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Early glassmaking in the United States, defined herein as before the 19th century (or through 1800), began before the country existed. The glassmaking began in 1608 at the Colony of Virginia near Jamestown. The 1608 glass factory is believed to be the first manufactory in what became the United States. Although glass was made at Jamestown, production was soon suspended because of strife in the colony. The first American glass factory operated with long–term success was started by Caspar Wistar in 1739—although two glass works in New Amsterdam deserve honorable mention. Wistar's glass works was located in the English colony known as the Province of New Jersey. In the southeastern portion of the Province of Pennsylvania, Henry Stiegel was the first American producer of high–quality glassware known as crystal. Stiegel's first glass works began in 1763, and his better quality glassmaking began in 1769. In the United States, the first use of coal as a fuel for glassmaking furnaces is believed to have started during the 1790s in Pittsburgh or Philadelphia.

Many of the skilled glass workers in the United States during the 17th and 18th centuries came from the German-speaking region of Europe. A portion of the glass workers at Jamestown, described as "Dutchman", were German. German–born Johann Friedrich Amelung (later renamed John Frederick Amelung) employed 342 people in 1788 at his Frederick County, Maryland, glass works. His skilled workers were German. Other prominent glass makers such as Wistar, Stiegel, and the Stanger brothers were also German. In some cases, as a glass works failed, the skilled workers moved to another factory.

Other attempts to produce glass were made during the 1600s and 1700s, and a few had some success. Glass works in New Amsterdam and New York City, the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, Philadelphia, and the Province of New Jersey's Glassboro are often mentioned by historians. Much of the evidence concerning the 17th century New Amsterdam glass factories has been lost, and a 17th century Massachusetts glassworks did not last long. The works at Glassboro lasted into the 20th century. However, it is thought that there were no more than ten glass works producing in the United States in 1800.

Glassmaking

Glass is made by starting with a batch of ingredients, melting it together, forming the glass product, and gradually cooling it. The batch of ingredients is dominated by sand, which contains silica. Smaller quantities of other ingredients, such as soda and limestone, are also added to the batch.^[1] The batch is placed inside a pot or tank that is heated by a furnace to roughly 3,090 °F (1,700 °C).^[1]^{[Note 1]} The melted batch is typically shaped into the glass product (other than plate and window glass) by either glassblowing or pressing it into a mold.^[4] Window glass production, until the 20th century, involved blowing a cylinder and flattening it.^[5] The Crown method and the Cylinder method were the two main methods used.^[6] All glass products must then be cooled gradually (annealed), or else they could easily break.^[7] An oven used for annealing is called a lehr.^[8] Until the 1760s, most glass produced in what would become the United States was "green" glass, which has a greenish color and does not contain any additives to remove the greenish tint or add a more pleasing color.^[9]

One of the major expenses for the glass factories is fuel for the furnace, and this often determined the location of the glass works.^[10] Wood was the original fuel used by glassmakers in the United States. Coal began being used around 1796.^[11] Alternative fuels such as natural gas and oil did not become available in the United States until the second half of the 19th century.^[12] Other important aspects of glassmaking are labor and transportation.^[13] Glassmaking methods and recipes were kept secret, and most European countries forbid immigration to the United States by glassworkers.^[14] Some of the skilled glassworkers were smuggled from Europe to the United States.^[14] Waterways provided transportation networks before the construction of highways and railroads.^[15] The first railroad in the United States was chartered in 1827, and construction began in 1828.^[16]

17th century

Jamestown

England established Jamestown in its Colony of Virginia during May 1607.^[17] Slightly over one year later, an attempt was made at this North American colony to produce glass.^[18] Glassmaking was not thriving in England at the time because the use of wood as fuel for the glassmaking furnaces was discouraged and eventually prohibited. Furnaces using coal for fuel were still in early stages of development. England was dependent on Venice and other cities in Europe for the fulfillment of its glass needs. Because North America appeared to have a massive number of forests, it was viewed as having potential for glassmaking.^[18] The Virginia Company of London sent supplies to Jamestown that arrived during October 1608. Arriving with the supplies were eight men with manufacturing skills, including glassmaking. The men were said to be "Dutch" and Polish, although the Dutch men were probably German—and are identified as German by most historians.^[19]^{[Note 2]}

The site of the Jamestown glass works was described by Captain John Smith and mentioned by writer William Strachey. Ruins were discovered in 1931, leading to the belief that the Jamestown glass works was located about one mile (1.6 km) from Jamestown at a place now known as Glass House Point.^[23] Some structural and artifact evidence had been discovered in the 1920s.^[24] Glass products have been speculated to be bottles or beads, but "conclusive proof has not been advanced".^[25] Glassmaking began shortly after the glassworkers arrived, and the supply ship carried sample glassware on its return voyage.^[26] In the spring of 1609, a "tryall of glasse" was produced.^[27] It is believed that production of glass ended during the difficult winter of 1609–1610, a period known as the Starving Time.^[27] Although this attempt to produce glass cannot be called a long–term success, it can be concluded that glass was first produced in Jamestown during the Fall of 1608, the first American glass factory was located at Jamestown, and this was the first industrial production by the English in North America.^[28]

During 1621, plans were made to revive glassmaking at Jamestown. The plan was for beads and "drinckinge Glasse" products to be produced by four Italian men who would come to Jamestown with their families.^[29] The glassworkers sailed for Jamestown in late August 1621. A glass house was constructed, but the Massacre of 1622 and sickness delayed progress. No glass had been produced by June 1622.^[30] There is no evidence of the exact location of the glassworks used in 1622, and no definitive evidence of the glass product made. Beads were definitely traded with the local native Americans, so it is possible that glass beads were the product made.^[31] There is evidence that the furnace was working during March 1623, but problems with the quality of sand caused output during March 1623 to be described as "nothing".^[32] After the winter of 1623–1624, the glass works became inactive. In April 1625 it was decided to end the glassmaking project.^[33] Causes of the failure were inadequate security, food supply, quality of sand, and disagreement among supervisors and glass workers.^[34] Although glass was produced at Jamestown, longer term success did not happen in 1608 or in a second attempt in the 1620s.^[18] Today (2015), the National Park Service exhibits the Jamestown furnace ruins at Glasshouse Point, and glassmakers in a nearby reconstructed glasshouse produce glass objects using the 17th century methods.^[35]

Northern colonies

Well north of Jamestown was the Colony of Massachusetts Bay. In 1639 Obadiah Holmes and Lawrence Southwick formed a partnership to start a glassmaking facility. A year later they were joined by a glassman named Ananias Concklin, and they received funding from the town of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1641.^[36] A Southwick family descendant has said that "hollow ware and bottles" were made at the glass works in "light green, dark green, blue and brown glass."^[37] The family member also said that "bulls eyes for windows and doors" were made, meaning that the Crown method for making window glass was used.^[38] Some historians believe the works operated sporadically until 1661, while others believe it shut down in 1642 or 1643.^[39] Although little evidence exists of this glassworks, it is agreed that land was allocated to three glassmakers, and "glass house people" were discussed as late as 1669.^[40]

During the 1620s the Dutch had a colony, named New Amsterdam, that was located in what is now the lower part of Manhattan in New York City.^[41] A glassmaking facility was established by Everett Duijcking (also spelled Evert Duycking or Evert Duyckingk) around 1645.^[42] Duijcking was a German from Westphalia, although his native town was close to the border with the Netherlands.^[43] Jacob Milyer (also spelled Melyer) took over this glass works in 1674.^[42] The Melyer family is believed to have continued making glass into the third and fourth generations, leading one to deduct that, if true, glassmaking was made at this glass works in Manhattan from 1645 to about 1767.^[44]

Another New Amsterdam glassmaker was Johannes Smedes (also known as "Jan"), who received a portion of land in 1654 that became known locally as "Glass–makers Street".^[45]^{[Note 3]} In 1664, the same year Dutch occupation ended, he sold his glass works and moved to Long Island.^[47] His products were believed to be window glass, bottles, and house wares.^[42] Other glassmakers in the New Amsterdam–New York area included Routoff Jansen and Cornelius Dirkson, who first sharpened their skills working for Smedes.^[48]

During the 1680s the Free Society of Traders built a glass factory close to Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania. The works was managed by Joshua Tittery, who was also a potter.^[49] The glass making was not initially a productive endeavor, and Tittery had more success producing pottery.^[50] Although the glass house was mentioned in a letter by William Penn, it is unknown if anything substantial was ever produced.^[51] A letter written to Penn in 1684 says the "Glasshouse comes to nothing".^[52] Pressure from investors caused glassmaking to be abandoned in 1685.^[53]

18th Century

Wistar

In 1738 Caspar Wistar, a German immigrant and manufacturer of brass buttons in Philadelphia, began plans for a glass works by purchasing land in Salem County, New Jersey.^{[Note 4]} Production started in 1739.^[55] Wistar, who was originally from the Palatine region of what is now Germany, hired German glassworkers to make bottles, tableware, and window glass.^[56] The Cylinder method was used for making the window glass, and bottles were made of a clear green glass.^[57] His original partners in the glassmaking project were four glassblowers from Germany.^[58]^{[Note 5]} Wistar's glassmaking company was known by multiple names, including United Glass Company, Wistar Glass Works, Wistarberg Glass Works, and Wistarburg Glass Works.^[63] Benjamin Franklin used Wistar's glass for some of his electrical experiments, and he also wrote a short description of the glass works' furnace used to melt the ingredients for the glass.^[58]

After Caspar Wistar died in 1752, his son Richard led the glass works. The business continued to grow for about two more years before it began to have problems keeping workers, which led to problems with glass quality.^[63] Part of the labor problem was caused by the French and Indian War. The British government targeted German–speaking colonials for recruitment into the Royal American Regiment, which was led by German and Swiss officers.^[58] The glassworks operated sporadically beginning in the 1775–1776 winter, and was offered for sale in 1780. Richard Wistar died in 1781. The glass works was eventually closed and abandoned.^[63] Wistar began the German domination of American glassmaking that continued until the 19th century.^[64] Historians often consider Wistar's glass works to be the first commercially successful manufacturer of glass in the United States, although at least one has said the Smedes or Duijcking–Milyer glass works in New Amsterdam merit consideration.^[65]

Stiegel

Heinrich Wilhelm Stiegel, born in Cologne in 1729, was another German who sailed from Rotterdam to Philadelphia. He arrived in Philadelphia in 1750, and moved to Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, a few years later.^[66] He married in 1752, and bought out his father–in–law's interest in a plantation that became known as Elibeth Furnace, which included a blast furnace used to make stoves.^[67] He became a citizen of the English colony of Pennsylvania in 1760, and changed his name to Henry William Stiegel.^[68]

Stiegel was the second German to operate an American glass works on a large scale.^[64] He built some "glass–ovens" at Elizabeth Furnace in 1762, and began making glass in 1763.^[69] Products were bottles and window glass.^[70] He hired some European glassblowers, including some from Venice, and paid for their transportation to Pennsylvania.^[71] Nearly two years later he started another glass factory in Manheim, Pennsylvania. During 1769, he started a third glass works in the same town that focused on quality tableware, and some of his employees had worked at the Wistar glass plant.^[72] His works was the first to make lead glass in America.^[73] The lead glass of this time period, commonly known as crystal because it was colorless and transparent, was the finest glass available.^[74] Stiegel had retail outlets for his glass at various locations in the English colonies. However, he expanded too fast and ended production in 1774. He was briefly held in a debtors' prison.^[75]

Stanger

The Stanger family immigrated to Philadelphia in 1768.^[76]^{[Note 6]} They were German glassmakers who came from Hesse, and the family had seven sons. At least one of the sons worked at the Wistar Glass Works.^[76] The brothers started a glass works between 1779 and 1781 in what became known as Glassboro, New Jersey.^[78]^{[Note 7]} The brothers were led by Solomon and Daniel Stanger, and their glass works was the second (after Wistar) located in "South Jersey".^[80] Their original products were bottles.^[81]

By 1784 all of the Stanger brothers had sold their interests in the Glassboro glass works, although they remained working with glass.^[76] At that time, Thomas Heston and Thomas Carpenter controlled the Glassboro works.^[82] In addition to bottles, the company began making window glass and other products.^[82] Heston died in 1802, but the factory operated under various owners (including the Whitney brothers who were descendants of Heston) for over 100 years. Whitney Glass was purchased by one of Michael Owens' companies in 1918.^[83]

Amelung

Another German, Johann Friedrich Amelung (later renamed John Frederick Amelung), arrived in Baltimore on August 31, 1784.^[84] He brought 68 German–speaking glass workers, and at least 14 more joined him a few months later. He purchased land in Frederick County, Maryland along Bennett's Creek to the north and east of Sugarloaf Mountain.^[85] He called the area "New Bremen", and built a glassmaking furnace and housing for his workers.^[86]^{[Note 8]} On February 11, 1785 he announced that a group of "German manufacturers have arrived and will establish a factory", and that "window glass, table glass, optical glass, looking glass" would be their products.^[86]

In 1788 Amelung employed 342 people at his glass works.^[90] Window glass was made using the Cylinder method and the Crown method.^[91] Archaeological evidence suggests his bottles were made with a transparent green glass that did not require molds.^[87] During 1788 he applied for a loan from the State of Maryland, and received the loan plus tax exemption for five years. Over the next two years his glassmaking facilities had at least two fires that did an undetermined amount of damage.^[90] Amelung continued to have financial difficulties, and the glass works was offered for sale in 1795.^[92] Amelung died in 1798.^[93]

O'Hara and Craig

In 1796 Colonel James O'Hara and Major Isaac Craig began planning for the first glass works in Pittsburg. This was the first glass works in America west of the Allegany Mountains, and one of the first to use coal as a fuel for its furnaces.^[94]

Others

In 1747, Thomas Darling was granted sole rights to produce glass in the Connecticut Colony for 20 years. However, Darling was unable to fulfill the conditions of the agreement.^[95]
During the 1750s attempts were made to operate a glass factory near Braintree, Massachusetts, using German workers. The works was founded by Peter Etter, John Franklin, Joseph Crellius, and Norton Quincy.^[96] The plant burned in 1756.^[97]
In 1752 Mathias Earnest, Samuel Bayard, Loderwyck Bamper and Johan Martin Greiner agreed to establish a glass works in the Province of New York at New Windsor. All of the partners were from New York except Greiner, who was from Saxe-Weimar. Greiner, when the New Yorkers were ready, would travel from Europe to New York and would lead in the construction of a glass works as well as instruct in glass making.^[98] The works appears to have been producing in 1754, and bottles were among the wares produced. The glass works failed some time before 1762.^[99]
Glass House Farm was located near New York City and the Hudson River. Based on newspaper advertisements, it is thought to have been operating as early as 1754. Products were bottles and glass ware.^[100] At least one of the investors was Matthew Earnest. The company was bankrupt by early 1767 if not earlier.^[101]
In 1754 Loderwick Bamper, one of the founders of the glass works in New Windsor, is thought to have started a glass works in Brooklyn. There is little evidence that the works actually produced glass.^[102]
In 1780 Robert Hewes established the New England Glassworks near Temple, New Hampshire, on Kidder Mountain. Hessen deserters from the British army were employed. The works was destroyed by fire, rebuilt, and then shut down because of financial difficulties.^[103]
John Nicholson established a glass works near Philadelphia in 1794, and it may have been the first American glass plant to use a furnace powered by coal.^[104]^{[Note 9]} Financial difficulties and strikes caused by lack of pay caused the property to be seized in 1797.^[105] Nicholson died in a debtors prison in 1800.^[106]
Albert Gallatin started a glass works for making window glass in 1797. The works was located on the Monongahela River about 90 miles (140 km) south of Pittsburgh in New Geneva. Among his workers, mostly Germans, were former employees of the Amelung works.^[107] Gallatin's glass company was originally called Gallatin & Company, but later it became the New Geneva Glass Works. This works was initially very profitable, since there were only two or three other window glass works operating in the United States.^[94]

Glassmaking historians believe there were fewer than ten glass works producing in the United States in 1800.^[108]

^[109]

Notes

Footnotes

^ An older source states that the batch melting temperature is 2,600 °F (1,430 °C).^[2] Another older source quotes a glass works spokesman as saying the furnace is heated to between 2,800 °F (1,540 °C) and 3,600 °F (1,980 °C).^[3]
^ The term that native Germans use to describe themselves is "Deutche", and this may have caused confusion between "Dutch" and "Deutche". An example of this misconception is the term "Pennsylvania Dutch", which actually refers to a group of people who came from a German–speaking region of Europe.^[20] In 1916, it was thought that in the United States "nine out of ten speak of a Dutchman when a German is meant".^[21] Captain John Smith may have confirmed that the "Dutchman" were Germans when writing about the difficulties of glassmaking at Jamestown. He wrote (sometimes with questionable spelling) "As for the hyring of the Poles and Dutch men...", it was useless "to send to Germany or Poleland for glasse–men...."^[22]
^ Smedes has also been spelled as "Smeedes".^[46]
^ Caspar Wistar's grandson, Dr. Caspar Wistar, became a famous physician.^[54]
^ While at least three sources say the four glassblowers were German, at least one source says they were from Belgium.^[59] A newspaper article from 1920 said the glassworkers were from Holland.^[60] However, it is known today that the four glassblowers sailed from Rotterdam (in Holland), which was the main port of departure for Germans sailing to Philadelphia.^[61] One of the four glassblowers was named Johannes Wilhelm Wentzel, and a "Johan Wilhelm Wentzel" can be found on a list of passengers arriving from Palatines on September 9, 1738.^[62]
^ The family name has been spelled at least seven different ways: Stanger, Stenger, Stinger, Staenger, Steenger, Syanger, and Sanger.^[77]
^ An older source claims that the seven Stanger brothers were among Wistar's "best craftsmen", and all seven left around the beginning of the American Revolution to establish a factory in New Jersey's Gloucester County.^[79]
^ Sources conflict over Amelung building a glass works. An obscure glassworks known as the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt factory existed on the property.^[87] Amelung never mentions the previous works, and only two 18th century accounts of that glass works have been found as of 1976. It is not known if Amelung demolished the old works, or if he modified and added to it.^[88] A Frederick newspaper article also recognizes the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt glass factory, and notes that glassmaking in the area began around 1759.^[89]
^ Most historians cite the O'Hara and Craig Pittsburgh glass works, beginning in 1797 and managed by Peter William Eichbaum, as the first plant using coal for fuel.^[73]

Citations

^ ^a ^b "How Glass is Made – What is glass made of? The wonders of glass all come down to melting sand". Corning. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
^ United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 60
^ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 35
^ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 45
^ Kutilek 2019, pp. 37, 41
^ Louw 1991, p. 48
^ "Corning Museum of Glass – Annealing Glass". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
^ "Corning Museum of Glass – Lehr". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
^ Purvis 1999, p. 107; Shotwell 2002, p. 224
^ United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 12
^ United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 13
^ United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 13; Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 36
^ Skrabec 2007, p. 97
^ ^a ^b Skrabec 2011, p. 20
^ Poor 1868, p. 11
^ Poor 1868, p. 20
^ Hatch 1941, p. 119
^ ^a ^b ^c Lanmon & Palmer 1976, p. 14
^ Hatch 1941, p. 119; "The Dream of Exporting Glass". Jamestown Rediscovery Foundation. Retrieved November 9, 2023.; "Glassmaking at Jamestown". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved November 9, 2023.; Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 77
^ "Pennsylvania Dutch Crafts and Culture" (PDF). National Council for the Social Studies. Retrieved November 9, 2023.
^ Baker 1913, p. 27
^ Hatch 1941, pp. 127–128; "Glassmaking at Jamestown". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved November 9, 2023.
^ Hatch 1941, p. 121
^ Cotter 1958, p. 100
^ Hatch 1941, p. 126
^ Hatch 1941, pp. 119–120
^ ^a ^b Hatch 1941, p. 127
^ Hatch 1941, pp. 119–120; Tillotson 1920, p. 354
^ Hatch 1941, p. 131
^ Hatch 1941, p. 136
^ Hatch 1941a, pp. 229–231
^ Hatch 1941, p. 137
^ Hatch 1941a, p. 225
^ Hatch 1941a, p. 228
^ "Historic Jamestowne - Glassmaking at Jamestown". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
^ Knittle 1927, p. 64
^ Hunter 1914, p. 139
^ Hunter 1914, p. 139; Shotwell 2002, p. 60
^ Knittle 1927, p. 65; Purvis 1999, p. 107; Hunter 1914, p. 139
^ Scoville 1944, p. 195
^ Knittle 1927, p. 67
^ ^a ^b ^c Shotwell 2002, p. 376
^ Hunter 1914, p. 141
^ Knittle 1927, p. 74
^ Knittle 1927, pp. 68–69
^ Hunter 1914, p. 140
^ Knittle 1927, p. 69
^ Knittle 1927, pp. 69–70
^ Gillingham 1930, p. 98
^ Gillingham 1930, pp. 101–102
^ McKearin & McKearin 1966, pp. 77–78
^ Nash 1965, p. 167
^ Nash 1965, p. 168
^ "Caspar Wistar 1761-1818". University of Pennsylvania, University Archives and Records Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; "The Wistar Institute - Our Story". The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. Retrieved November 13, 2023.
^ Shotwell 2002, pp. 616–617
^ Shotwell 2002, pp. 616–617; Zerwick 1990, p. 71
^ Lanmon & Palmer 1976, p. 15
^ ^a ^b ^c "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.
^ "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; Shotwell 2002, p. 617; Zerwick 1990, p. 71; Knittle 1927, p. 86
^ "Find Rum Evidence from 18th Century". Midland Journal (from Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress). September 10, 1920.
^ "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; Grubb 1987, pp. 22–23
^ Shotwell 2002, p. 617; Rupp 1856, pp. 60–61
^ ^a ^b ^c Shotwell 2002, p. 617
^ ^a ^b Zerwick 1990, p. 71
^ "Find Rum Evidence from 18th Century". Midland Journal (from Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress). September 10, 1920.; Zerwick 1990, p. 71; "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; McKearin & McKearin 1966, p. 78; Knittle 1927, pp. 94–95
^ Knittle 1927, pp. 118–119
^ "Elizabeth Furnace Plantation Site". Millersville University. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
^ Knittle 1927, p. 119
^ Knittle 1927, p. 120
^ Lanmon & Palmer 1976, p. 16
^ Knittle 1927, pp. 121–122
^ Lanmon & Palmer 1976, pp. 16–17; Knittle 1927, p. 120
^ ^a ^b Palmer 1979, p. 107
^ Shotwell 2002, p. 112
^ Lanmon & Palmer 1976, pp. 17–18
^ ^a ^b ^c "Stanger family". Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
^ Knittle 1927, p. 152
^ "Stanger family". Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved November 21, 2023.; Knittle 1927, p. 153
^ Vaughan 1926, p. 48
^ Van Rensselaer 1926, p. 134
^ Knittle 1927, p. 153
^ ^a ^b Knittle 1927, p. 154
^ Knittle 1927, p. 154-155; Skrabec 2007, p. 43
^ Quynn 1948, p. 158; Zerwick 1990, p. 72
^ Quynn 1948, p. 158
^ ^a ^b Quynn 1948, p. 159
^ ^a ^b Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, p. 26
^ Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, pp. 26, 28
^ Martinkosky, Christina (August 1, 2020). "Preservation Matters: Glass–Making Located in Frederick". Frederick News–Post. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
^ ^a ^b Quynn 1948, p. 167
^ Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, p. 27
^ Quynn 1948, p. 174
^ Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, p. 38
^ ^a ^b Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 83
^ Hunter 1914, p. 144
^ "Founders Online - From Benjamin Franklin to John Franklin, 27 September 1750". National Historical Publications and Records Commission, National Archives. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
^ Purvis 1999, p. 107
^ Wall 1926, p. 95
^ Wall 1926, pp. 98–99
^ Hunter 1914, p. 149
^ Hunter 1914, pp. 150–151
^ Hunter 1914, pp. 152–153
^ "Robert Hewes, Glass Manufacturer". Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
^ Palmer 1979, pp. 102, 107
^ Palmer 1979, p. 113
^ Palmer 1979, p. 114
^ Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 82
^ Dyer & Gross 2001, p. 23
^ Abraham, Evelyn (August 1931). "The Glass of New Geneva and Greensboro". The Antiquarian. 17 (2): 15–17.

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McKearin, Georghe S.; McKearin, Helen (1966). American Glass. New York City: Crown Publishers. OCLC 1049801744.
- Munsey, Cecil (Fall 2005). "The Wistars (Casper, Richard, Dr. Casper, Henry & Issac)" (PDF). Bottles and Extras. 16. Federation of Historical Bottle Collectors: 46–51. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
Nash, Gary B. (April 1965). "The Free Society of Traders and the Early Politics of Pennsylvania". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. 89 (2). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Historical Society of Pennsylvania: 147–173. JSTOR 20089791. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
- Palmer, Arlene (1976). "Glass Production in Eighteenth-Century America: The Wistarburgh Enterprise". Winterthur Portfolio. 11. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum Inc.: 75–101. JSTOR 1180591. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
Palmer, Arlene (1979). "A Philadelphia Glasshouse, 1794–1797". Journal of Glass Studies. 21. Corning, New York: Corning Museum of Glass: 102–114. JSTOR 24190039. Retrieved November 29, 2023.
Poor, Henry V. (1868). Poor's Manual of Railroads for 1868–69. New York City: H.V. & H.W. Poor. OCLC 5585553. Archived from the original on May 21, 2023. Retrieved May 21, 2023.
Purvis, Thomas L. (1999). Colonial America to 1763. New York City: Facts on File. ISBN 978-1-43810-799-8. OCLC 234080971.
Rupp, Israel Daniel, ed. (1856). A Collection of Thirty Thousand Names of German, Swiss, Dutch, French, Portuguese and other Immigrants in Pennsylvania... (May and June) (PDF). Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Theo. F. Scheffer. OCLC 504044270. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
Skrabec, Quentin R. (2007). Michael Owens and the Glass Industry. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing. ISBN 978-1-45560-883-6. OCLC 1356375205.
Skrabec, Quentin R. (2011). Edward Drummond Libbey, American Glassmaker. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-78648-548-2. OCLC 753968484.
Shotwell, David J. (2002). Glass A to Z. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. pp. 638. ISBN 978-0-87349-385-7. OCLC 440702171.
Scoville, Warren C. (September 1944). "Growth of the American Glass Industry to 1880". Journal of Political Economy. 52 (3): 193–216. JSTOR 1826160. Retrieved November 2, 2023.
Quynn, Dorthy Mackay (September 1948). "Johann Friedrich Amelung at New Bremen" (PDF). Maryland Historical Magazine. XLIII (3). Baltimore, Maryland: Maryland Historical Society: 155–179. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
Tillotson, E. Ward (December 1920). "Modern Glass-Making – Putting the Glass Industry on a Scientific Basis". Scientific American Monthly. II (4). New York City: Scientific American Publishing Company: 351–354. Retrieved August 25, 2023.
United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce (1917). The Glass Industry. Report on the Cost of Production of Glass in the United States. Washington: Government Printing Office. OCLC 5705310.
Van Rensselaer, Stephen (1926). Early American Bottles and Flasks. Peterborough, New Hampshire: Transcript Print. Co. OCLC 1325741. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
Vaughan, Malcolm (July 1926). "New Light on Wistarberg Glass". international Studio. LXXXIV (350): 44–48. Retrieved November 28, 2023.
Wall, A. J. (October 1926). "Proposals for Establishing a Glass Works in the City of New York in 1752". The new York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin. X (3). New York City: New York Historical Society: 95–99.
Weeks, Joseph D.; United States Census Office (1884). Report on the Manufacture of Glass. Washington, District of Columbia: U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 2123984. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved June 26, 2023.
Zerwick, Chloe (1990). A Short History of Glass. New York: H.N. Abrams in association with the Corning Museum of Glass. ISBN 978-0-81093-801-4. OCLC 20220721.

External links

Historical American Glass
Jamestown and New Jersey - University of Central Florida History Department
Jamestown Glasshouse - National Park Service

[4] An older source states that the batch melting temperature is 2,600 °F (1,430 °C).^[2] Another older source quotes a glass works spokesman as saying the furnace is heated to between 2,800 °F (1,540 °C) and 3,600 °F (1,980 °C).^[3]

[24] The term that native Germans use to describe themselves is "Deutche", and this may have caused confusion between "Dutch" and "Deutche". An example of this misconception is the term "Pennsylvania Dutch", which actually refers to a group of people who came from a German–speaking region of Europe.^[20] In 1916, it was thought that in the United States "nine out of ten speak of a Dutchman when a German is meant".^[21] Captain John Smith may have confirmed that the "Dutchman" were Germans when writing about the difficulties of glassmaking at Jamestown. He wrote (sometimes with questionable spelling) "As for the hyring of the Poles and Dutch men...", it was useless "to send to Germany or Poleland for glasse–men...."^[22]

[49] Smedes has also been spelled as "Smeedes".^[46]

[58] Caspar Wistar's grandson, Dr. Caspar Wistar, became a famous physician.^[54]

[67] While at least three sources say the four glassblowers were German, at least one source says they were from Belgium.^[59] A newspaper article from 1920 said the glassworkers were from Holland.^[60] However, it is known today that the four glassblowers sailed from Rotterdam (in Holland), which was the main port of departure for Germans sailing to Philadelphia.^[61] One of the four glassblowers was named Johannes Wilhelm Wentzel, and a "Johan Wilhelm Wentzel" can be found on a list of passengers arriving from Palatines on September 9, 1738.^[62]

[83] The family name has been spelled at least seven different ways: Stanger, Stenger, Stinger, Staenger, Steenger, Syanger, and Sanger.^[77]

[86] An older source claims that the seven Stanger brothers were among Wistar's "best craftsmen", and all seven left around the beginning of the American Revolution to establish a factory in New Jersey's Gloucester County.^[79]

[97] Sources conflict over Amelung building a glass works. An obscure glassworks known as the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt factory existed on the property.^[87] Amelung never mentions the previous works, and only two 18th century accounts of that glass works have been found as of 1976. It is not known if Amelung demolished the old works, or if he modified and added to it.^[88] A Frederick newspaper article also recognizes the Foltz–Kramer–Eberhardt glass factory, and notes that glassmaking in the area began around 1759.^[89]

[113] Most historians cite the O'Hara and Craig Pittsburgh glass works, beginning in 1797 and managed by Peter William Eichbaum, as the first plant using coal for fuel.^[73]

[CorningHow-1] "How Glass is Made – What is glass made of? The wonders of glass all come down to melting sand". Corning. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.

[DOC60-2] United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 60

[Weeks35-3] Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 35

[Weeks45-5] Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 45

[Kutilek3741-6] Kutilek 2019, pp. 37, 41

[Louw48-7] Louw 1991, p. 48

[CorningAnnealing-8] "Corning Museum of Glass – Annealing Glass". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.

[CorningLehr-9] "Corning Museum of Glass – Lehr". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.

[GreenGlass-10] Purvis 1999, p. 107; Shotwell 2002, p. 224

[DOC12-11] United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 12

[DOC13-12] United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 13

[WoodCoalGas-13] United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1917, p. 13; Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 36

[SkrabecOwens97-14] Skrabec 2007, p. 97

[SkrabecLibbey20-15] Skrabec 2011, p. 20

[Poor11-16] Poor 1868, p. 11

[Poor20-17] Poor 1868, p. 20

[Hatch119-18] Hatch 1941, p. 119

[Lanmon14-19] Lanmon & Palmer 1976, p. 14

[DutchDeutshe-20] Hatch 1941, p. 119; "The Dream of Exporting Glass". Jamestown Rediscovery Foundation. Retrieved November 9, 2023.; "Glassmaking at Jamestown". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved November 9, 2023.; Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 77

[PennDutch-21] "Pennsylvania Dutch Crafts and Culture" (PDF). National Council for the Social Studies. Retrieved November 9, 2023.

[Baker27-22] Baker 1913, p. 27

[SmithGermany-23] Hatch 1941, pp. 127–128; "Glassmaking at Jamestown". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved November 9, 2023.

[Hatch121-25] Hatch 1941, p. 121

[Cotter100-26] Cotter 1958, p. 100

[Hatch126-27] Hatch 1941, p. 126

[Hatch119-120-28] Hatch 1941, pp. 119–120

[Hatch127-29] Hatch 1941, p. 127

[JamestownFirst-30] Hatch 1941, pp. 119–120; Tillotson 1920, p. 354

[Hatch131-31] Hatch 1941, p. 131

[Hatch136-32] Hatch 1941, p. 136

[HatchA229-231-33] Hatch 1941a, pp. 229–231

[Hatch137-34] Hatch 1941, p. 137

[HatchA225-35] Hatch 1941a, p. 225

[HatchA228-36] Hatch 1941a, p. 228

[NPSJamestownExhibit-37] "Historic Jamestowne - Glassmaking at Jamestown". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved November 21, 2023.

[Knittle64-38] Knittle 1927, p. 64

[Hunter139-39] Hunter 1914, p. 139

[SouthwickBullseye-40] Hunter 1914, p. 139; Shotwell 2002, p. 60

[SalemWorks-41] Knittle 1927, p. 65; Purvis 1999, p. 107; Hunter 1914, p. 139

[Scoville195-42] Scoville 1944, p. 195

[Knittle67-43] Knittle 1927, p. 67

[Shotwell376-44] Shotwell 2002, p. 376

[Hunter141-45] Hunter 1914, p. 141

[Knittle74-46] Knittle 1927, p. 74

[Knittle68-69-47] Knittle 1927, pp. 68–69

[Hunter140-48] Hunter 1914, p. 140

[Knittle69-50] Knittle 1927, p. 69

[Knittle69-70-51] Knittle 1927, pp. 69–70

[Gillingham98-52] Gillingham 1930, p. 98

[Gillingham101-102-53] Gillingham 1930, pp. 101–102

[McKearin77-78-54] McKearin & McKearin 1966, pp. 77–78

[Nash167-55] Nash 1965, p. 167

[Nash168-56] Nash 1965, p. 168

[DrWistar-57] "Caspar Wistar 1761-1818". University of Pennsylvania, University Archives and Records Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; "The Wistar Institute - Our Story". The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. Retrieved November 13, 2023.

[Shotwell616-617-59] Shotwell 2002, pp. 616–617

[WistarHired-60] Shotwell 2002, pp. 616–617; Zerwick 1990, p. 71

[Lanmon15-61] Lanmon & Palmer 1976, p. 15

[WheatonArtsWistar-62] "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.

[FourGB-63] "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; Shotwell 2002, p. 617; Zerwick 1990, p. 71; Knittle 1927, p. 86

[MJ19200910p3-64] "Find Rum Evidence from 18th Century". Midland Journal (from Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress). September 10, 1920.

[Rotterdam-65] "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; Grubb 1987, pp. 22–23

[Wentzel-66] Shotwell 2002, p. 617; Rupp 1856, pp. 60–61

[Shotwell617-68] Shotwell 2002, p. 617

[Zerwick71-69] Zerwick 1990, p. 71

[FirstGlass-70] "Find Rum Evidence from 18th Century". Midland Journal (from Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress). September 10, 1920.; Zerwick 1990, p. 71; "1989 The Wistars and their Glass 1739 – 1777". Wheaton Arts and Cultural Center. Retrieved November 13, 2023.; McKearin & McKearin 1966, p. 78; Knittle 1927, pp. 94–95

[Knittle118-119-71] Knittle 1927, pp. 118–119

[ElizFurnace-72] "Elizabeth Furnace Plantation Site". Millersville University. Retrieved November 21, 2023.

[Knittle119-73] Knittle 1927, p. 119

[Knittle120-74] Knittle 1927, p. 120

[Lanmon16-75] Lanmon & Palmer 1976, p. 16

[Knittle121-122-76] Knittle 1927, pp. 121–122

[ThirdWorks-77] Lanmon & Palmer 1976, pp. 16–17; Knittle 1927, p. 120

[Palmer79p107-78] Palmer 1979, p. 107

[Shotwell112-79] Shotwell 2002, p. 112

[Lanmon17-18-80] Lanmon & Palmer 1976, pp. 17–18

[CMOGstanger-81] "Stanger family". Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved November 21, 2023.

[Knittle152-82] Knittle 1927, p. 152

[StangerStart-84] "Stanger family". Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved November 21, 2023.; Knittle 1927, p. 153

[Vaughan48-85] Vaughan 1926, p. 48

[VanRensselaer134-87] Van Rensselaer 1926, p. 134

[Knittle153-88] Knittle 1927, p. 153

[Knittle154-89] Knittle 1927, p. 154

[WhitneyOwens-90] Knittle 1927, p. 154-155; Skrabec 2007, p. 43

[AmelungStarts-91] Quynn 1948, p. 158; Zerwick 1990, p. 72

[Quynn158-92] Quynn 1948, p. 158

[Quynn159-93] Quynn 1948, p. 159

[LanmonA26-94] Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, p. 26

[LanmonA2628-95] Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, pp. 26, 28

[FNPpreservation-96] Martinkosky, Christina (August 1, 2020). "Preservation Matters: Glass–Making Located in Frederick". Frederick News–Post. Retrieved November 22, 2023.

[Quynn167-98] Quynn 1948, p. 167

[LanmonA27-99] Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, p. 27

[Quynn174-100] Quynn 1948, p. 174

[LanmonA38-101] Lanmon & Palmer 1976a, p. 38

[Weeks83-102] Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 83

[Hunter144-103] Hunter 1914, p. 144

[NatArchivesFranklin-104] "Founders Online - From Benjamin Franklin to John Franklin, 27 September 1750". National Historical Publications and Records Commission, National Archives. Retrieved November 30, 2023.

[Purvis107-105] Purvis 1999, p. 107

[Wall95-106] Wall 1926, p. 95

[Wall98-99-107] Wall 1926, pp. 98–99

[Hunter149-108] Hunter 1914, p. 149

[Hunter150-151-109] Hunter 1914, pp. 150–151

[Hunter152-154-110] Hunter 1914, pp. 152–153

[CMOGhewes-111] "Robert Hewes, Glass Manufacturer". Corning Museum of Glass. Retrieved December 5, 2023.

[Palmer79p102107-112] Palmer 1979, pp. 102, 107

[Palmer79p113-114] Palmer 1979, p. 113

[Palmer79p114-115] Palmer 1979, p. 114

[Weeks82-116] Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 82

[Dyer23-117] Dyer & Gross 2001, p. 23

[antiquarian-118] Abraham, Evelyn (August 1931). "The Glass of New Geneva and Greensboro". The Antiquarian. 17 (2): 15–17.

[1]

[Note 1]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[Note 2]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[Note 3]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[Note 4]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[Note 5]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[Note 6]

[78]

[Note 7]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[Note 8]

[90]

[91]

[87]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

[101]

[102]

[103]

[104]

[Note 9]

[105]

[106]

v t e Glass makers and brands
Current companies	Anchor Hocking Arc Holdings Ardagh Group Asahi Aurora Glass Foundry Baccarat Barovier & Toso Berengo Studio Blenko Glass Bodum Bormioli Rocco Borosil Caithness Glass Corning Crystalex Dartington Crystal Daum Duralex Fanavid Fenton Art Glass Company Firozabad glass industry Franz Mayer Fuyao Glava Glaverbel Guardian Industries Hadeland Hardman & Co. Holmegaard Glassworks Holophane Hoya Kingdom of Crystal Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works Kosta Boda Libbey Liuli Gongfang Iittala Luoyang Johns Manville Mannok Mats Jonasson Målerås Moser Glass Mosser Glass Nippon Sheet Glass Nižbor glassworks O-I Glass Ohara Orrefors Osram Owens Corning Pauly & C. - Compagnia Venezia Murano Phu Phong Pilkington PPG Industries Preciosa Riedel Rona Royal Brierley Saint-Gobain Saint-Louis Seguso Schott Sterlite Optical Technologies Steuben Swarovski Val Saint Lambert Vallérysthal Waterford Watts & Co. World Kitchen Xinyi Glass Zwiesel
Defunct companies	List of defunct glassmaking companies
Glassmakers	John Adams Richard M. Atwater Frederick Carder Irving Wightman Colburn Henry Crimmel Friedrich A. H. Heisey Deming Jarves Edward D. Libbey Dante Marioni Antonio Neri Michael Joseph Owens Alastair Pilkington Flavio Poli Salviati Otto Schott Henry William Stiegel S. Donald Stookey Lino Tagliapietra W. E. S. Turner Tomasz Urbanowicz Paolo Venini John M. Whitall Caspar Wistar
Trademarks and brands	Activ Bohemian Bomex/Duran/Endural Burmese Chevron bead Corelle CorningWare Cranberry Cristallo Dragontrail Favrile Fire-King Forest Gorilla Macor Millefiori Murano Opaline Peking Pyrex Rona Ravenhead Satsuma Kiriko Tiffany Visions Vitrite Vitrolite Vycor Waterford Wood's Zerodur