Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Physical activity tracking and exercise motivation

Physical activity tracking and motivation:
What role can physical activity tracking play in exercise motivation?

Multimedia presentation (3 min)

Overview

Case study

Figure 1. Sofia engaging in exercise using a smart watch as a physical activity tracker (Beavis, 2015)

Scenario

Sofia is a busy university student who wants to adopt a healthier lifestyle through physical activity (see Figure 1). However, Sofia has had difficulty with being motivated due to her busy schedule and irregular routine. Recently, Sofia purchased a smartwatch to monitor her daily steps and physical activity by goal setting and tracking her progress. Throughout the day, the smartwatch sends her notifications which provide real time feedback through virtual rewards and reminders to stay active, keeping Sofia excited and engaged. Receiving positive reinforcement and tangible evidence of her progress through physical activity tracking, Sofia is motivated to continue incorporating physical activity into her daily routine.

Physical activity tracking has been demonstrated to enhance exercise motivation by providing continuous feedback that makes progress both visible and rewarding (Lewis et al., 2020). Activity trackers allow users to set and achieve specific fitness goals, thereby fostering motivation through tangible evidence of their exercise efforts (Lewis et al., 2020). Activity tracking tools keep individuals engaged by reinforcing commitment to exercise routines (Lewis et al., 2020).

The concept of the quantified-self/self-tracking can be beneficial when motivating individuals to exercise (Lewis et al., 2020; Fox & Felkey, 2016). There are many psychological theories that encompass exercise motivation, and these theories can assist individuals in understanding what types of motivation initiate the behaviour, accounting for an individual's unique characteristics.

This chapter identifies the role physical activity tracking can play in exercise motivation and explores the associated phycological theories and practical applications.

Key points

• Visibility of progress through the activity trackers
• Goal-setting and achievement
• Psychological theories of motivation
• Adjustments to cater for personality and individual characteristics

Focus questions What is physical activity tracking and exercise motivation? How can psychological and sociocultral theories be integrated with physical activity tracking and exercise motivation? Can physical acitivty tracking increase motivation and overall engagement with physical activity?

Introduction to physical activity

Physical activity can be defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure with intensity levels ranging from light, moderate and vigorous (WHO, 2024). These movements can be demonstrated in various forms, including occupational, sports, conditioning, household or other activities (Caspersen & Powell, 1985).

Figure 2. A group participating in physical activity through a running club in Australia (Storrie, 2024)

The Australian Government Department of Health recommends adult individuals to partake in moderate level physical activity at least 2-5 hours weekly (WHO, 2024). These recommendations serve as a framework for individuals to enhance their health and wellbeing. Participation in regular physical activity offers a wide range of benefits in various aspects of health (WHO, 2024; Warburton et al., 2006). Physical activity has been shown to assist with sleep, improve various psychiatric disorders and is overall associated with better mood and improved quality of life (Mahindru et al., 2023; Warburton et al., 2006). Promoting and encouraging consistent physical activity is paramount to ensure individuals are aware of the health benefits for both physical and mental wellbeing (Mahindru et al., 2023).

Quantified self

The quantified self refers to the practice of an individual using monitoring devices and apps to acquire self-recorded data to track and analyse (Fox & Felkey, 2016). The quantified self is a cultural phenomenon of self-tracking with technology (Feng & Mäntymäki, 2020).

Figure 3. Example of the physcial activity tracking mobile applicaiton, Strava (Hall, 2023)

Physical activity tracking

Physical activity tracking is typically conducted through a device that offers an activity tracker element (see Figure 3). There is a range of wearable technologies available, predominately in the form of wristbands (Boland et al., 2019). These physical activity trackers can assist in measuring personal metrics associated with fitness (e.g., heart rate, steps walked, etc.) (Boland et al., 2019). Activity trackers have been found to improve health risks and serve as a motivation tool to increase physical activity levels (Pelletier & Gagnon, 2021; Jin & Halvari, 2020).

Examples of physical activity trackers

• Smartwatches (e.g., Apple Watch, Garmin, Fitbit)
• Mobile device (e.g., phone)
• Mobile device applications (e.g., Strava, Lifesum, MyFitnessPal)

Key points

• Physical activity is any movement that expends energy, varying in intensity from light to vigorous.
• It is recommended that adults exercise for 2 to 5 hours of moderate physical activity weekly.
• Regular physical activity enhances mental health by improving sleep, mood, and overall quality of life.
• Wearable devices and mobile applications help individuals track fitness metrics, promoting consistent activity.

Introduction to exercise motivation

What is motivation?

Motivation is the internal state which drives an individual to engage in a particular goal-directed behaviour (Cofer & Petri, 2018). Similarly, exercise motivation refers to the internal and external factors that drive an individual to participate and engage with regular physical activity (Teixeira & Carraça, 2012). Studying motivational forces can assist in explaining observed changes in behaviour within an individual (Cofer & Petri, 2018). Exploring these motivational factors is crucial for understanding the complexities of human behaviour, as they identify why individuals may change their actions in regard to the situation or environment (Cofer & Petri, 2018). Various types of motivation can influence an individual to engage in the same behaviour, and these distinctions are important for tailoring approaches that can promote consistent engagement in activities such as physical activity (Cofer & Petri, 2018).

Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is driven by internal rewards, such as personal satisfaction or enjoyment from the activity or behaviour itself (Morris & Grehl, 2022). In contrast, extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards and pressures such as praise, rewards (e.g., cash prize) or avoiding negative consequences (Morris & Grehl, 2022). Both strive to maximise goal attainment and minimise punishment (Morris & Grehl, 2022). However, intrinsic motivation tends to be advantageous as it allows individuals to perform at their best and is not reliant on reinforcement or punishment (Morris & Grehl, 2022).

Extrinsic motivation scenario

Individual characteristics associated with motivation

Motivation is derived from innate abilities that are influenced by personality traits and individual differences (Muntean, 2022). The Big Five personality framework is a hierarchical organisation of personality traits in terms of five dimensions (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience) (McCrae & John, 1992; Muntean, 2022). Research has identified that conscientiousness, openness, and extraversion to be positively correlated with intrinsic motivation. In contrast, extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism are positively correlated with extrinsic motivation (Hart & Stasson, 2007). However, overall, neuroticism and consceientiousness have been highlighted as the strongest and most consistent associations to performance motivation (Ilies, 2002). Therefore, individuals who possess these traits may have higher likelihood of engaging in physcial activity due to increase motivation (McCrae & John, 1992; Muntean, 2022).

Test your knowledge! 1 Intrinsic motivation tends to foster long-term commitment. Is this statement true of false? True False 2 Receiving praise from peers is an example of intrinsic motivation. Is this statement true or false? True False

Integration of psychological perspectives

Individuals can have different motivations for performing the same behaviour due to inviducal characteristics. These can be explained through psychological theories.

Self-determination theory

The self-determination theory (SDT) (Ryan & Deci, 1977) is based on a macro theory of human motivation and personality regarding individuals innate growth tendencies and psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2012). This theory pertains to the motivation behind individuals' choices and behaviours in the absence of external influences (Deci & Ryan, 2012; Trigueros et al., 2019). The theory suggests that individuals have innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (see Figure 4) (Deci & Ryan, 2012; Trigueros et al., 2019). When these needs are satisfied, individuals are more likely to experience greater motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2012). These aspects of the SDT can be applied to physical activity tracking and exercise motivation. By addressing these needs, physical activity tracking can become a more effective tool for encouraging sustained engagement and enjoyment in exercise (Trigueros et al., 2019).

Figure 4. A diagram of the components within the self-determination theory (Ackerman, 2018)

Autonomy: Allowing individuals to set their own physical activity goals and choose their preferred exercises can increase their sense of control and ownership over their exercise routines. Personalised tracking options empower users to make their own decisions that align with their interests.

Competence: Physical activity trackers can provide feedback on progress (e.g., step counts), which helps users feel a sense of competence. Acknowledging exercise milestones, and seeing improvements can reinforce their abilities, encouraging continued efforts.

Relatedness: Incorporating social features (e.g., sharing progress with friends), fosters a sense of community. Feeling connected to others who share similar physical activity goals can enhance motivation and commitment to physcial activity participation.

Current and future research

Individuals tend to be more satisfied and successful when pursuing goals in their own way (e.g., self-tracking), rather than external systems of regulation (Ackerman, 2018; Deci & Ryan, 2012). The SDT confirms the association between success and autonomy, supporting the idea that intrinsic rewards are typically linked to higher satisfaction and self-actualisation when pursued autonomously in comparison to extrinsic rewards (Ackerman, 2018; Deci & Ryan, 2012). Individuals who are autonomousely motivated are more likely to adhere to exercise and enter the state of flow, typically displaying a higher perceived competence and overall psychological wellbeing (Ackerman, 2018). However, the SDT does not account for the external factors (e.g., social and cultural influences), therefore is not applicable where these external factors come into play (Trigueros et al., 2019). Future research could explore the integration of the SDT with other psycholigcal theories that account for external factors (e.g., the hierarchical model of motivation) to enhance the application.

Hierarchical model of motivation

Figure 5. A diagram of Maslow's hierarchical model of motivation pyramid Pyramid (McLeod, 2024)

Maslow's hierarchical model of motivation (HMM) suggests human emotion is driven by a progression theory five levels of needs, often represented in a pyramid (see Figure 5) (Gråstén & Watt, 2017). Maslow's pyramid is arranged in a hierarchy, from physiological (survival) needs to intellectually oriented 'self-actualisation' needs (see Figure 5) (Gråstén & Watt, 2017).

Social factors are positively associated with the basic psychological needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) and both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Gråstén & Watt, 2017). Intrisic motivation is positively related to the contextual consequences including cognitive, affective and behavioural (Gråstén & Watt, 2017).

These levels can be applicable within the areas of physcial activity tracking and exercise motiavtion (see Table 1). Through addressing the heirarchial needs, physical activity tracking encourage invidiuals to not only engage in physical activity, but also find deeper fulfillment and motiviation within their exercise journey.

Table 1. Application of the HMM towards physical activity tracking and exercise motivation.

Level	Explanation
Physiological needs	Physical activity tracking can help individuals monitor their physical health, ensuring they meet their foundational needs through consistant exercise.
Safety needs	Through physical activity tracking, users can access their health risks and set goals for maintaining a healthy lifestyle. This contributres to a sense of safety regarding their physical wellbeing.
Love and belonging	Physical activity trackers that allow users to connect with friends, share achievements, and particiapte in community challenges (e.g., Strava), can assist in fulling the need for relatedness, which fosters a supportive environement.
Esteem needs	Achieving physical activity goals, receiving rewards for progress, and sharing acomplishments can boost users' confidence and self-esteem, enhancing their extrinsic motivation to continue with their physical activity journey.
Self-actualisation	For individuals who are passionate about fitness, physical activity tracking can help users explore new challanges to push themselves and reach their highest potential in the areas of health and wellbeing.

Current and future research

The HMM can be applied to physical activity tracking and exercise motivation within a range of scenarios. The framework is able to adapt to individual differences in regard to specific needs, increasing the applicability of the theory (Gråstén & Watt, 2017). This is particularly important with this application, as individual's will have their own needs concerning health and capabilities (Gråstén & Watt, 2017). However, the framework assumes that these needs are satisfied in a linear progression which does not account for realistic situations where there are changes in motivation (e.g., extrinsic factors) (Gråstén & Watt, 2017). Future research could delve deeper into individual differences to work towards tailored interventions for those with different needs. Further, a more dynamic motivation framework by expaning the HMM could be investigated, and interventions of tracking systems that can adapt to changing motivations.

Goal-setting theory

Figure 6. A smart watch being used as a physical activity tracker (Handley, 2024).

The goal-setting theory developed by Locke (1968) is the motivational explanation of how goals influence behaviour such as goal difficulty, specificity, discrepancy (feedback), commitment and achievement (Pervaiz et al., 2021). This theory proposes that setting appropriate goals can enable individuals to acheive goals and increase motivation (Pervaiz et al., 2021). Participation and feedback regarding the completion of goals is a primary element as it allows individuals to percieve a sense of reinforcement and recognition (Pervaiz et al., 2021) (see Figure 6). Achievement through the set goals, allows needs to be transformed into intrinsic motivation toward the behaviour (Pervaiz et al., 2021).

This psychological theory of goal-setting is appliable within the areas of physical activity tracking and exercise motivation (see Table 2).

Table 2. Case study example of the goal-setting theory and physical activity tracking

Component	Explanation
Clarity	Sofia sets a specific goal on her physical activity tracker to walk 10,000 steps per day instead of setting a broad goal of being more active.
Challenge	To challange herself, Sara decides to add an extra 1,000 steps to her daily goal each week for a month to push her limits.
Commitment	Sofia commits to her activity goal by sharing her goals and progress on social media, creating a sense of accountability.
Feedback	Sofia uses her physical activity tracker on her watch which provides feedback regarding her progress and reminders to stay consistent.
Task complexity	To make her goals manageable, Sofia breaks down the goal into tasks throughout the day (e.g., before work, Sofia sets a goal to reach 3,000 steps).

Current and future research

Current research has identified that difficult and challenging goals are suggested to lead to a significantly higher performance in comparison to easily achievable goals and no set goals (Pervaiz et al., 2021). Further, goal commitment and consistency leads to higher performance and increased sustainability for long term efforts (Pervaiz et al., 2021). The emphasis on feedback encourages intrinsic motivation through highlighting social and psychological dynamics (Pervaiz et al., 2021). However, the theory may overlook personality and individual differences in response to goal-setting, risk prioritising quantitiy over quality, and not sufficiantly acknowledging the long-term sustainability (Pervaiz et al., 2021). Future research using this theory could investigate broader variables and the influence these have on exercise motivation. This may include exploring individual differences (e.g., personality), demographic factors (e.g., age), long-term sustainment of goal-setting (e.g., burnout), and quality vs quantiy of goals (Pervaiz et al., 2021).

Key points

• Psychological theories can be integrated to help understand how self-tracking influences exercise motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation is an important factor for physical activity tracking and exercise motivation.
• Addressing the underlying components of physical activity tracking can deepen fulfilment and motivation throughout exercise journeys.

Sociocultural perspectives

The health belief model (HBM) developed by Becker (1974) is a social psychological theory which posits that individuals will be more likely to take preventative actions if they perceive the threat of a health risk to be serious (Sutton et al., 2001). The model possess four key elements, that is, perceived susceptibility and severity and the perceived benefits and barriers (Sutton et al., 2001). The model assumes that human behaviours are guided by expectations of the consequences of adopting new practices in relation to health (Sutton et al., 2001). The HBM can assist with the understanding of physical activity tracking and exercise motivation as it is applicable for health risks and benefits that are highlighted within a self tracker element (e.g., heart rate). Individuals who recognise a perceived risk and severity through physical activity tracking may pursue alternative strategies to enhance their health and well-being whilst preventing potential health issues.

Test your knowledge! 1 In the goal-setting theory, which goal type is suggested to lead to a significantly higher performance? Difficult and challenging goals Simple and achievable goals No set goals 2 Which three factors does the Self-determination Theory (SDT) of motivation focus on? Neuroticism, extraversion, and agreeableness Autonomy, competence, and relatedness Attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control

Conclusion

The integration of physical activity tracking plays a crucial role in enhancing exercise motivation (Pelletier & Gagnon, 2021). Physical activity trackers are able to provide continuous feedback, tangible evidence of results and progress, facilitate goal-setting, and offer virtual rewards (Pelletier & Gagnon, 2021). Psychological theories such as the SDT, HMM, goal-setting theory, and the HBM can assist with understanding and improving motivation (Ackerman, 2018; Gråstén & Watt, 2017; Pervaiz et al., 2021; Sutton et al., 2001). These theories address the primary innate underlying psychological needs, such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Trigueros et al., 2019). Physical activity tracking primarily assists with intrinsic motivation, but can also increase extrinsic motivation through various features (Pelletier & Gagnon, 2021). Future research should explore the evolving landscapes of physical activity tracking and exercise motivation, as this emerging field presents unique opportunities to understand how technology can enhance personal engagement, autonomy, and sustained adherence to exercise. Particularly examining differences between individuals in terms of personality and characteristics is recommended. This holistic approach to increasing physical activity not only promotes physical fitness but also contributes to overall psychological well-being (Lewis et al., 2020; Pelletier & Gagnon, 2021). The combination of self-tracking tools and psychological insights offers a robust framework for enhancing exercise motivation, enabling individuals to overcome barriers and maintain an active lifestyle (Lewis et al., 2020; Pelletier & Gagnon, 2021).

Take away points

• Physical activity trackers serve as a useful tool to improve exercise motivation, by providing continuous feedback, enabling goal-setting features, and offering virtual rewards.
• Physical activity trackers address the innate needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, fostering intrinsic motivation and sustained engagement.
• By assisting users with setting clear, manageable objectives, physical activity trackers not only increase exercise motivation, but also improve overall wellbeing.

See also

Physical activity tracking and exercise motivation (Book Chapter, 2023)

Self-tracking and motivation (Book Chapter, 2013)

Physical activity (Wikipedia)

Activity tracker (Wikipedia)

References

Ackerman, C. (2018, June 21). Self Determination Theory and How It Explains Motivation. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-theory/#hero-single

Boland, M. (2019). Modern Technologies and Energy Expenditure (Exercise). Www.sciencedirect.com. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/activity-tracker

Caspersen, C. J., & Powell, K. E. (1985). Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100(2), 126–131.

Cofer, C. N., & Petri, H. L. (2018). Motivation | behaviour. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/motivation

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2011-21800-020

Feng, S., & Mäntymäki, M. (2020). How Self-tracking and the Quantified Self Promote Health and Well-being: A Systematic Literature Review (Preprint). Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(9). https://doi.org/10.2196/25171

Fox, B. I., & Felkey, B. G. (2016). The Quantified Self. Hospital Pharmacy, 51(2), 189–190. https://doi.org/10.1310/hpj5102-189

Gråstén, A., & Watt, A. (2017). A Motivational Model of Physical Education and Links to Enjoyment, Knowledge, Performance, Total Physical Activity and Body Mass Index. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 16(3), 318–327. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5592282/

Hart, J., & Stasson, M. (2007). The Big Five and Achievement Motivation: Exploring the Relationship Between Personality and a Two-Factor Model of Motivation. Individual Differences Research, 5(4), 267–274.

Ilies, T. (2002). Relationship of personality to performance motivation: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology , 87(4), 797–807. https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2002-15406-016

Jin, D., & Halvari, H. (2020). Self-tracking behaviour in physical activity: a systematic review of drivers and outcomes of fitness tracking. Behaviour & Information Technology, 41(2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x.2020.1801840

Lewis, Z. H. (2020). The utility of wearable fitness trackers and implications for increased engagement: An exploratory, mixed methods observational study. DIGITAL HEALTH, 6(6), 205520761990005. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055207619900059

Mahindru, A., Patil, P., & Agrawal, V. (2023). Role of Physical Activity on Mental Health and Well-Being: a Review. Cureus, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.33475

McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60(2), 175–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x

Morris, L. S., & Grehl, M. M. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. Psychological Medicine, 52(10), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611

Muntean, L. M. (2022). The Relationship between Personality, Motivation and Academic Performance at Medical Students from Romania. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 8993. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19158993

Pelletier, C., & Gagnon, M.-P. (2021). Using an activity tracker to increase motivation for physical activity in patients with type 2 diabetes in primary care: a randomized pilot trial. MHealth, 0. https://doi.org/10.21037/mhealth-20-154

Pervaiz, S. (2021). The Mechanism of goal-setting Participation’s Impact on Employees’ Proactive behavior, Moderated Mediation Role of Power Distance. PLOS ONE, 16(12), 1–20. NCBI. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260625

Sutton, S. (2001, January 1). Health Behavior: Psychosocial Theories (N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes, Eds.). ScienceDirect; Pergamon. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B0080430767038729

Teixeira, P. J., & Carraça, E. V. (2012). Exercise, Physical activity, and self-determination theory: a Systematic Review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 78. BMC. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78

Trigueros, R. (2019). The Dark Side of the Self-Determination Theory and Its Influence on the Emotional and Cognitive Processes of Students in Physical Education. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(22), 4444. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224444

Warburton, D. E. R., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. D. (2006). Health Benefits of Physical activity: the Evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174(6), 801–809. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.051351

External links

• Apple is going to make the world’s best running watch(Beavis, 2015)
• Exercise Navigation (Handley, 2021)
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (McLeod, 2024).
• Physical activity (World Health Organization (WHO), 2024)
• Physical activity and exercise guidelines for all Australians (Australian Government, Department of Health, 2021)
• The Best Run Clubs in Sydney to Join Today (Storrie, 2024)
• Walking: Make it count with activity trackers (Mayo Clinic, 2024)
• What is Strava, how does it work and is it worth paying for? (Hall, 2021)
• Why some people find exercise harder than others (Tedx, 2014)