a las condiciones basales a las 12 despus de la
ingesta [62,91]. Principalmente se excretan en forma glucuronido, detectndose tan solo
entre un 6 y un 11% de las formas nativas del hidroxitirosol y del tirosol. Este rpido
metabolismo y eliminacin de los compuestos fenlicos del aceite de oliva virgen podra
explicar la no deteccin de estos compuestos en plasma basal en nuestro estudio. Con
respecto al resto de fenoles aportados por el aceite de oliva virgen, como los flavonoides o
los lignanos, prcticamente no hay datos al respecto.
Adems de este rpido metabolismo y excrecin por orina, se piensa que los compuestos
fenlicos del aceite de oliva o sus metabolitos quedan asociados, durante el transporte, a
las lipoprotenas mediante interacciones inicas con las cargas residuales de la superficie
de las partculas. Se ha demostrado tambin, que los derivados mas lipoflicos pueden ser
capaces de esterificarse con cidos grasos en el plasma, aunque esta afirmacin debera
reforzarse con mas estudios [69]. Este hecho podra haber dificultado la deteccin de estos
compuestos en el plasma. Tambin, estudios realizados por [90] DAngelo (2001), indican
la presencia de ciertos metabolitos en tejidos animales tales como, hgado, pulmn,
corazn, rin, cerebro y msculo esqueltico, tras el suministro de hidroxitirosol va oral
o intravenoso. Los metabolitos detectados fueron: derivados sulfatados del hidroxitirosol,
3,4-dihidroxifenilacetaldehido, acido 3,4-dihidroxifenil acetico, alcohol homovainillico y
acido homovainillico. Su teora es que los fenoles del aceite se acumulan de forma rpida
247
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
en los tejidos, con lo que no podran detectarse en plasma, y dentro de las clulas se
metabolizaran de nuevo. Pero todava se conoce muy poco sobre la captacin celular de
los metabolitos en las distintas clulas. Si se ha visto que a pH fisiolgico la mayora de
estos compuestos interactan con la cabeza polar del grupo de fosfolpidos. Esto podra
limitar el acceso de los agentes oxidantes a las clulas, y por tanto seria otro mecanismo de
proteccin antioxidante de estos polifenoles, que podra corresponder al detectado en los
test de capacidad antioxidante sobre clulas recogidos en el apartado 8.2 (Captulo II).
Sin embargo, el anlisis del plasma basal de nuestro estudio permiti la identificacin de
una serie de cidos carboxilicos: cido homovanllico, cido ascrbico y una forma muy
similar al cido 3,4-dihidroxifenilacetico. Por otro lado, en modo de ionizacin positiva se
detectaron una serie de estructuras que se identificaron como derivados de la
catecolamina, entre las que si se distinguieron: dopamina y tirosina, adems se detect
triptfano, as como un posible flavonoide. Concluyndose por tanto que los compuestos
que se estaban determinando eran metabolitos endgenos de estructura fenlica.
Al mismo tiempo estos metabolitos pueden ser productos del metabolismo endgeno de la
dopamina, donde los aminoacidos tirosina y triptofano, tambin detectados en el plasma
de los voluntarios, podran ser los precursores de estos compuestos con actividad
neurotransmisora en el sistema nervioso central y perifrico. A partir de la tirosina se
obtiene la dopamina, la noradrenalina y la adrenalina. La dopamina se metaboliza hasta
cido homovanillico y acido dihidroxifenilacetico (DOPAC), mientras que la
noradrenalina y la adrenalina lo hace hasta 3,metoxi-4,hidroximandelico. En estas rutas
metablicas participa de una forma destacada la enzima COMT (catecol orto-metil
transferasa) (Figura D 13). El triptofano es el precursor de la serotonina, N-
acetilserotonina, acido hidroxiindolacetico (5-HIAA) y la melatonina.
248
CAPTULO III: Discusin
Otros autores como [43] Marrugat y col. en el 2004, apuntaban esta hiptesis y concluan
que los fenoles del aceite de oliva podan modular el equilibrio oxidante/antioxidante en
el plasma en situaciones de estrs oxidativo, potenciando as su rol protector antioxidante.
[61] Miro-Casas y col (2003) se plantearon la posibilidad de que el hidroxitirosol de la dieta
y el hidroxitirosol como producto del metabolismo de la dopamina podan participar
conjuntamente como un sistema antioxidante en el organismo. Sin embargo, demostrar el
249
CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
efecto de los fenoles dietticos sobre los fenoles endgenos es complejo, ya que estos
ltimos se encuentran en muy baja concentracin y existe un gran numero de compuestos
muy similares que dificulta su completa identificacin [93].
Se plantean dos posibles causas por las cuales el consumo de aceite de oliva de forma
habitual mantiene mas elevadas las cantidades de metabolitos endgenos con poder
antioxidante en el organismo. Por un lado, se ha visto que los compuestos fenlicos
aportados por la dieta, actan como sustrato competidores de los sustratos endgenos
propios de la enzima COMT. Esta enzima introduce grupos metilo en las posiciones OH,
lo que explicara las concentraciones mas altas de metabolitos cuantificadas en los plasmas
del grupo de consumidores habituales de aceite de oliva. Por otro lado, [97] Oi-Karo y col.
(2007) observaron como la fraccin fenlica de aceite de oliva, tanto en ratas como en
humanos, aumentaba la secrecin de adrenalina y noradrenalina en el plasma, y a su vez
el catabolismo de trigliceridos y la activacion de la termognesis.
Por tanto, los resultados de nuestro estudio junto con las hiptesis adelantadas por
estudios previos llevados a cabo por otros autores refuerzan nuestra hiptesis de que los
fenoles del aceite de oliva, adems de un efecto antioxidante directo, podran ejercer un
efecto protector indirecto mediante la proteccin de la defensa antioxidante propia del
organismo.
250
CAPTULO III: Discusin
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251
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11. CAPTULO V: CONCLUSIONES
CAPTULO V: Conclusiones
1. La mayor parte de los fenoles del aceite de oliva virgen han mostrado una buena
estabilidad bajo las condiciones de digestin gstrica. Por el contrario, la estabilidad
de algunos de estos compuestos, cuando estn expuestos a las condiciones de digesti
del intestino delgado, es muy baja, especialmente los derivados secoiridoides. La
hidrlisis de estos compuestos da lugar a un incremento del contenido de
hidroxitirosol, tirosol y cido elenlico en la mezcla de digestin. Esto indicara una
mayor bioaccesibilidad de estas formas fenlicas simples, en relacin con las formas
ms complejas presentes en el aceite, que podra explicar su eficacia como marcadores
de consumo de aceite de oliva virgen.
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CAPTULO IV: Discusin global
5. Estos resultados podran indicar que los compuestos cuantificados en el plasma basal
corresponden a metabolitos endgenos derivados de los fenoles de la dieta y/o del
metabolismo de las catecolaminas. Por tanto, no se ha podido establecer un marcador
de consumo de aceite de oliva en las dosis diarias habituales para una Dieta
Mediterrnea.
Como conclusin final, los resultados de este estudio junto con las hiptesis adelantadas
por estudios previos llevados a cabo por otros autores refuerzan nuestra hiptesis de que
los fenoles del aceite de oliva, adems de un efecto antioxidante directo, podran ejercer un
efecto saludable sobre la salud de sus consumidores.
262