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Water resources in India includes information on precipitation, surface and groundwater storage and hydropower potential. India experiences an average precipitation of 1,170 millimetres (46 in) per year, or about 4,000 cubic kilometres (960 cu mi) of rains annually or about 1,720 cubic metres (61,000 cu ft) of fresh water per person every year.^[1] India accounts for 18% of the world's population and about 4% of the world's water resources. One of the proposed solutions to solve the country's water woes is the Indian rivers interlinking project.^[2] Some 80 percent of its area experiences rains of 750 millimetres (30 in) or more a year. However, this rain is not uniform in time or geography. Most of the rains occur during its monsoon seasons (June to September), with the northeast and north receiving far more rain than India's west and south. Other than rains, the melting of snow over the Himalayas after the winter season feeds the northern rivers to varying degrees. The southern rivers, however, experience more flow variability over the year. For the Himalayan basin, this leads to flooding in some months and water scarcity in others. Despite an extensive river system, safe clean drinking water as well as irrigation water supplies for sustainable agriculture are in shortage across India, in part because it has, as yet, harnessed a small fraction of its available and recoverable surface water resource. India harnessed 761 cubic kilometres (183 cu mi) (20 percent) of its water resources in 2010, part of which came from unsustainable use of groundwater.^[3]^[4] Of the water it withdrew from its rivers and groundwater wells, India dedicated about 688 cubic kilometres (165 cu mi) to irrigation, 56 cubic kilometres (13 cu mi) to municipal and drinking water applications and 17 cubic kilometres (4.1 cu mi) to industry.^[1]

Vast area of India is under a tropical climate which is conducive throughout the year for agriculture due to favorable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of evapotranspiration from the cultivated land.^[5] Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the country, the water supply gaps due to temporal and spatial distribution of water resources are to be bridged by interlinking the rivers of India.^[6] The total water resources going waste to the sea are nearly 1200 billion cubic meters after sparing moderate environmental / salt export water requirements of all rivers.^[7] Food security in India is possible by achieving water security first which in turn is possible with energy security to supply the electricity for the required water pumping as part of its rivers interlinking.^[8]

Instead of opting for centralized mega water transfer projects which would take a long time to give results, it would be a cheaper alternative to deploy extensive shade nets over the cultivated lands for using the locally available water sources efficiently to crops throughout the year.^[9] Plants need less than 2% of total water for metabolism requirements and rest 98% is for cooling purpose through transpiration. Shade nets or polytunnels installed over the agricultural lands suitable for all weather conditions would reduce the potential evaporation drastically by reflecting the excessive and harmful sun light without falling on the cropped area.

Drought, floods and shortage of drinking water

The precipitation pattern in India varies dramatically across distances and over calendar months. Much of the precipitation in India, about 85%, is received during summer months through monsoons in the Himalayan catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin. The northeastern region of the country receives heavy precipitation, in comparison with the northwestern, western and southern parts. The uncertainty in the onset of the annual monsoon, sometimes marked by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem for the country.^[10] Large area of the country is not put to use for agriculture due to local water scarcity or poor water quality.^[11] The nation sees cycles of drought years and flood years, with large parts of west and south experiencing more deficits and large variations, resulting in immense hardship particularly the poorest farmers and rural populations.^[12] Dependence on erratic rains and lack of irrigation water supply regionally leads to crop failures and farmer suicides. Despite abundant rains during June–September, some regions in other seasons see shortages of drinking water. Some years, the problem temporarily becomes too much rainfall and weeks of havoc from floods.^[13]

Surface and groundwater storage

India currently stores only 6% of its annual rainfall or 253 billion cubic metres (8.9×10^¹² cu ft), while developed nations strategically store 250% of the annual rainfall in arid river basins.^[14] India also relies excessively on groundwater resources, which accounts for over 50 percent of the irrigated area with 20 million tube wells installed. India has built nearly 5,000 major or medium dams, barrages, etc. to store the river waters and enhance groundwater recharging.^[15] The important dams (59 nos) have an aggregate gross storage capacity of 170 billion cubic metres (6.0×10^¹² cu ft).^[16] About 15 percent of India's food is being produced using rapidly depleting / mining groundwater resources. The end of the era of massive expansion in groundwater use is going to demand greater reliance on surface water supply systems.^[17]

India is not running out of water whereas water is running out of India without extracting its full potential benefits.^[18] Land-based water reservoirs construction is very costly after meeting the land & property compensation and rehabilitation expenditures. To create adequate water storage, fresh water coastal reservoirs located in the sea area near the river deltas, is the suitable socio-economical option without land and forest submergence problems.^[19]^[20]^[21]

Hydro power potential

Indian rivers have fairly good hydropower potential when they descend from their source mountains (Himalayas, Western Ghats, Aravali Range, Vindhya Mountains, Eastern Ghats, etc.) before the water consumption or flowing to the sea. The hydropower potential keeps on varying depending on technological developments including alternate power sources, priorities and limitations. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity potential can also be created economically by constructing embankment canals associated with freshwater coastal reservoirs while harnessing the water resources for various needs.^[19]

Rivers

The major rivers of India are:^[22]

Flowing into the Bay of Bengal: Brahmaputra, Ganges, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, etc.
Flowing into the Arabian Sea: Indus, Narmada, Tapti, etc.

Lakes

Lakes in India include Pulicat Lake, Kolleru Lake, Pangong Tso, Chilika Lake, Kuttanad Lake, Sambhar Salt Lake, and Pushkar Lake.

Wetlands

India is a signatory of the Ramsar Convention, an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands^[23]

Water supply and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation in India continue to be inadequate, despite long-standing efforts by the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. The level of investment in water and sanitation, albeit low by international standards, has increased during the 2000s. Access has also increased significantly. For example, in 1980 rural sanitation coverage was estimated at 1% and reached 21% in 2008.^[24]^[25] Also, the share of Indians with access to improved sources of water has increased significantly from 72% in 1990 to 88% in 2008.^[24] At the same time, local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the financial resources to carry out their functions. In addition, no major city in India is known to have a continuous water supply^[26] and an estimated 72% of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities.

In spite of adequate average rainfall in India, there is a large area under scarce water conditions/drought-prone. There are lot of places, where the quality of groundwater is not good. Another issue lies in the interstate distribution of rivers. The water supply of 90% of India's territory is served by inter-state rivers. It has created a growing number of conflicts across the states and to the whole country on water-sharing issues.^[27]

A number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in India, in particular in the early 2000s. These include demand-driven approaches in rural water supply since 1999, community-led total sanitation, a public-private partnerships to improve the continuity of urban water supply in Karnataka, and the use of micro-credit to women in order to improve access to water.

Water quality issues

When sufficient salt export is not taking place from a river basin to the sea in an attempt to harness the river water fully, it leads to the river basin closer and the available water in the downstream area of the river basin becomes saline and/ or alkaline water. Land irrigated with saline or alkaline water becomes gradually into saline or alkali soils.^[28]^[29]^[30] The water percolation in alkali soils is very poor leading to waterlogging problems. The proliferation of alkali soils would compel the farmers to cultivate rice or grasses only as the soil productivity is poor with other crops and tree plantations.^[31] Cotton is the preferred crop in saline soils compared to many other crops as their yield is poor.^[32] In northeastern states high acidic nature of soils due to excessive rainfall is effecting the agriculture productivity.^[33] Interlinking water surplus rivers with water deficit rivers is needed for the long-term sustainable productivity of the river basins and for mitigating the anthropogenic influences on the rivers by allowing adequate salt export to the sea in the form of environmental flows.^[34] Also baseflows in rivers are to be restored by stopping excessive groundwater use and augmenting surface water by canals to achieve adequate salt export to the sea and preserve the water quality.

Water disputes

There is intense competition for the water available in the inter-state rivers such as Kavery, Krishna, Godavari, Vamsadhara, Mandovi, Ravi-Beas-Sutlez, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, etc. among the riparian states of India in the absence of water augmentation from the water surplus rivers such as Brahmaputra, Himalayan tributaries of Ganga and west flowing coastal rivers of western ghats.

Water pollution

Out of India's 3,119 towns and cities, just 209 have partial treatment facilities, and only 8 have full wastewater treatment facilities (WHO 1992)^{[needs update]}.^[35] 114 cities dump untreated sewage and partially cremated bodies directly into the Ganges River.^[36] Downstream, the untreated water is used for drinking, bathing, and washing.^[37] This situation is typical of many rivers in India and river Ganga is less polluted comparatively.^[38]

Ganga

The Ganges River is the largest river in India. The extreme pollution of the Ganges affects 600 million people who live close to the river. The river water starts getting polluted when it enters the plain. The commercial exploitation of the river has risen in proportion to the rise in population. Gangotri and Uttarkashi are good examples too. Gangotri had only a few huts of Sadhus until the 1970s and the population of Uttrakashi has swelled in recent years.

Yamuna

Yamuna is one of the few sacred rivers in India which is worshipped by many Indians as a goddess. However, due to the exponentially rising amounts of tourists and pilgrims with addition to the rising population of the inhabitants of its banks, Yamuna has come under extreme duress. Due to this unprecedented rise, the river has become polluted. The river has become extremely polluted such that the Indian government has launched the Yamuna Action Plan to help the cause.

Water security

In India, there is competition for water resources from all inter-state rivers except the main Brahmaputra river among the riparian states of India and also with neighboring countries which are Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, etc.^[39] Vast area of the Indian subcontinent is under tropical climate which is conducive for agriculture due to favorable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of evapotranspiration from the cultivated land. Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the subcontinent, the water supply gaps due to the temporal and spatial distribution of water resources among the states and countries in the subcontinent are to be bridged.

There is intense competition for the water available in the inter-state rivers such as Kavery, Krishna, Godavari, Vamsadhara, Mandovi, Ravi-Beas-Sutlez, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, etc. among the riparian states of India in the absence of water augmentation from the water surplus rivers such as Brahmaputra, Himalayan tributaries of Ganga and west flowing coastal rivers of western ghats. All river basins face severe water shortages even for the drinking needs of people, cattle, and wildlife during the intense summer season when the rainfall is negligible.

Water security can be achieved along with energy security as it is going to consume electricity to link the surplus water areas with the water deficit areas by lift canals, pipelines, etc.^[40]

References

^ ^a ^b "India - Rivers Catchment" (PDF). Retrieved 13 July 2016.
^ "National Water Policy". greencleanguide.com. September 13, 2014. Archived from the original on September 17, 2013.
^ "India is running out of water". Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Brown, Lester R. (19 November 2013). "India's dangerous 'food bubble'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 18 December 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2014. Alt URL
^ "Potential Evapotranspiration estimation for Indian conditions" (PDF). Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ "India's Water Resources". Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ IWMI Research Report 83. "Spatial variation in water supply and demand across river basins of India" (PDF). Retrieved 23 June 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "India's problem is going to be water not population". The Statesman. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
^ "Protected Cultivation" (PDF). Retrieved 23 June 2018.
^ "How India sees the coming crisis of water — and is preparing for it". 26 September 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
^ "Waste lands atlas of India, 2011". Retrieved 30 May 2016.
^ "Mapping Multiple Climate-related Hazards in South Asia" (PDF). Retrieved 30 July 2017.
^ "State wise flood damage statistics in India" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-01-04.
^ "Integrated hydrological data book (page 65)" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2016.
^ "List of riverwise dams and barrages". Retrieved 29 May 2014.
^ "National register of dams in India" (PDF). Retrieved 19 July 2016.
^ "India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2014.
^ "India is not running out of water, water is running out of India". 26 March 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
^ ^a ^b Sasidhar, Nallapaneni (May 2023). "Multipurpose Freshwater Coastal Reservoirs and Their Role in Mitigating Climate Change" (PDF). Indian Journal of Environment Engineering. 3 (1): 30–45. doi:10.54105/ijee.A1842.053123. ISSN 2582-9289. S2CID 258753397. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
^ "Efficacy of coastal reservoirs to address India's water shortage by impounding excess river flood waters near the coast (pages 49 and 19)". Retrieved 9 July 2018.
^ "International Association for Coastal Reservoir Research". Retrieved 9 July 2018.
^ "River basin maps in India". Retrieved 29 May 2014.
^ "Wet lands atlas of India 2011". Retrieved 29 May 2016.
^ ^a ^b UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation estimate for 2008 based on 2006 Demographic and Health Survey, the 2001 census, other data, and the extrapolation of previous trends to 2010. See JMP tables
^ Planning Commission of India. "Health and Family Welfare and AYUSH : 11th Five Year Plan" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-09-19., p. 78
^ "Development Policy Review". World Bank. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
^ "Water scarcity and India « For the Changing Planet". greencleanguide.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-24.
^ Keller, Jack; Keller, Andrew; Davids, Grant (January 1998). "River basin development phases and implications of closure". Retrieved 25 September 2020.
^ David Seckler. "The New Era of Water Resources Management: From "Dry" to "Wet" Water Savings" (PDF). Retrieved 5 June 2016.
^ Andrew Keller; Jack Keller; David Seckler. "Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications" (PDF). Retrieved 5 January 2014.
^ Oregon State University, USA. "Managing irrigation water quality" (PDF). Retrieved 28 August 2012.
^ "Irrigation water quality—salinity and soil structure stability" (PDF). Retrieved 5 January 2016.
^ "Extreme rainfall acidifies land in India's northeastern states". Retrieved 2 December 2018.
^ "India on verge of looming soil crisis: Report". Retrieved 7 December 2017.
^ Russell Hopfenberg and David Pimentel HUMAN POPULATION NUMBERS AS A FUNCTION OF FOOD SUPPLY oilcrash.com Retrieved on- February 2008
^ National Geographic Society. 1995. Water: A Story of Hope. Washington (DC): National Geographic Society
^ "River Stretches for Restoration of Water Quality, MoEF" (PDF). Retrieved 15 September 2018.
^ "Water Quality Database of Indian rivers, MoEF". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
^ "India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2015.
^ Brown, Lester R. (November 29, 2013). "India's dangerous 'food bubble'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved July 13, 2014. Alt URL

External links

Cook-Anderson, Gretchen (12 August 2009). "NASA Satellites Unlock Secret to Northern India's Vanishing Water". NASA. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
Children's Eyes on Earth 2012 photography contest – in pictures Peaceful Co-existence Guardian 9 October 2012

[fao1-1] "India - Rivers Catchment" (PDF). Retrieved 13 July 2016.

[2] "National Water Policy". greencleanguide.com. September 13, 2014. Archived from the original on September 17, 2013.

[3] "India is running out of water". Retrieved 13 February 2021.

[4] Brown, Lester R. (19 November 2013). "India's dangerous 'food bubble'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 18 December 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2014. Alt URL

[5] "Potential Evapotranspiration estimation for Indian conditions" (PDF). Retrieved 23 June 2016.

[cwc-6] "India's Water Resources". Retrieved 23 June 2016.

[7] IWMI Research Report 83. "Spatial variation in water supply and demand across river basins of India" (PDF). Retrieved 23 June 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[8] "India's problem is going to be water not population". The Statesman. Retrieved 21 September 2016.

[9] "Protected Cultivation" (PDF). Retrieved 23 June 2018.

[10] "How India sees the coming crisis of water — and is preparing for it". 26 September 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.

[11] "Waste lands atlas of India, 2011". Retrieved 30 May 2016.

[12] "Mapping Multiple Climate-related Hazards in South Asia" (PDF). Retrieved 30 July 2017.

[cwc.gov.in-13] "State wise flood damage statistics in India" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-01-04.

[14] "Integrated hydrological data book (page 65)" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2016.

[15] "List of riverwise dams and barrages". Retrieved 29 May 2014.

[16] "National register of dams in India" (PDF). Retrieved 19 July 2016.

[17] "India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2014.

[18] "India is not running out of water, water is running out of India". 26 March 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2018.

[cre-19] Sasidhar, Nallapaneni (May 2023). "Multipurpose Freshwater Coastal Reservoirs and Their Role in Mitigating Climate Change" (PDF). Indian Journal of Environment Engineering. 3 (1): 30–45. doi:10.54105/ijee.A1842.053123. ISSN 2582-9289. S2CID 258753397. Retrieved 2023-05-23.

[20] "Efficacy of coastal reservoirs to address India's water shortage by impounding excess river flood waters near the coast (pages 49 and 19)". Retrieved 9 July 2018.

[21] "International Association for Coastal Reservoir Research". Retrieved 9 July 2018.

[22] "River basin maps in India". Retrieved 29 May 2014.

[23] "Wet lands atlas of India 2011". Retrieved 29 May 2016.

[JMP-24] UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation estimate for 2008 based on 2006 Demographic and Health Survey, the 2001 census, other data, and the extrapolation of previous trends to 2010. See JMP tables

[health_11thplan-25] Planning Commission of India. "Health and Family Welfare and AYUSH : 11th Five Year Plan" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-09-19., p. 78

[dpreview-26] "Development Policy Review". World Bank. Retrieved 2010-09-19.

[27] "Water scarcity and India « For the Changing Planet". greencleanguide.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-24.

[28] Keller, Jack; Keller, Andrew; Davids, Grant (January 1998). "River basin development phases and implications of closure". Retrieved 25 September 2020.

[29] David Seckler. "The New Era of Water Resources Management: From "Dry" to "Wet" Water Savings" (PDF). Retrieved 5 June 2016.

[30] Andrew Keller; Jack Keller; David Seckler. "Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications" (PDF). Retrieved 5 January 2014.

[31] Oregon State University, USA. "Managing irrigation water quality" (PDF). Retrieved 28 August 2012.

[32] "Irrigation water quality—salinity and soil structure stability" (PDF). Retrieved 5 January 2016.

[33] "Extreme rainfall acidifies land in India's northeastern states". Retrieved 2 December 2018.

[34] "India on verge of looming soil crisis: Report". Retrieved 7 December 2017.

[35] Russell Hopfenberg and David Pimentel HUMAN POPULATION NUMBERS AS A FUNCTION OF FOOD SUPPLY oilcrash.com Retrieved on- February 2008

[36] National Geographic Society. 1995. Water: A Story of Hope. Washington (DC): National Geographic Society

[37] "River Stretches for Restoration of Water Quality, MoEF" (PDF). Retrieved 15 September 2018.

[38] "Water Quality Database of Indian rivers, MoEF". Retrieved 15 September 2016.

[39] "India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 29 May 2015.

[40] Brown, Lester R. (November 29, 2013). "India's dangerous 'food bubble'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved July 13, 2014. Alt URL

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-'''Water resources in India''' includes information on [[precipitation]], surface and [[groundwater]] storage and [[hydropower]] potential. India experiences an average precipitation of {{convert|1170|mm|in}} per year, or about {{convert|4000|km3|mi3}} of rains annually or about {{convert|1720|m3}} of fresh water ''per person'' every year.<ref name=fao1/> India accounts for 18% of the world population and about 4% of the world's water resources. One of the proposed solutions to solve the country's water woes is the [[Indian rivers interlinking project]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://greencleanguide.com/2013/09/13/national-water-policy/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917053712/http://greencleanguide.com/2013/09/13/national-water-policy/|archivedate=September 17, 2013|title=National Water Policy|date=September 13, 2014|website=greencleanguide.com}}</ref> Some 80&nbsp;percent of its area experiences rains of {{convert|750|mm|in}} or more a year. However, this rain is not uniform in time or geography. Most of the rains occur during its [[Monsoon of India|monsoon]] seasons (June to September), with the north east and north receiving far more rains than India's west and south. Other than rains, the melting of snow over the Himalayas after winter season feeds the northern rivers to varying degrees. The southern rivers, however experience more flow variability over the year. For the Himalayan basin, this leads to flooding in some months and [[Water scarcity in India|water scarcity]] in others. Despite extensive river system, safe clean drinking water as well as irrigation water supplies for [[sustainable agriculture]] are in shortage across India, in part because it has, as yet, harnessed a small fraction of its available and recoverable surface water resource. India harnessed {{convert|761|km3|mi3}} (20&nbsp;percent) of its water resources in 2010, part of which came from unsustainable use of groundwater.<ref>{{cite web |title=India is running out of water|url=https://graphics.reuters.com/INDIA-ENVIRONMENT-WATER/0100B2C41FD/index.html |accessdate=13 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Brown |first=Lester R. |date=19 November 2013 |title=India's dangerous 'food bubble' |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218120818/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |archive-date=18 December 2013 |accessdate=13 July 2014}} [http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update119 Alt URL]</ref> Of the water it withdrew from its rivers and groundwater wells, India dedicated about {{convert|688|km3|mi3}} to irrigation, {{convert|56|km3|mi3}} to municipal and drinking water applications and {{convert|17|km3|mi3}} to industry.<ref name=fao1>{{cite web|title=India - Rivers Catchment |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/IND/IND-CP_eng.pdf |accessdate=13 July 2016}}</ref>
+'''Water resources in India''' includes information on [[precipitation]], surface and [[groundwater]] storage and [[hydropower]] potential. India experiences an average precipitation of {{convert|1170|mm|in}} per year, or about {{convert|4000|km3|mi3}} of rains annually or about {{convert|1720|m3}} of fresh water ''per person'' every year.<ref name=fao1/> India accounts for 18% of the world's population and about 4% of the world's water resources. One of the proposed solutions to solve the country's water woes is the [[Indian rivers interlinking project]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://greencleanguide.com/2013/09/13/national-water-policy/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917053712/http://greencleanguide.com/2013/09/13/national-water-policy/|archivedate=September 17, 2013|title=National Water Policy|date=September 13, 2014|website=greencleanguide.com}}</ref> Some 80&nbsp;percent of its area experiences rains of {{convert|750|mm|in}} or more a year. However, this rain is not uniform in time or geography. Most of the rains occur during its [[Monsoon of India|monsoon]] seasons (June to September), with the northeast and north receiving far more rain than India's west and south. Other than rains, the melting of snow over the Himalayas after the winter season feeds the northern rivers to varying degrees. The southern rivers, however, experience more flow variability over the year. For the Himalayan basin, this leads to flooding in some months and [[Water scarcity in India|water scarcity]] in others. Despite an extensive river system, safe clean drinking water as well as irrigation water supplies for [[sustainable agriculture]] are in shortage across India, in part because it has, as yet, harnessed a small fraction of its available and recoverable surface water resource. India harnessed {{convert|761|km3|mi3}} (20&nbsp;percent) of its water resources in 2010, part of which came from unsustainable use of groundwater.<ref>{{cite web |title=India is running out of water|url=https://graphics.reuters.com/INDIA-ENVIRONMENT-WATER/0100B2C41FD/index.html |accessdate=13 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Brown |first=Lester R. |date=19 November 2013 |title=India's dangerous 'food bubble' |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218120818/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |archive-date=18 December 2013 |accessdate=13 July 2014}} [http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update119 Alt URL]</ref> Of the water it withdrew from its rivers and groundwater wells, India dedicated about {{convert|688|km3|mi3}} to irrigation, {{convert|56|km3|mi3}} to municipal and drinking water applications and {{convert|17|km3|mi3}} to industry.<ref name=fao1>{{cite web|title=India - Rivers Catchment |url=http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/IND/IND-CP_eng.pdf |accessdate=13 July 2016}}</ref>
-Vast area of India is under tropical climate which is conducive throughout the year for agriculture due to favourable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of [[evapotranspiration]] from the cultivated land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/images/Books/Potential%20Evapotranspiration%20estimation.pdf |title=Potential Evapotranspiration estimation for Indian conditions|accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the country, the water supply gaps due to temporal and spatial distribution of water resources are to be bridged by [[Indian Rivers Inter-link|interlinking the rivers of India]].<ref name=cwc>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/webpages/statistics.html |title=India's Water Resources|accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> The total water resources going waste to the sea are nearly 1200 billion cubic meters after sparing moderate environmental / [[Dissolved load|salt export]] water requirements of all rivers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub083/RR83.pdf |title=Spatial variation in water supply and demand across river basins of India|author=IWMI Research Report 83|accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> [[Food security]] in India is possible by achieving [[water security]] first which in turn is possible with [[energy security]] to supply the electricity for the required water pumping as part of its [[Talk:Kalpasar Project|rivers interlinking]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thestatesman.com/news/opinion/when-neighbours-become-enemies/165052.html |title=India's problem is going to be water not population|website=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]|accessdate=21 September 2016}}</ref>
+Vast area of India is under a tropical climate which is conducive throughout the year for agriculture due to favorable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of [[evapotranspiration]] from the cultivated land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nicra-icar.in/nicrarevised/images/Books/Potential%20Evapotranspiration%20estimation.pdf |title=Potential Evapotranspiration estimation for Indian conditions|accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the country, the water supply gaps due to temporal and spatial distribution of water resources are to be bridged by [[Indian Rivers Inter-link|interlinking the rivers of India]].<ref name=cwc>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/webpages/statistics.html |title=India's Water Resources|accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> The total water resources going waste to the sea are nearly 1200 billion cubic meters after sparing moderate environmental / [[Dissolved load|salt export]] water requirements of all rivers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub083/RR83.pdf |title=Spatial variation in water supply and demand across river basins of India|author=IWMI Research Report 83|accessdate=23 June 2016}}</ref> [[Food security]] in India is possible by achieving [[water security]] first which in turn is possible with [[energy security]] to supply the electricity for the required water pumping as part of its [[Talk:Kalpasar Project|rivers interlinking]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thestatesman.com/news/opinion/when-neighbours-become-enemies/165052.html |title=India's problem is going to be water not population|website=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]|accessdate=21 September 2016}}</ref>
-Instead of opting for centralised mega water transfer projects which would take long time to give results, it would be cheaper alternative to deploy extensively shade nets over the cultivated lands for using the locally available water sources efficiently to crops throughout the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agricoop.nic.in/sites/default/files/midhPPT10.pdf |title=Protected Cultivation|accessdate=23 June 2018}}</ref> Plants need less than 2% of total water for metabolism requirements and rest 98% is for cooling purpose through [[transpiration]]. Shade nets or [[polytunnel]]s installed over the agriculture lands suitable for all weather conditions would reduce the [[potential evaporation]] drastically by reflecting the excessive and harmful sun light without falling on the cropped area.
+Instead of opting for centralized mega water transfer projects which would take a long time to give results, it would be a cheaper alternative to deploy extensive shade nets over the cultivated lands for using the locally available water sources efficiently to crops throughout the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agricoop.nic.in/sites/default/files/midhPPT10.pdf |title=Protected Cultivation|accessdate=23 June 2018}}</ref> Plants need less than 2% of total water for metabolism requirements and rest 98% is for cooling purpose through [[transpiration]]. Shade nets or [[polytunnel]]s installed over the agricultural lands suitable for all weather conditions would reduce the [[potential evaporation]] drastically by reflecting the excessive and harmful sun light without falling on the cropped area.
 [[File:India annual rainfall map en.svg|thumb|left|250px|Annual average rainfall in India.]]
 [[File:India flood zone map.svg|thumb|Map showing rivers and flood prone areas in India]]
@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 ==Drought, floods and shortage of drinking water==
 {{see also|Indian states ranking by drinking water|Water scarcity in India}}
-The precipitation pattern in India varies dramatically across distance and over calendar months. Much of the precipitation in India, about 85%, is received during summer months through monsoons in the Himalayan catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin. The north eastern region of the country receives heavy precipitation, in comparison with the north western, western and southern parts. The uncertainty in onset of annual monsoon, sometimes marked by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem for the country.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-india-sees-the-coming-crisis-of-water-and-is-preparing-for-it-3049950/ |title= How India sees the coming crisis of water — and is preparing for it |date= 26 September 2016 |accessdate=30 September 2016}}</ref> Large area of the country is not put to use for agriculture due to [[Water scarcity in India|local water scarcity]] or poor water quality.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/wasteland_atlas.asp |title= Waste lands atlas of India, 2011 |accessdate=30 May 2016}}</ref> The nation sees cycles of drought years and flood years, with large parts of west and south experiencing more deficits and large variations, resulting in immense hardship particularly the poorest farmers and rural populations.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub170/rr170.pdf |title=Mapping Multiple Climate-related Hazards in South Asia |accessdate=30 July 2017}}</ref> Dependence on erratic rains and lack of irrigation water supply regionally leads to crop failures and farmer suicides. Despite abundant rains during June–September, some regions in other seasons see shortages of drinking water. Some years, the problem temporarily becomes too much rainfall, and weeks of havoc from floods.<ref name="cwc.gov.in">{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.gov.in/main/downloads/FFM.2200-2291.27112012.pdf|title= State wise flood damage statistics in India|accessdate=2013-01-04}}</ref>
+The precipitation pattern in India varies dramatically across distances and over calendar months. Much of the precipitation in India, about 85%, is received during summer months through monsoons in the Himalayan catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin. The northeastern region of the country receives heavy precipitation, in comparison with the northwestern, western and southern parts. The uncertainty in the onset of the annual monsoon, sometimes marked by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem for the country.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-india-sees-the-coming-crisis-of-water-and-is-preparing-for-it-3049950/ |title= How India sees the coming crisis of water — and is preparing for it |date= 26 September 2016 |accessdate=30 September 2016}}</ref> Large area of the country is not put to use for agriculture due to [[Water scarcity in India|local water scarcity]] or poor water quality.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/wasteland_atlas.asp |title= Waste lands atlas of India, 2011 |accessdate=30 May 2016}}</ref> The nation sees cycles of drought years and flood years, with large parts of west and south experiencing more deficits and large variations, resulting in immense hardship particularly the poorest farmers and rural populations.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub170/rr170.pdf |title=Mapping Multiple Climate-related Hazards in South Asia |accessdate=30 July 2017}}</ref> Dependence on erratic rains and lack of irrigation water supply regionally leads to crop failures and farmer suicides. Despite abundant rains during June–September, some regions in other seasons see shortages of drinking water. Some years, the problem temporarily becomes too much rainfall and weeks of havoc from floods.<ref name="cwc.gov.in">{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.gov.in/main/downloads/FFM.2200-2291.27112012.pdf|title= State wise flood damage statistics in India|accessdate=2013-01-04}}</ref>
-==Surface and ground water storage==
+==Surface and groundwater storage==
 {{See also|Johad}}
-India currently stores only 6% of its annual rainfall or {{convert|253|e9m3}}, while developed nations strategically store 250% of the annual rainfall in arid river basins.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/IHD2015_final.pdf |title=Integrated hydrological data book (page 65) |accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref> India also relies excessively on groundwater resources, which accounts for over 50 percent of irrigated area with 20 million tube wells installed.  India has built nearly 5,000 major or medium dams, barrages, etc. to store the river waters and enhance ground water recharging.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Headworks_(Dam,_Barrage,Weir,_Anicut,_Lift) |title=List of riverwise dams and barrages |accessdate=29 May 2014}}</ref> The important dams (59 nos) have an aggregate gross storage capacity of {{convert|170|e9m3}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/New%20NRLD.pdf|title= National register of dams in India |accessdate=19 July 2016}}</ref> About 15 percent of India's food is being produced using rapidly depleting / [[water mining|mining]] [[groundwater resources]]. The end of the era of massive expansion in groundwater use is going to demand greater reliance on surface water supply systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/06/25/000333037_20080625020800/Rendered/PDF/443760PUB0IN0W1Box0327398B01PUBLIC1.pdf |title=India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006|accessdate=29 May 2014}}</ref>
+India currently stores only 6% of its annual rainfall or {{convert|253|e9m3}}, while developed nations strategically store 250% of the annual rainfall in arid river basins.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/IHD2015_final.pdf |title=Integrated hydrological data book (page 65) |accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref> India also relies excessively on groundwater resources, which accounts for over 50 percent of the irrigated area with 20 million tube wells installed.  India has built nearly 5,000 major or medium dams, barrages, etc. to store the river waters and enhance groundwater recharging.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Headworks_(Dam,_Barrage,Weir,_Anicut,_Lift) |title=List of riverwise dams and barrages |accessdate=29 May 2014}}</ref> The important dams (59 nos) have an aggregate gross storage capacity of {{convert|170|e9m3}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/New%20NRLD.pdf|title= National register of dams in India |accessdate=19 July 2016}}</ref> About 15 percent of India's food is being produced using rapidly depleting / [[water mining|mining]] [[groundwater resources]]. The end of the era of massive expansion in groundwater use is going to demand greater reliance on surface water supply systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/06/25/000333037_20080625020800/Rendered/PDF/443760PUB0IN0W1Box0327398B01PUBLIC1.pdf |title=India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006|accessdate=29 May 2014}}</ref>
-India is not running out of water whereas water is running out of India without extracting its full potential benefits.<ref>{{cite web |title=India is not running out of water, water is running out of India|date=26 March 2017|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/op-ed/260317/by-invitation-india-is-not-running-out-of-water-water-is-running-out-of-india.html|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref> Land based water reservoirs construction is very costly after meeting the land & property compensation and rehabilitation expenditures. To create adequate water storage, fresh water [[coastal reservoir]]s located on the sea area near the river deltas, is the suitable option socioeconomically without land and forest submergence problems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Efficacy of coastal reservoirs to address India's water shortage by impounding excess river flood waters near the coast (pages 49 and 19) |url=http://ojs.udspub.com/index.php/jsupp/issue/viewIssue/51/4|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Association for Coastal Reservoir Research|url=http://iacrr.org/publications|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref>
+India is not running out of water whereas water is running out of India without extracting its full potential benefits.<ref>{{cite web |title=India is not running out of water, water is running out of India|date=26 March 2017|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/op-ed/260317/by-invitation-india-is-not-running-out-of-water-water-is-running-out-of-india.html|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref> Land-based water reservoirs construction is very costly after meeting the land & property compensation and rehabilitation expenditures. To create adequate water storage, fresh water [[coastal reservoir]]s located in the sea area near the river deltas, is the suitable socio-economical option without land and forest submergence problems.<ref name=cre/><ref>{{cite web |title=Efficacy of coastal reservoirs to address India's water shortage by impounding excess river flood waters near the coast (pages 49 and 19) |url=http://ojs.udspub.com/index.php/jsupp/issue/viewIssue/51/4|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Association for Coastal Reservoir Research|url=http://iacrr.org/publications|accessdate=9 July 2018}}</ref>
 ==Hydro power potential==
 {{See also|Hydroelectric power in India}}
-Indian rivers have fairly good hydro power potential when they descend from their source mountains ([[Himalayas]], [[Western Ghats]], [[Aravali Range]], [[Vindhya Mountains]], [[Eastern Ghats]], etc.) before the water consumption or flowing to the sea. The hydro power potential keeps on varying depending on the technological developments including alternate power sources, priorities and limitations.
+Indian rivers have fairly good hydropower potential when they descend from their source mountains ([[Himalayas]], [[Western Ghats]], [[Aravali Range]], [[Vindhya Mountains]], [[Eastern Ghats]], etc.) before the water consumption or flowing to the sea. The hydropower potential keeps on varying depending on technological developments including alternate power sources, priorities and limitations. [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity]] potential can also be created economically by constructing embankment canals associated with freshwater coastal reservoirs while harnessing the water resources for various needs.<ref name=cre>{{Cite journal |last=Sasidhar |first=Nallapaneni |date=May 2023 |title=Multipurpose Freshwater Coastal Reservoirs and Their Role in Mitigating Climate Change |url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i1/A1842053123.pdf |access-date=2023-05-23 |journal=Indian Journal of Environment Engineering |issn=2582-9289 |volume=3 |issue=1|pages=30–45 |doi=10.54105/ijee.A1842.053123 |s2cid=258753397 }}</ref>
 ==Rivers==
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 ==Wetlands==
 {{See also|Johad|List of Ramsar sites in India}}
-India is a signatory of the [[Ramsar Convention]], an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of wetlands<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiawaterportal.org/node/18315 |title=Wet lands atlas of India 2011|accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref>
+India is a signatory of the [[Ramsar Convention]], an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiawaterportal.org/node/18315 |title=Wet lands atlas of India 2011|accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref>
 ==Water supply and sanitation==
 {{main|Water supply and sanitation in India}}
-Water supply and sanitation in India continue to be inadequate, despite long-standing efforts by the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. The level of investment in water and sanitation, albeit low by international standards, has increased during the 2000s. Access has also increased significantly. For example, in 1980 rural sanitation coverage was estimated at 1% and reached 21% in 2008.<ref name="JMP">UNICEF/WHO [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] estimate for 2008 based on the 2006 [[Demographic and Health Survey]], the 2001 census, other data and the extrapolation of previous trends to 2010. See [http://www.wssinfo.org/datamining/tables.html JMP tables]</ref><ref name="health_11thplan">{{cite web|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/11th/11_v2/11v2_ch3.pdf|author=Planning Commission of India|author-link=Planning Commission of India|title=Health and Family Welfare and AYUSH : 11th Five Year Plan|accessdate=2010-09-19}}, p. 78</ref> Also, the share of Indians with access to improved sources of water has increased significantly from 72% in 1990 to 88% in 2008.<ref name="JMP"/> At the same time, local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the financial resources to carry out their functions. In addition, no major city in [[India]] is known to have a continuous water supply<ref name="dpreview">{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20980493~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|title=Development Policy Review|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=2010-09-19}}</ref> and an estimated 72% of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities.
+Water supply and sanitation in India continue to be inadequate, despite long-standing efforts by the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. The level of investment in water and sanitation, albeit low by international standards, has increased during the 2000s. Access has also increased significantly. For example, in 1980 rural sanitation coverage was estimated at 1% and reached 21% in 2008.<ref name="JMP">UNICEF/WHO [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] estimate for 2008 based on 2006 [[Demographic and Health Survey]], the 2001 census, other data, and the extrapolation of previous trends to 2010. See [http://www.wssinfo.org/datamining/tables.html JMP tables]</ref><ref name="health_11thplan">{{cite web|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/11th/11_v2/11v2_ch3.pdf|author=Planning Commission of India|author-link=Planning Commission of India|title=Health and Family Welfare and AYUSH : 11th Five Year Plan|accessdate=2010-09-19}}, p. 78</ref> Also, the share of Indians with access to improved sources of water has increased significantly from 72% in 1990 to 88% in 2008.<ref name="JMP"/> At the same time, local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the financial resources to carry out their functions. In addition, no major city in [[India]] is known to have a continuous water supply<ref name="dpreview">{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20980493~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html|title=Development Policy Review|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=2010-09-19}}</ref> and an estimated 72% of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities.
-In spite of adequate average rainfall in India, there is large area under the less water conditions/drought prone. There are lot of places, where the quality of groundwater is not good.  Another issue lies in interstate distribution of rivers. Water supply of the 90% of India's territory is served by inter-state rivers. It has created growing number of conflicts across the states and to the whole country on water sharing issues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://greencleanguide.com/2011/07/19/water-scarcity-and-india/ |title=Water scarcity and India « For the Changing Planet |website=greencleanguide.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924062622/http://greencleanguide.com/2011/07/19/water-scarcity-and-india/ |archive-date=2011-09-24}}</ref>
+In spite of adequate average rainfall in India, there is a large area under scarce water conditions/drought-prone. There are lot of places, where the quality of groundwater is not good.  Another issue lies in the interstate distribution of rivers. The water supply of 90% of India's territory is served by inter-state rivers. It has created a growing number of conflicts across the states and to the whole country on water-sharing issues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://greencleanguide.com/2011/07/19/water-scarcity-and-india/ |title=Water scarcity and India « For the Changing Planet |website=greencleanguide.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924062622/http://greencleanguide.com/2011/07/19/water-scarcity-and-india/ |archive-date=2011-09-24}}</ref>
 A number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in India, in particular in the early 2000s. These include demand-driven approaches in rural water supply since 1999, [[community-led total sanitation]], a public-private partnerships to improve the continuity of urban water supply in Karnataka, and the use of micro-credit to women in order to improve access to water.
 ==Water quality issues==
-When sufficient [[Dissolved load|salt export]] is not taking place from a [[river basin]] to the sea in an attempt to harness the river water fully, it leads to river basin closer and the available water in downstream area of the river basin becomes [[Saline water|saline]] and/ or [[alkaline water]]. Land irrigated with saline or alkaline water becomes gradually in to [[Soil salinity control|saline]] or [[alkali soil]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237403006 |title=River basin development phases and implications of closure |last1=Keller |first1=Jack |last2=Keller |first2=Andrew |last3=Davids |first3=Grant |date=January 1998| accessdate=25 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub001/REPORT01.PDF|title=The New Era of Water Resources Management: From "Dry" to "Wet" Water Savings|author1=David Seckler |accessdate=5 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub003/REPORT03.PDF|title=Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications|author1=Andrew Keller |author2=Jack Keller |author3=David Seckler |accessdate=5 January 2014}}</ref> The water percolation in alkali soils is very poor leading to [[waterlogging (agriculture)|waterlogging]] problems. Proliferation of alkali soils would compel the farmers to cultivate [[rice]] or  [[grasses]] only as the soil productivity is poor with other crops and tree [[plantation]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/umatilla/mf/sites/default/files/pnw597-e.pdf|title=Managing irrigation water quality|author=Oregon State University, USA|accessdate=28 August 2012}}</ref> [[Cotton]] is the preferred crop in saline soils compared to many other crops as their yield is poor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://222065430381538974.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/5/2/11520542/irrigation_water_quality_-_salinity_-_derm.pdf|title=Irrigation water quality—salinity and soil structure stability |accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> In north eastern states high acidic nature of soils due to excessive rainfall is effecting the agriculture productivity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/extreme-rainfall-acidifies-land-in-india-s-northeastern-states-62330|title=Extreme rainfall acidifies land in India's northeastern states|accessdate=2 December 2018}}</ref> [[Indian Rivers Inter-link|Interlinking water surplus rivers]] with water deficit rivers is needed  for the long-term sustainable productivity of the river basins and for mitigating the [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic influences]] on the rivers by allowing adequate salt export to the sea in the form of [[environmental flow]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/india-on-verge-of-looming-soil-crisis-report/article9985289.ece|title=India on verge of looming soil crisis: Report|accessdate=7 December 2017}}</ref> Also [[baseflow]]s in rivers are to be restored by stopping excessive ground water use and augmenting surface water by canals to achieve adequate salt export to the sea and preserve the water quality.
+When sufficient [[Dissolved load|salt export]] is not taking place from a [[river basin]] to the sea in an attempt to harness the river water fully, it leads to the river basin closer and the available water in the downstream area of the river basin becomes [[Saline water|saline]] and/ or [[alkaline water]]. Land irrigated with saline or alkaline water becomes gradually into [[Soil salinity control|saline]] or [[alkali soil]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237403006 |title=River basin development phases and implications of closure |last1=Keller |first1=Jack |last2=Keller |first2=Andrew |last3=Davids |first3=Grant |date=January 1998| accessdate=25 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub001/REPORT01.PDF|title=The New Era of Water Resources Management: From "Dry" to "Wet" Water Savings|author1=David Seckler |accessdate=5 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub003/REPORT03.PDF|title=Integrated Water Resource Systems: Theory and Policy Implications|author1=Andrew Keller |author2=Jack Keller |author3=David Seckler |accessdate=5 January 2014}}</ref> The water percolation in alkali soils is very poor leading to [[waterlogging (agriculture)|waterlogging]] problems. The proliferation of alkali soils would compel the farmers to cultivate [[rice]] or  [[grasses]] only as the soil productivity is poor with other crops and tree [[plantation]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/umatilla/mf/sites/default/files/pnw597-e.pdf|title=Managing irrigation water quality|author=Oregon State University, USA|accessdate=28 August 2012}}</ref> [[Cotton]] is the preferred crop in saline soils compared to many other crops as their yield is poor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://222065430381538974.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/5/2/11520542/irrigation_water_quality_-_salinity_-_derm.pdf|title=Irrigation water quality—salinity and soil structure stability |accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> In northeastern states high acidic nature of soils due to excessive rainfall is effecting the agriculture productivity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/extreme-rainfall-acidifies-land-in-india-s-northeastern-states-62330|title=Extreme rainfall acidifies land in India's northeastern states|accessdate=2 December 2018}}</ref> [[Indian Rivers Inter-link|Interlinking water surplus rivers]] with water deficit rivers is needed for the long-term sustainable productivity of the river basins and for mitigating the [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic influences]] on the rivers by allowing adequate salt export to the sea in the form of [[environmental flow]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/india-on-verge-of-looming-soil-crisis-report/article9985289.ece|title=India on verge of looming soil crisis: Report|accessdate=7 December 2017}}</ref> Also [[baseflow]]s in rivers are to be restored by stopping excessive groundwater use and augmenting surface water by canals to achieve adequate salt export to the sea and preserve the water quality.
 ==Water disputes==
 {{Main article|Interstate River Water Disputes Act}}
-There is intense competition for the water available in the inter state rivers such as [[Kaveri River water dispute|Kavery]], [[Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal|Krishna]], [[Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal|Godavari]], [[Vamsadhara River|Vamsadhara]], [[Mandovi River|Mandovi]], [[Ravi River|Ravi-Beas-Sutlez]], [[Narmada River|Narmada]], [[Tapti River|Tapti]], [[Mahanadi]], etc. among the riparian states of India in the absence of water augmentation from the water surplus rivers such as Brahmaputra, [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] tributaries of [[Ganges|Ganga]] and west flowing coastal rivers of [[western ghats]].
+There is intense competition for the water available in the inter-state rivers such as [[Kaveri River water dispute|Kavery]], [[Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal|Krishna]], [[Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal|Godavari]], [[Vamsadhara River|Vamsadhara]], [[Mandovi River|Mandovi]], [[Ravi River|Ravi-Beas-Sutlez]], [[Narmada River|Narmada]], [[Tapti River|Tapti]], [[Mahanadi]], etc. among the riparian states of India in the absence of water augmentation from the water surplus rivers such as Brahmaputra, [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] tributaries of [[Ganges|Ganga]] and west flowing coastal rivers of [[western ghats]].
 ==Water pollution==
@@ Line 57: / Line 57: @@
 ===Ganga===
 {{main|Pollution of the Ganges}}
-The Ganges River is the largest river in India. The extreme pollution of the Ganges affects 600 million people who live close to the river. The river water starts getting polluted when it enters the  plain. The commercial exploitation of the river has risen in proportion to the rise of population. [[Gangotri]] and [[Uttarkashi]] are good examples too.  Gangotri had only a few huts of Sadhus until the 1970s and the population of Uttrakashi has swelled in recent years.
+The Ganges River is the largest river in India. The extreme pollution of the Ganges affects 600 million people who live close to the river. The river water starts getting polluted when it enters the plain. The commercial exploitation of the river has risen in proportion to the rise in population. [[Gangotri]] and [[Uttarkashi]] are good examples too.  Gangotri had only a few huts of Sadhus until the 1970s and the population of Uttrakashi has swelled in recent years.
 ===[[Yamuna]]===
@@ Line 64: / Line 64: @@
 ==Water security==
-In India, there is competition for water resources of all inter state rivers except the main [[Brahmaputra river]] among the riparian states of India and also with neighboring countries which are Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, etc.<ref>{{cite web |title=India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006 |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/06/25/000333037_20080625020800/Rendered/PDF/443760PUB0IN0W1Box0327398B01PUBLIC1.pdf |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> Vast area of the [[Indian subcontinent]] is under tropical climate which is conducive for agriculture due to favorable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of [[evapotranspiration]] from the cultivated land. Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the subcontinent, the water supply gaps due to temporal and spatial distribution of water resources among the states and countries in the subcontinent are to be bridged.
+In India, there is competition for water resources from all inter-state rivers except the main [[Brahmaputra river]] among the riparian states of India and also with neighboring countries which are Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, etc.<ref>{{cite web |title=India's water economy bracing for a turbulent future, World Bank report, 2006 |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/06/25/000333037_20080625020800/Rendered/PDF/443760PUB0IN0W1Box0327398B01PUBLIC1.pdf |access-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> Vast area of the [[Indian subcontinent]] is under tropical climate which is conducive for agriculture due to favorable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of [[evapotranspiration]] from the cultivated land. Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the subcontinent, the water supply gaps due to the temporal and spatial distribution of water resources among the states and countries in the subcontinent are to be bridged.
-There is [[Interstate River Water Disputes Act|intense competition for the water]] available in the inter state rivers such as [[Kaveri River water dispute|Kavery]], [[Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal|Krishna]], [[Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal|Godavari]], [[Vamsadhara River|Vamsadhara]], [[Mandovi River|Mandovi]], [[Ravi River|Ravi-Beas-Sutlez]], [[Narmada River|Narmada]], [[Tapti River|Tapti]], [[Mahanadi]], etc. among the riparian states of India in the absence of water augmentation from the water surplus rivers such as Brahmaputra, [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] tributaries of [[Ganges|Ganga]] and west flowing coastal rivers of [[western ghats]]. All river basins face severe water shortage even for drinking needs of people, cattle and wild life during the intense summer season when the rainfall is negligible.
+There is [[Interstate River Water Disputes Act|intense competition for the water]] available in the inter-state rivers such as [[Kaveri River water dispute|Kavery]], [[Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal|Krishna]], [[Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal|Godavari]], [[Vamsadhara River|Vamsadhara]], [[Mandovi River|Mandovi]], [[Ravi River|Ravi-Beas-Sutlez]], [[Narmada River|Narmada]], [[Tapti River|Tapti]], [[Mahanadi]], etc. among the riparian states of India in the absence of water augmentation from the water surplus rivers such as Brahmaputra, [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] tributaries of [[Ganges|Ganga]] and west flowing coastal rivers of [[western ghats]]. All river basins face severe water shortages even for the drinking needs of people, cattle, and wildlife during the intense summer season when the rainfall is negligible.
-Water security can be achieved along with [[energy security]] as it is going to consume electricity to link the surplus water areas with the water deficit areas by lift canals, pipe lines, etc.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brown |first=Lester R. |date=November 29, 2013 |title=India's dangerous 'food bubble' |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |access-date=July 13, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218120818/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |archive-date=December 18, 2013}} [http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update119 Alt URL]</ref>
+Water security can be achieved along with [[energy security]] as it is going to consume electricity to link the surplus water areas with the water deficit areas by lift canals, pipelines, etc.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brown |first=Lester R. |date=November 29, 2013 |title=India's dangerous 'food bubble' |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |access-date=July 13, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218120818/http://articles.latimes.com/2013/nov/29/opinion/la-oe-brown-india-food-bubble-famine-20131129 |archive-date=December 18, 2013}} [http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update119 Alt URL]</ref>
 ==See also==