Effects of climate change on mental health
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Sydney_bushfire_smoke_on_George_St_%2849197319478%29.jpg/220px-Sydney_bushfire_smoke_on_George_St_%2849197319478%29.jpg)
The effects of climate change on mental health and wellbeing are being documented as the consequences of climate change become more tangible and impactful. This is especially the case for vulnerable populations and those with pre-existing serious mental illness.[1] There are three broad pathways by which these effects can take place: directly, indirectly or via awareness.[2] The direct pathway includes stress-related conditions caused by exposure to extreme weather events. These include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Scientific studies have linked mental health to several climate-related exposures. These include heat, humidity, rainfall, drought, wildfires and floods.[3] The indirect pathway can be disruption to economic and social activities. An example is when an area of farmland is less able to produce food.[3] The third pathway can be of mere awareness of the climate change threat, even by individuals who are not otherwise affected by it.[2] This especially manifests in the form of anxiety over the quality of life for future generations.[4]
An additional aspect to consider is the detrimental impact climate change can have on green or blue natural spaces, which have been proven to have beneficial impact on mental health.[5][6] Impacts of anthropogenic climate change, such as freshwater pollution or deforestation, degrade these landscapes and reduce public access to them.[7] Even when the green and blue spaces are intact, their accessibility is not equal across society, which is an issue of environmental justice and economic inequality.[8]
Mental health outcomes have been measured by several different indicators. These include psychiatric hospital admissions, mortality, self-harm and suicide rates. People with pre-existing mental illness, Indigenous peoples, migrants and refugees, and children and adolescents are especially vulnerable. The emotional responses to the threat of climate change can include eco-anxiety, ecological grief and eco-anger.[9][10] Such emotions can be rational responses to the degradation of the natural world and may lead to adaptive action.[11]
Assessing the exact mental health effects of climate change is difficult; increases in heat extremes pose risks to mental health which can manifest themselves in increased mental health-related hospital admissions and suicidality.[12]: 9
Pathways
[edit]Mental health is a state of well-being where an individual can recognize their abilities, handle daily stresses of life, productively work and be able to contribute to their community.[13]
There are three main causal pathways by which climate change impacts mental health: directly, indirectly or via awareness (or "psychosocial").[2] In some cases, people may be affected via more than one pathway at once.[14][15][1]
Various studies use different nomenclature to designate the three causal pathways. e.g. some designate the "awareness" pathway using the term "Indirect impact," while grouping "indirect effects" via financial and social disruption under "psychosocial".[1]
Impacts from direct pathway
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/20231129_Survey_-_I_expect_to_be_displaced_by_climate_change_-_Ipsos.svg/220px-20231129_Survey_-_I_expect_to_be_displaced_by_climate_change_-_Ipsos.svg.png)
The direct pathway includes stress-related conditions being caused by exposure to extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods and wildfires. These conditions can result in trauma-related events, such as dislocation from climate-change induced natural disasters, such as flooding or fire, losing friends and family, or other traumatic events. The effect of being exposed to such events can be increased mental health illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder, depression, and generalized anxiety disorder.[2][17] These effects often occur simultaneously, as well as individually.[18] A large amount of literature exists concerning the association between disasters and mental health (without explicitly linking an increase in frequency and severity to climate change).[3]
Most commonly this is short term stress, from which people can often soon make a rapid recovery. But sometimes chronic conditions set in, especially among those who have been exposed to multiple events, such as post traumatic stress, somatoform disorder or long term anxiety. A swift response by authorities to restore a sense of order and security can substantially reduce the risk of any long term psychological impact for most people. Though individuals who already had mental ill health, especially psychosis, can need intensive care, which can be challenging to deliver if local mental health services were disrupted by the extreme weather.[1][14][19]
Physical health can be severely impacted by climate change (see also effects of climate change on human health). The deterioration of a person's physical health can also lead to a deterioration in a person's mental health.[20]
The less extreme direct manifestations of climate change can also have direct psychological effects. The single most well studied linkage between weather and human behavior is that between temperature and aggression. Various reviews conclude that high temperatures cause people to become bad tempered, leading to increased physical violence.[1][21][22][23]
Increased temperatures and heatwaves
[edit]Several studies have shown that there is a correlation between elevated temperatures and psychiatric hospital admissions for a range of mental and neurological disorders (dementia, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, somatoform disorders, and disorders of psychological development).[3]
Mortality has also been found to be influenced by high ambient temperatures for people living with mental illness and neurological conditions.[3] Another European study supports this finding with increased mortality risk for people with psychiatric disorders during heat waves from 2000 to 2008 in Rome and Stockholm, particularly for older people (75+) and women.[3] Projections of mortality under different climate change scenarios in China also estimate increasing trends in heat-related excess mortality for mental disorders but a decreasing trend in cold-related excess mortality.[3]
Several studies from Asia found that fluctuating temperatures influenced mental health and well-being, impacting productivity and livelihoods. For example, long-term exposure to high and low temperatures in Taiwan resulted in a 7% increase of major depressive disorder incidence per 1 °C increment in regions with an average annual temperature above the median 23 °C.[3]
Suicide rates
[edit]Temperature has also been associated with self-harm and suicide rates.[3] Using data from the US and Mexico, suicide rates were found to increase by 0.7% and 3.1%, respectively, for a 1 °C increase in monthly average temperature.[3] Increasing temperatures are associated with increases in aggressive behavior and rising crime rates, leading to increases in homicides and assaults, as well as increased suicide rates in young men and older adults.[24] Higher ambient temperatures are also associated with emergency department visits for mental health, suicides, and self-reporting of poor mental health.[25]
It is projected that in the coming decades, suicide rates in the United States and Mexico will increase due to increasing ambient temperatures.[3] Assuming that there is no reduction in the current rate of greenhouse gas emissions, it is projected that by 2050, there will be an additional 9,000 to 40,000 suicides in the United States and Mexico, which is a rate comparable to the one estimated after the impact of economic recessions, suicide prevention programs, and gun restriction laws.[3] The study also showed an increase in depressive language and suicidal ideation used on social media posts correlated with an increase in temperatures.[3] In India, higher temperatures during growing seasons for crops have also been associated with increased suicides, at a rate of an additional 67 deaths per year per 1 °C additional degree.[26]
Wildfires
[edit]Studies from North America have shown that experiences of evacuation and isolation due to wildfires, as well as feelings of fear, stress, and uncertainty, contributed to acute and long-term negative impacts on mental and emotional well-being. Prolonged smoke events were linked to respiratory problems, extended time indoors, and disruptions to livelihood and land-based activities, which negatively affected mental well-being.[3] Similar findings were reported in an Australian study, with increased rates of stress, depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder being correlated with bushfire exposure severity.[27]
Floods
[edit]An Australian study in rural communities concluded that the threat of drought and flood are intertwined and contributed to decreased well-being from stress, anxiety, loss, and fear.[3] A cohort study from the UK looking at the long-term impact of flooding found psychological morbidity persisted for at least three years after the flooding event.[3]
Increased carbon dioxide concentrations
[edit]Drivers of climate change may also have a physiological effects on the brain, in addition to their psychological impacts. By the end of the 21st century people could be exposed to indoor CO2 levels of up to 1400 ppm, triple the amount commonly experienced outdoors today. This may cut humans' basic decision-making ability indoors by ~25% and complex strategic thinking by ~50% due to carbon dioxide toxicity.[28][29][30]
Impacts from indirect pathway
[edit]Climate change can affect wellbeing and mental health also through indirect consequences, such as "loss of land, flight and migration, exposure to violence, change of social, ecological, economic or cultural environment".[17] Indirect effects on mental health can also occur via impacts on physical health. Physical health and mental health have a reciprocal relationship, so any climate change related effect that affects physical health can potentially indirectly affect mental health too.[31]
In several parts of the world, climate change significantly impacts people's financial income, for example, by reducing agricultural output. This can cause significant stress, which in turn can lead to depression, suicidal ideation, and other negative psychological conditions. Consequences can be especially severe if financial stress is coupled with significant disruption to social life, such as relocation to camps.[32] Effective government interventions, similar to those used to relief the stress from a financial crisis, can alleviate the negative conditions caused by such disruption.[1][33]
Having to migrate due to an extreme weather event or conflict exacerbated by climate change can lead to increased rates of physical illnesses and psychological distress.[34][9]
Impacts from increasing awareness pathway
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/202303_I_worry_%22a_great_deal%22_about_climate_change_-_Gallup_survey.svg/220px-202303_I_worry_%22a_great_deal%22_about_climate_change_-_Gallup_survey.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ice_Watch_%2837898431101%29.jpg/220px-Ice_Watch_%2837898431101%29.jpg)
The third pathway can be of mere awareness of the climate change threat, even by individuals who have not personally experienced any direct negative impacts.[37] This can cause psychological distress, anxiety (eco-anxiety), and grief (eco-grief).[37][38]
The increasing "awareness of the existential dimension of climate change" can influence people's wellbeing or challenge their mental health, especially for children and adolescents.[17] Awareness for climate change in young people has grown in Europe, as evidenced by the “Fridays for Future” movement that started in summer 2018.[17] This can lead to higher emotional distress amongst young people, as well as feelings of fear, sadness, and anger, apocalyptic and pessimistic feelings – which can lead to grief, anxiety and hopelessness – all factors which can impact people's mental health.[17] This effect has been compared to nuclear anxiety which occurred during the Cold War.
Conditions such as eco-anxiety are very rarely severe enough to require clinical treatment. While unpleasant and thus classified as negative, such conditions have been described as valid rational responses to the reality of climate change.[1][39]
Types of mental health outcomes
[edit]There are a multitude of mental illnesses that affect everyone differently. The types of mental health outcomes that are related to the effects of climate change (for example during heat waves) can be grouped as follows:
- Clinical disorders
- Trauma related disorders
- Depression
- Anxiety
- Self-harm and suicide
- Sub-clinical conditions
- Environmental and climate specific constructs
- Climate anxiety (eco-anxiety)
- Solastalgia
- Psychiatric-related hopitalisations and deaths (admissions for mental and neurological disorders, including dementia, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, somatoform disorders, and disorders of psychological development)
- Exacerbation of pre-existing mental illness
- Potential neurodevelopmental impacts
Vulnerable populations and life stages
[edit]Climate change does not impact everyone equally; those of lower economic and social status are at greater risk and experience more devastating impacts.[1]
People with pre-existing mental illness
[edit]Higher temperatures can affect people taking certain psychotropic medications (including hypnotics, anxiolytics, and antipsychotics).[3] They can have an increased risk of heatstroke and death as a result of high temperatures.[3]
Indigenous peoples
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Inuit.jpeg/220px-Inuit.jpeg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/2007_Snow-Hill-Island_Luyten-De-Hauwere-Sea-Ice-06.jpg/220px-2007_Snow-Hill-Island_Luyten-De-Hauwere-Sea-Ice-06.jpg)
Inuit communities
[edit]Qualitative studies reporting the unique mental health impacts of climate change on Inuit communities in Canada have described a loss of place-based solace, land-based activities such as hunting, and cultural identity due to changing weather and local landscapes.[3]
Climate change has devastating effects on Indigenous peoples' psychological wellbeing as it impacts them directly and indirectly. As their lifestyles are often closely linked to the land, climate change directly impacts their physical health and financial stability in quantifiable ways. There is also a concerning correlation between severe mental health issues among Indigenous peoples worldwide and environmental changes.[41] The connection and value Indigenous cultures ascribe to land means that damage to or separation from it, directly impacts mental health. For many, their country is interwoven with psychological aspects such as their identity, community and rituals.[41]
Inadequate government responses which neglect Indigenous knowledge further worsen negative psychological effects linked to climate change. This produces the risk of cultural homogenization due to global adaptation efforts to climate change and the disruption of cultural traditions due to forced relocation.[41][42] Countries with lower socio-economic status and minority groups in high socio-economic areas are disproportionately affected by the climate crisis. This has created climate migrants due to worsening environmental conditions and catastrophic climate events.[43]
Changes in sea levels and ice formation cause great impacts in Indigenous communities. The changes can lead to shifts in emotions such as anger, fear, anxiety, a sense of loss, etc.; as well as to changes in behavior such as withdrawal, aggression, and increased substance use. A sense of loss due to the changes in traditional weather prediction and navigation techniques has been observed, especially among younger generations where it results in feelings of cultural dislocation and dissociation as well as changes in identity.[44] Climate change is likely to continue affecting Indigenous communities and their mental health for the next decades. Another study indicated that the cumulative effect of repeated exposure to climate change events and related stressors would be likely to lead to some form of mental illness. The effect of climate change on Inuit youth has also been studied, with concern for Elders, reduced connection to the land, challenges to cultural activities, among other things having an effect on mental health on youth.[45]
Indigenous peoples of Australia
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Watarru_Community.jpg/220px-Watarru_Community.jpg)
Studies conducted with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples from Australia also highlight the environmental impacts of climate change on emotional wellbeing, including increased community distress from deteriorating the connection to country.[3] Heat also appeared to be associated with suicide incidence in Australia's Indigenous populations; however, other socio-demographic factors may play a more critical role than meteorological factors.[3]
Children
[edit]Climate change is a serious threat to children and adolescent mental health.[17] Children's mental health, their rights, and climate change need to be seen as interlinked topics, not separate points.[17]
Children and young adults are the most vulnerable to climate change impacts.[46] Many of the climate change impacts which affect children's physical health also lead to psychological and mental health consequences.[46] Children who live in geographic locations that are most susceptible to the impacts of climate change, and/or with weaker infrastructure and fewer supports and services suffer the worst impacts.[46]
The impacts of climate change on children include them being at a high risk of mental health consequences like PTSD, depression, anxiety, phobias, sleep disorders, attachment disorders, and substance abuse.[46] These conditions can lead to problems with emotion regulation, cognition, learning, behavior, language development, and academic performance.[46]
Adolescents
[edit]Lack of political advocacy and change, with an increase in media attention, has brought upon ecological grief, which has had particular impacts on adolescent mental health. Climate change affects adolescents differently and in a multitude of ways. Many of these ways intersect as each adolescent processes their trauma and distress. Adolescents with pre-existing mental illnesses experience an elevated risk of ecological grief and distress.[47]
While these feelings are not directly harmful to the adolescent's physical health and conditions, they are unpleasant and a rising issue. Ecological grief, distress, anxiety, and anger are the most popular emotions sparked among adolescents. Psychologists, specifically climate psychologists, are experiencing difficulties in originating the source of these emotions, and methods to aid those in need and prevent those not as affected.[48]
Being forced to move, or displacement is becoming more common as the climate crisis rises. Forced displacement may be caused by natural disasters, reduction of food or food security, famine, water scarcity, or other environmental impacts.[49] This displacement alone evokes feelings of grief and loss by being forced to move from a place of comfort to someplace unknown. Reduction of food, famine and water scarcity will indirectly impact an adolescent's health by invoking fear and anxiety, as well as grief and loss.
For adolescents, relationships are important. Displacements can put strains on an adolescent's social relationships, as well as prevent them from further developing their social skills and relationships. Community conflict can also indirectly impact an adolescent's mental health. The community may experience conflicting views on how to approach climate change, climate change methods, and climate change awareness. Surrounded by negative emotions and situations can heavily weigh on a developing adolescent. They may not want to personally experience this conflict with others and pull back from social interactions. They may possess different ideas, but struggle to get someone to listen due to their age. Feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and fear become prevalent.[20]
Environmental and climate-specific constructs
[edit]Climate anxiety (eco-anxiety)
[edit]Eco-grief
[edit]It was among the strongest feelings of grief I have ever encountered. The contrast between the vicious coldness of space and the warm nurturing of Earth below filled me with overwhelming sadness. Every day, we are confronted with the knowledge of further destruction of Earth at our hands: the extinction of animal species, of flora and fauna... things that took five billion years to evolve, and suddenly we will never see them again because of the interference of mankind. It filled me with dread. My trip to space was supposed to be a celebration; instead, it felt like a funeral.
— William Shatner in his Boldly Go autobiography[55]
Solastalgia
[edit]Co-benefits
[edit]While most study on the psychological impact of climate change finds negative effects, there may be some positive impacts via direct or indirect pathways.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Anya_Dillard_Leads_West_Orange_High_Climate_Strike.jpg/220px-Anya_Dillard_Leads_West_Orange_High_Climate_Strike.jpg)
Climate activism
[edit]Direct experience of the negative impacts of climate change may also lead to personal changes that can be seen as positive. Direct experiences of environmental events such as flooding have resulted in greater psychological salience and concern for climate change, which in turn predicts intentions, behaviors. and policy support for climate change.[11][64][65]
At a personal level, emotions like worry and anxiety are a normal, if uncomfortable, part of life. They can be seen as part of a defense system that identifies threats and deals with them. From this perspective, anxiety can be useful in motivating people to seek information and take action on a problem.[66][11][67] Anxiety and worry are more likely to be associated with engagement when people feel that they can do things. Feelings of agency can be strengthened by including people in participatory decision-making. Problem-focused and meaning-focused coping skills can also be promoted. Problem-focused coping involves information gathering and trying to find out what you personally can do. Meaning-focused coping involves behaviors such as identifying positive information, focusing on constructive sources of hope, and trusting that other people are also doing their part.[66][11] A sense of agency, coping skills, and social support are all important in building general resilience.[68][69][70] Education may benefit from a focus around emotional awareness and the development of sustainable emotion-regulation strategies.[71]
For some individuals, the increased engagement caused by the shared struggle against climate change reduces social isolation and loneliness.[72] At a community level, learning about the science of climate change and taking collective action in response to the threat, can increase altruism and social cohesion, strengthen social bonds, and improve resilience. Such positive social impact is generally associated only with communities that had somewhat high social cohesion in the first place, prompting community leaders to act to improve social resiliency before climate-related disruption becomes too severe.[33][1][73]
Mitigation and adaptation efforts
[edit]There are potential mental health benefits of mitigation actions taken by individuals, such as active transport, increased physical activity, and healthier diets.[74]
Healthy living has been associated with improved mental health and overall well-being, supported by research on factors such as exercise, nutrition, sleep, stress management, and social connections.[75]
History
[edit]Early investigation of the mental health impacts for climate change began in the 20th century, and became more topical in the 21st century.[33]
See also
[edit]- Barriers to pro-environmental behaviour
- Climate psychology
- Effects of climate change on human health
- Politics of climate change
- Psychological impact of climate change
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i Doherty S, Clayton TJ (2011). "The psychological impacts of global climate change". American Psychologist. 66 (4): 265–276. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.8333. doi:10.1037/a0023141. PMID 21553952.
- ^ a b c d Berry H, Kathryn B, Kjellstrom T (2009). "Climate change and mental health: a causal pathways framework". International Journal of Public Health. 55 (2): 123–132. doi:10.1007/s00038-009-0112-0. PMID 20033251. S2CID 22561555.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Charlson F, Ali S, Benmarhnia T, Pearl M, Massazza A, Augustinavicius J, et al. (2021). "Climate Change and Mental Health: A Scoping Review". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (9): 4486. doi:10.3390/ijerph18094486. PMC 8122895. PMID 33922573.
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
- ^ Sakakibara C (2008-10-01). ""our Home is Drowning": IÑupiat Storytelling and Climate Change in Point Hope, Alaskalaska*". Geographical Review. 98 (4): 473. doi:10.1111/j.1931-0846.2008.tb00312.x. ISSN 0016-7428.
- ^ White M, Smith A, Humphryes K, Pahl S, Snelling D, Depledge M (2010-12-01). "Blue space: The importance of water for preference, affect, and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 30 (4): 482–493. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.04.004. ISSN 0272-4944.
- ^ Alcock I, White MP, Wheeler BW, Fleming LE, Depledge MH (2014-01-21). "Longitudinal Effects on Mental Health of Moving to Greener and Less Green Urban Areas". Environmental Science & Technology. 48 (2): 1247–1255. Bibcode:2014EnST...48.1247A. doi:10.1021/es403688w. hdl:10871/15080. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 24320055.
- ^ Cuijpers P, Miguel C, Ciharova M, Kumar M, Brander L, Kumar P, et al. (February 2023). "Impact of climate events, pollution, and green spaces on mental health: an umbrella review of meta-analyses". Psychological Medicine. 53 (3): 638–653. doi:10.1017/S0033291722003890. ISSN 0033-2917. PMC 9975983. PMID 36606450. S2CID 255467995.
- ^ Hoffimann E, Barros H, Ribeiro AI (August 2017). "Socioeconomic Inequalities in Green Space Quality and Accessibility—Evidence from a Southern European City". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 14 (8): 916. doi:10.3390/ijerph14080916. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC 5580619. PMID 28809798.
- ^ a b Vakoch DA, Mickey S, eds. (2023). Eco-Anxiety and Pandemic Distress: Psychological Perspectives on Resilience and Interconnectedness. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-762267-4.
- ^ Vakoch DA, Mickey S, eds. (2022). Eco-Anxiety and Planetary Hope: Experiencing the Twin Disasters of Covid-19 and Climate Change. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. ISBN 978-3-031-08430-0.
- ^ a b c d Ojala M, Cunsolo A, Ogunbode CA, Middleton J (18 October 2021). "Anxiety, Worry, and Grief in a Time of Environmental and Climate Crisis: A Narrative Review". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 46 (1): 35–58. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-022716. S2CID 236307729.
- ^ Romanello M, McGushin A, Di Napoli C, Drummond P, Hughes N, Jamart L, et al. (30 October 2021). "The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future" (PDF). The Lancet. 398 (10311): 1619–1662. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6. hdl:10278/3746207. PMID 34687662. S2CID 239046862.
- ^ "Mental health: strengthening our response". World Health Organization. August 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
- ^ a b Fritze JG, Blashki GA, Burke S, Wiseman J (2008). "Hope, despair and transformation: Climate change and the promotion of mental health and wellbeing". International Journal of Mental Health Systems. 2 (13): 13. doi:10.1186/1752-4458-2-13. PMC 2556310. PMID 18799005.
- ^ Hayes K, Blashki G, Wiseman J, Burke S, Reifels L (1 June 2018). "Climate change and mental health: risks, impacts and priority actions". International Journal of Mental Health Systems. 12 (1): 28. doi:10.1186/s13033-018-0210-6. PMC 5984805. PMID 29881451.
- ^ "Global Views on Climate Change" (PDF). Ipsos. November 2023. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 November 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g Clemens V, von Hirschhausen E, Fegert JM (2020). "Report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change: implications for the mental health policy of children and adolescents in Europe—a scoping review". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 31 (5): 701–713. doi:10.1007/s00787-020-01615-3. PMC 9142437. PMID 32845381. S2CID 221310354.
- ^ Young CA (2021). "42.1 the Impacts of Climate Change on Children's Mental Health". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 60 (10): S61–S62. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.07.263. S2CID 241755080.
- ^ World Health Organization. "Climate change and health". World Health Organization. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
- ^ a b Van Nieuwenhuizen A, Hudson K, Chen X, Hwong AR (2021). "The Effects of Climate Change on Child and Adolescent Mental Health: Clinical Considerations". Current Psychiatry Reports. 23 (12): 88. doi:10.1007/s11920-021-01296-y. PMID 34874507. S2CID 244910053.
- ^ Raj A (January 2021). "Feeling Hot Can Fuel Rage: Hotter weather sparks aggression and revolution". Scientific American. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
- ^ Hsiang SM, Burke M (2014). "Climate, conflict, and social stability: what does the evidence say?". Climatic Change. 123 (1): 39–35. Bibcode:2014ClCh..123...39H. doi:10.1007/s10584-013-0868-3.
- ^ Otrachshenko V, Popova O, Tavares J (2021). "Extreme Temperature and Extreme Violence: Evidence from Russia". Economic Inquiry. 59 (1): 243–262. doi:10.1111/ecin.12936. hdl:10419/266710.
- ^ Palinkas LA, Wong M (2020-04-01). "Global climate change and mental health". Current Opinion in Psychology. Socio-Ecological Psychology. 32: 12–16. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.023. PMID 31349129. S2CID 198673981.
- ^ Mullins JT, White C (2019-12-01). "Temperature and mental health: Evidence from the spectrum of mental health outcomes". Journal of Health Economics. 68: 102240. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.102240. hdl:10419/207428. PMID 31590065. S2CID 203925290.
- ^ Carleton TA (2017-08-15). "Crop-damaging temperatures increase suicide rates in India". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (33): 8746–8751. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.8746C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1701354114. PMC 5565417. PMID 28760983.
- ^ Heffernan T, Macleod E, Greenwood LM, Walker I, Lane J, Stanley S, et al. (December 2022). "Mental health, wellbeing and resilience after the 2019-20 bushfires: The Australian national bushfire health and wellbeing survey - A preliminary report". Research School of Psychology, ANU. doi:10.25911/AG7D-7574.
- ^ "Rising carbon dioxide levels will make us stupider". Nature. 580 (7805): 567. 20 April 2020. Bibcode:2020Natur.580Q.567.. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-01134-w. PMID 32317783. S2CID 216075495.
- ^ "Rising CO2 causes more than a climate crisis—it may directly harm our ability to think". phys.org. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
- ^ Karnauskas KB, Miller SL, Schapiro AC (2020). "Fossil Fuel Combustion Is Driving Indoor CO2 Toward Levels Harmful to Human Cognition". GeoHealth. 4 (5): e2019GH000237. doi:10.1029/2019GH000237. PMC 7229519. PMID 32426622.
- ^ Berry H, Kathryn B, Kjellstrom T (2010). "Climate change and mental health: a causal pathways framework" (PDF). International Journal of Public Health. 55 (2): 123–132. doi:10.1007/s00038-009-0112-0. PMID 20033251. S2CID 22561555.
- ^ McMichael A, Campbell-Lendrum D, Corvalán C, Ebi K, Githeko A, Scheraga J, et al. (2003). Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses (PDF) (Report). World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-156248-X.
- ^ a b c Tschakert P, Ellis N, Anderson C, Kelly A, Obeng J (2019). "One thousand ways to experience loss: A systematic analysis of climate-related intangible harm from around the world". Global Environmental Change. 55: 58–72. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.11.006. S2CID 159117696.
- ^ Padhy SK, Sarkar S, Panigrahi M, Paul S (January 2015). "Mental health effects of climate change". Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 19 (1): 3–7. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.156997. PMC 4446935. PMID 26023264.
- ^ Saad L (20 April 2023). "A Steady Six in 10 Say Global Warming's Effects Have Begun". Gallup, Inc. Archived from the original on 20 April 2023.
- ^ "As Economic Concerns Recede, Environmental Protection Rises on the Public's Policy Agenda / Partisan gap on dealing with climate change gets even wider". PewResearch.org. Pew Research Center. 13 February 2020. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. (Discontinuity resulted from survey changing in 2015 from reciting "global warming" to "climate change".)
- ^ a b Clayton S (1 August 2020). "Climate anxiety: Psychological responses to climate change". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 74: 102263. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102263. PMID 32623280. S2CID 220370112.
- ^ Cunsolo A, Harper SL, Minor K, Hayes K, Williams KG, Howard C (1 July 2020). "Ecological grief and anxiety: the start of a healthy response to climate change?". The Lancet Planetary Health. 4 (7): e261–e263. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30144-3. PMID 32681892.
- ^ Clayton S (2020). "Climate anxiety: Psychological responses to climate change". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 74: 102263. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102263. PMID 32623280. S2CID 220370112.
- ^ Vince G (12 January 2020). "How scientists are coping with 'ecological grief'". The Observer. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
- ^ a b c Middleton J, Cunsolo A, Jones-Bitton A, Wright CJ, Harper SL (2020). "Indigenous mental health in a changing climate: a systematic scoping review of the global literature". Environmental Research Letters. 15 (5): 053001. Bibcode:2020ERL....15e3001M. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab68a9.
- ^ Bowles DC (2015). "Climate Change and Health Adaptation: Consequences for Indigenous Physical and Mental Health". Annals of Global Health. 81 (3): 427–431. doi:10.1016/j.aogh.2015.06.004. PMID 26615078.
- ^ Mena C, Artz M, Llanten C (2020). "Climate change and global health: a medical anthropology perspective". Perspectives in Public Health. 140 (4): 196–197. doi:10.1177/1757913919897943. PMID 32640918. S2CID 220437684.
- ^ Cunsolo Willox A, Stephenson E, Allen J, Bourque F, Drossos A, Elgarøy S, et al. (2015-01-01). "Examining relationships between climate change and mental health in the Circumpolar North". Regional Environmental Change. 15 (1): 169–182. Bibcode:2015REnvC..15..169C. doi:10.1007/s10113-014-0630-z. S2CID 154135072.
- ^ Petrasek MacDonald J, Cunsolo Willox A, Ford JD, Shiwak I, Wood M (2015-09-01). "Protective factors for mental health and well-being in a changing climate: Perspectives from Inuit youth in Nunatsiavut, Labrador". Social Science & Medicine. 141: 133–141. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.07.017. PMID 26275362.
- ^ a b c d e Burke SE, Sanson AV, Van Hoorn J (May 2018). "The Psychological Effects of Climate Change on Children". Current Psychiatry Reports. 20 (5): 35. doi:10.1007/s11920-018-0896-9. PMID 29637319. S2CID 4810030.
- ^ Hawkins R (2021). "Debate: Inequalities within understanding of Eco Distress". Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 27 (1): 73–74. doi:10.1111/camh.12528. PMID 34894054. S2CID 245020740.
- ^ Martin G, Reilly K, Everitt H, Gilliland JA (2021). "Review: The impact of climate change awareness on children's mental well-being and negative emotions – a scoping review". Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 27 (1): 59–72. doi:10.1111/camh.12525. PMID 34873823. S2CID 244922257.
- ^ Cianconi P, Betrò S, Janiri L (2020). "The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health: A Systematic Descriptive Review". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 11: 74. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00074. PMC 7068211. PMID 32210846.
- ^ Sustaining All Life (2020-02-20). "Healing Our Climate Grief". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
- ^ Vakoch DA, Mickey S, eds. (2023). Eco-Anxiety and Pandemic Distress: Psychological Perspectives on Resilience and Interconnectness. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-762267-4.
- ^ Dr Catriona Mellor (2020). "Eco distress: for parents and carers". Royal College of Psychiatrists. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
- ^ Barrett E, Gulliver R (2024-04-09). "Health and Climate Activism". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
- ^ Chiolero A (28 January 2023). "Academic Framing as a Cause of Eco-Anxiety". Epidemiologia. 4 (1): 60–62. doi:10.3390/epidemiologia4010006. ISSN 2673-3986. PMC 9944577. PMID 36810453.
- ^ Shatner W (October 6, 2022). "William Shatner: My Trip to Space Filled Me With 'Overwhelming Sadness'". Variety. Archived from the original on October 11, 2022. Boldly Go is Shatner's 2022 autobiography.
- ^ Vince G (2020-01-12). "How scientists are coping with 'ecological grief'". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 2020-01-15.
- ^ Cunsolo A, Ellis NR (April 2018). "Ecological grief as a mental health response to climate change-related loss". Nature Climate Change. 8 (4): 275–281. Bibcode:2018NatCC...8..275C. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0092-2. ISSN 1758-6798. S2CID 90611076.
- ^ Tschakert P, Ellis N, Anderson C, Kelly A, Obeng J (2019). "One thousand ways to experience loss: A systematic analysis of climate-related intangible harm from around the world". Global Environmental Change. 55: 58–72. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.11.006. S2CID 159117696.
- ^ Rosenfeld J (July 21, 2016). "Facing Down 'Environmental Grief'". Scientific American. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
- ^ Cunsolo A, Ellis N. "Hope and mourning in the Anthropocene: Understanding ecological grief". The Conversation. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
- ^ Conroy G (2019). "'Ecological grief' grips scientists witnessing Great Barrier Reef's decline". Nature. 573 (7774): 318–319. Bibcode:2019Natur.573..318C. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-02656-8. PMID 31530920.
- ^ Hickman C, Marks E, Pihkala P, Clayton S, Lewandowski RE, Mayall EE, et al. (2021). "Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey". The Lancet Planetary Health. 5 (12): e863–e873. doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00278-3. ISSN 2542-5196.
- ^ Jaakkola JJ, Juntunen S, Näkkäläjärvi K (2018-10-22). "The Holistic Effects of Climate Change on the Culture, Well-Being, and Health of the Saami, the Only Indigenous People in the European Union". Current Environmental Health Reports. 5 (4): 401–417. doi:10.1007/s40572-018-0211-2. ISSN 2196-5412. PMC 6306421.
- ^ Demski C, Capstick S, Pidgeon N, Sposato RG, Spence A (January 2017). "Experience of extreme weather affects climate change mitigation and adaptation responses". Climatic Change. 140 (2): 149–164. Bibcode:2017ClCh..140..149D. doi:10.1007/s10584-016-1837-4. PMC 7175646. PMID 32355377.
- ^ Spence A, Poortinga W, Butler C, Pidgeon NF (April 2011). "Perceptions of climate change and willingness to save energy related to flood experience" (PDF). Nature Climate Change. 1 (1): 46–49. Bibcode:2011NatCC...1...46S. doi:10.1038/nclimate1059. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-09-06. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
- ^ a b Gaines J (29 September 2021). "How to handle climate anxiety". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-092921-1. S2CID 244253703. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
- ^ Valentino NA, Hutchings VL, Banks AJ, Davis AK (2008). "Is a Worried Citizen a Good Citizen? Emotions, Political Information Seeking, and Learning via the Internet". Political Psychology. 29 (2): 247–273. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00625.x.
- ^ Heshmat S (May 11, 2020). "The 8 Key Elements of Resilience". Psychology Today. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
- ^ Masten AS, Lucke CM, Nelson KM, Stallworthy IC (7 May 2021). "Resilience in Development and Psychopathology: Multisystem Perspectives". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 17 (1): 521–549. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-120307. PMID 33534615. S2CID 231803987.
- ^ Sweeny K, Dooley MD (2017). "The surprising upsides of worry". Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 11 (4): e12311. doi:10.1111/spc3.12311.
- ^ Ojala M (2016). "Facing Anxiety in Climate Change Education: From Therapeutic Practice to Hopeful Transgressive Learning" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Environmental Education. 21: 41–56. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
- ^ Bains KK, Turnbull T (7 August 2019). "Improving Health Outcomes and Serving Wider Society: The Potential Role of Understanding and Cultivating Prosocial Purpose Within Health Psychology Research and Practice to Address Climate Change and Social Isolation and Loneliness". Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 1787. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01787. PMC 6693434. PMID 31440182.
- ^ Ranney MA, Clark D (1 January 2016). "Climate Change Conceptual Change: Scientific Information Can Transform Attitudes". Topics in Cognitive Science. 8 (1): 49–75. doi:10.1111/tops.12187. PMID 26804198.
- ^ Charlson F, Ali S, Augustinavicius J, Benmarhnia T, Birch S, Clayton S, et al. (2022). "Global priorities for climate change and mental health research". Environment International. 158: 106984. Bibcode:2022EnInt.15806984C. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106984. PMID 34991246. S2CID 244465679.
- ^ "Healthy lifestyle can help prevent depression – and new research may explain why". University of Cambridge. 2023-09-11. Retrieved 2024-05-05.