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=== Direct consumption ===
=== Direct consumption ===


Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption. For example, to make plain [[cooked rice]], raw [[White rice |milled rice]] needs to be washed and submerged in [[simmering]] water for 10–12 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to cook perfect rice |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/techniques/how_to_cook_perfect_rice |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=[[BBC Food]] |language=en |archive-date=27 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827052428/https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/techniques/how_to_cook_perfect_rice |url-status=live }}</ref>
Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption. For example, to make plain [[cooked rice]], raw [[White rice |milled rice]] needs to be washed and submerged in [[simmering]] water for 10–12 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to cook perfect rice |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/techniques/how_to_cook_perfect_rice |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=[[BBC Food]] |language=en |archive-date=27 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827052428/https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/techniques/how_to_cook_perfect_rice |url-status=live }}</ref> Foods such as [[porridge]] and [[muesli]] may be made largely of whole cereals, especially oats, while commercial [[breakfast cereal]]s such as [[granola]] may be highly processed and combined with sugars and other products.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bonappetit.com/test-kitchen/cooking-tips/article/muesli-vs-granola |title=What's the difference between muesli and granola? A very important primer |first=Rochelle |last=Bilow |date=17 September 2015 |work=Bon Appétit |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |access-date=6 June 2022}}</ref>


=== Flour-based foods ===
=== Flour-based foods ===

Revision as of 13:47, 5 February 2024

For the food, see Breakfast cereal. For other uses, see Cereal (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Serial.

Cereal grains: (top) pearl millet, rice, barley
(middle) sorghum, maize, oats
(bottom) millet, wheat, rye, triticale

A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop; they are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa are pseudocereals. Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres.

Cereals were domesticated in the Neolithic, some 8,000 years ago. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent; rice was domesticated in East Asia, and sorghum and millet were domesticated in West Africa. In the 20th century, cereal productivity was greatly increased by the Green Revolution.

Cereals provide food eaten directly as grains, usually cooked, or they are ground to flour and made into bread and other products. Cereals have a high starch content, enabling them to be fermented into alcoholic drinks such as beer.

History

Origins

Further information: Neolithic Revolution and Domestication

Wheat, barley, rye, and oats were gathered and eaten in the Fertile Crescent during the early Neolithic. Early villages show evidence of processing of grains, initially collected from the wild. Cereal grains 19,000 years old have been found at the Ohalo II site in Israel, with charred remnants of wild wheat and barley.[1]

During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using human-made floods and fires as part of their cultivation regimen.[2][3] The use of soil conditioners, including manure, fish, compost and ashes, appears to have begun early, and developed independently in areas of the world including Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, and Eastern Asia.[4]

Threshing of grain in ancient Egypt

The first cereal grains were domesticated some 8,000 years ago by farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region.[5] Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture. Around the same time, millets and kinds of rice were domesticated in East Asia, while sorghum and millets were domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, primarily as feed for livestock.[6]

Agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It created the need for greater organization of political power and social stratification, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation, and access rights to water and land. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, leading to the accumulation of material goods.[7]

Roman harvesting machine

In the Mesopotamian creation myth, an era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess Ashnan.[8] The Roman goddess Ceres presided over agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and motherhood;[9] the term cereal is derived from Latin cerealis, "of grain", originally meaning "of [the goddess] Ceres".[10] Several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war: the Hittite Sun goddess of Arinna, the Canaanite Lahmu and the Roman Janus.[11] Civilization arose from cereals and has continued to depend on them, whether because a surplus was produced or because part of the harvest could be appropriated from farmers, allowing power to be concentrated in cities.[12]

Modern

Further information: Green Revolution

During the second half of the 20th century there was a significant increase in the production of high-yield cereal crops worldwide, especially wheat and rice, due to the Green Revolution initiative.[13] The strategies developed by the Green Revolution focused on fending off starvation and increasing yield-per-plant, and were very successful in raising overall yields of cereal grains, but paid less attention to nutritional quality.[14] These modern high-yield cereal crops tend to have low quality proteins, with essential amino acid deficiencies, are high in carbohydrates, and lack balanced essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other quality factors.[14] So-called ancient grains and heirloom varieties have seen an increase in popularity with the "organic" movements of the early 21st century, but there is a tradeoff in yield-per-plant, putting pressure on resource-poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops.[15]

Description

Botanical

Structure of a cereal, wheat. A: Plant; B ripe ear of grains; 1 spikelet before flowering; 2 the same, flowering and spread, enlarged; 3 flowers with glumes; 4 stamens 5 pollen; 6 and 7 ovaries with juice scales; 8 and 9 parts of the scar; 10 fruit husks; 11–14 grains, natural size and enlarged.

Cereals are grasses in the Poaceae family that produce edible grains. A cereal grain is botanically a caryopsis, a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp.[16][17] Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks.[18] The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals.[18][19] The flowers are usually hermaphroditic, with the exception of maize, and mainly anemophilous or wind-pollinated, although insects occasionally play a role.[18][20]

Some of the best-known cereals are maize, rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oat, rye and triticale.[21] Some other grains are colloquially called cereals, even though they are not grasses; these pseudocereals include buckwheat, quinoa, and amaranth.[22]

Nutritional

Some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine, obliging vegetarian cultures, in order to get a balanced diet, to combine their diet of cereal grains with legumes. Many legumes, however, are deficient in the essential amino acid methionine, which grains contain. Thus, a combination of legumes with grains forms a well-balanced diet for vegetarians. Such combinations include dal (lentils) with rice by South Indians and Bengalis, dal with wheat in Pakistan and North India, beans with maize tortillas, tofu with rice, and peanut butter with wholegrain wheat bread (as sandwiches) in several other cultures, including the Americas.[23] For feeding animals, the amount of crude protein measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration.[24]

Cultivation

All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way. Most are annual, so after sowing they are harvested just once.[25] An exception is rice, which although usually treated as an annual can survive as a perennial, producing a ratoon crop.[26] Cereals adapted to a temperate climate, such as barley, oats, rye, spelt, triticale, and wheat, are called cool season cereals. Those preferring a tropical climate, such as millet and sorghum, are called warm-season cereals.[25][27][28] Cool season cereals, especially rye, followed by barley, are hardy; they grow best in fairly cool weather, and stop growing, depending on variety, when the temperature goes above around 30 °C or 85 °F. Warm season cereals, in contrast, require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost.[25] Cool season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics, where they sometimes deliver multiple crops in a year.[25]

Planting

Planting of rice on a paddy field

The warm-season cereals are grown in tropical lowlands year-round and in temperate climates during the frost-free season. Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields,[29] though some strains are grown on dry land.[30] Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions.[31]

Cool-season cereals are well-adapted to temperate climates. Most varieties of a particular species are either winter or spring types. Winter varieties are sown in the autumn, germinate and grow vegetatively, then become dormant during winter. They resume growing in the springtime and mature in late spring or early summer. This cultivation system makes optimal use of water and frees the land for another crop early in the growing season.[25]

Winter varieties do not flower until springtime because they need vernalization: exposure to low temperatures for a genetically determined length of time. Where winters are too warm for vernalization or exceed the hardiness of the crop (which varies by species and variety), farmers grow spring varieties. Spring cereals are planted in early springtime and mature later that same summer, without vernalization. Spring cereals typically require more irrigation and yield less than winter cereals.[32]

Growth

Fusarium graminearum damages many cereals, here wheat, where it causes wheat scab (right).

The greatest constraints on yield are plant diseases, especially rusts (mostly the Puccinia spp.) and powdery mildews.[33] Fusarium head blight, caused by Fusarium graminearum, is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals.[34]

Harvesting

Annual cereals die when they have come to seed, and dry up. Harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough. Harvesting in developed countries is by combine harvester, a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then threshes and winnows the grain.[25][35] In developing countries, harvesting may be by hand, using tools such as scythes and grain cradles.[25]

Preprocessing and storage

Zambian family peeling maize
Zambia, peeling maize

If cereals are not completely dry when harvested, such as when the weather is rainy, the stored grain will be spoilt by mould fungi. This can be prevented by drying it artificially. It may then be stored in a grain elevator, to be sold later. Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed-eating birds and rodents.[25]

Uses

Direct consumption

Some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption. For example, to make plain cooked rice, raw milled rice needs to be washed and submerged in simmering water for 10–12 minutes.[36] Foods such as porridge and muesli may be made largely of whole cereals, especially oats, while commercial breakfast cereals such as granola may be highly processed and combined with sugars and other products.[37]

Flour-based foods

Main article: Flour
Various cereals and their products

Cereals can be ground to make flour. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe, while rice flour is common in Asia.[38][39]

Cereal flour consists either of the endosperm, germ, and bran together (whole-grain flour) or of the endosperm alone (refined flour). Meal may either denote a slightly coarser product, or is synonymous with flour; the word is used both ways.[40][41]

Alcohol

Because cereals have a high starch content, they are often used to make Industrial alcohol[42] and alcoholic drinks by fermentation. For instance, beer is produced by brewing and fermenting starch, mainly from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley.[43]

Animal feed

Further information: Animal feed

Cereals including maize, barley, wheat, and oats are routinely fed to farm animals. Moist grains may be treated chemically or made into silage; mechanically flattened or crimped, and kept in airtight storage until used; or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14%.[44] Commercially, grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets.[45]

Production statistics

See also: List of countries by cereal production

Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.[46] They are the most traded commodities by quantity in 2021: the Americas and Europe are the largest exporters, and Asia is the largest importer.[47]

  • Main traded cereals, top importers and exporters in 2021
    Main traded cereals, top importers and exporters in 2021
  • Production of cereals worldwide, by country in 2021
    Production of cereals worldwide, by country in 2021

The table shows the annual production of cereals in 1961, 1980, 2000, 2010, and 2019/2020.[a][48][49]

Grain Worldwide production

(millions of metric tons)

Notes
1961 1980 2000 2010 2019/20
Maize (corn) 205 397 592 852 1,148 A staple food of people in the Americas, Africa, and of livestock worldwide; often called corn in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. A large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption.[50]
Rice[b] Production is in milled terms. 285 397 599 480 755 The primary cereal of tropical and some temperate regions. Staple food in most of Brazil, other parts of Latin America and some other Portuguese-descended cultures, parts of Africa (even more before the Columbian exchange), most of South Asia and the Far East. Largely overridden by breadfruit (a dicot tree) during the South Pacific's part of the Austronesian expansion.[50]
Wheat 222 440 585 641 768 The primary cereal of temperate regions. It has a worldwide consumption but it is a staple food of North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Brazil and much of the Greater Middle East. Wheat gluten-based meat substitutes are important in the Far East (albeit less than tofu) and said to resemble meat texture more than others.[50]
Barley 72 157 133 123 159 Grown for malting and livestock on land too poor or too cold for wheat.[50]
Sorghum 41 57 56 60 58 Important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock.[50]
Millet 26 25 28 33 28 A group of similar cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa.[50]
Oats 50 41 26 20 23 Popular worldwide as a breakfast food, such as in porridge, and livestock feed.[51]
Triticale 0 0.17 9 14 — Hybrid of wheat and rye, grown similarly to rye.[50]
Rye 35 25 20 12 13 Important in cold climates. Rye grain is used for flour, bread, beer, crispbread, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder.[50]
Fonio 0.18 0.15 0.31 0.56 — Several varieties are grown as food crops in Africa.[50]

Maize, wheat, and rice together accounted for 89% of all cereal production worldwide in 2012, and 43% of the global supply of food energy in 2009,[52] while the production of oats and rye have drastically fallen from their 1960s levels.[49]

Other cereals not included in the U.N.'s Food and Agriculture Organization statistics include:

  • Teff, an ancient grain that is a staple in Ethiopia and grown in sub-Saharan Africa as a grass primarily for feeding horses. It is high in fiber and protein. Its flour is often used to make injera. It can also be eaten as a warm breakfast cereal similar to farina with a chocolate or nutty flavor.[50]
  • Wild rice, grown in small amounts in North America.[50]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ 1961 is the earliest year for which FAO statistics are available.
  2. ^ The weight given is for paddy rice

References

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Sources

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