Template:Good article is only for Wikipedia:Good articles. 42°S 173°E / 42°S 173°E
New Zealand Aotearoa (Māori) | |
---|---|
Anthems: "God Defend New Zealand" (Māori: "Aotearoa") "God Save the Queen"[n 1] | |
Capital | Wellington 41°18′S 174°47′E / 41.300°S 174.783°E |
Largest city | Auckland |
Official languages | |
Ethnic groups | |
Religion (2018)[4] |
|
Demonym(s) | New Zealander Kiwi (informal) |
Government | Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
• Monarch | Elizabeth II |
Patsy Reddy | |
Jacinda Ardern | |
Legislature | Parliament (House of Representatives) |
Stages of independence from the United Kingdom | |
7 May 1856 | |
• Dominion | 26 September 1907 |
25 November 1947 | |
Area | |
• Total | 268,021 km2 (103,483 sq mi) (75th) |
• Water (%) | 1.6[n 4] |
Population | |
• December 2024 estimate | 5,438,230[6] (120th) |
• 2018 census | 4,699,755 |
• Density | [convert: invalid number] (167th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2020 estimate |
• Total | $193.545 billion[7] |
• Per capita | $41,072[7] (29th) |
GDP (nominal) | 2020 estimate |
• Total | $205.541 billion[7] |
• Per capita | $38,675[7] (23rd) |
Gini (2019) | 33.9[8] medium inequality |
HDI (2019) | 0.931[9] very high (14th) |
Currency | New Zealand dollar ($) (NZD) |
Time zone | UTC+12 (NZST[n 5]) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+13 (NZDT[n 6]) |
Date format | dd/mm/yyyy yyyy-mm-dd[11] |
Drives on | left |
Calling code | +64 |
ISO 3166 code | NZ |
Internet TLD | .nz |
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa]) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui) and the South Island (Te Waipounamu)—and more than 700 smaller islands,[12] covering a total area of 268,021 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi). New Zealand is about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the islands of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. The country's varied topography and sharp mountain peaks, including the Southern Alps, owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, and its most populous city is Auckland.
Owing to their remoteness, the islands of New Zealand were the last large habitable lands to be settled by humans. Between about 1280 and 1350, Polynesians began to settle in the islands and then developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman, became the first European to sight New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of the United Kingdom and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, and in 1907 it became a dominion; it gained full statutory independence in 1947, and the British monarch remained the head of state. Today, the majority of New Zealand's population of 5 million is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealand's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening arising from increased immigration. The official languages are English, Māori, and New Zealand Sign Language, with English being very dominant.
A developed country, New Zealand ranks highly in international comparisons, particularly in education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom. It underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. The service sector dominates the national economy, followed by the industrial sector, and agriculture; international tourism is a significant source of revenue. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the prime minister, currently Jacinda Ardern. Queen Elizabeth II is the country's monarch and is represented by a governor-general, currently Dame Patsy Reddy. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica.
New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ASEAN Plus Six, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Community and the Pacific Islands Forum.
Etymology
editThe first European visitor to New Zealand, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, named the islands Staten Land, believing they were part of the Staten Landt that Jacob Le Maire had sighted off the southern end of South America.[13][14] Hendrik Brouwer proved that the South American land was a small island in 1643, and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman's discovery Nova Zeelandia, from Latin, after the Dutch province of Zeeland.[13][15] This name was later anglicised to "New Zealand".[16][17]
This was written as Nu Tireni in the Māori language. In 1834 a document written in Māori and entitled "He Wakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga o Nu Tireni" was translated into English and became the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand. It was prepared by Te W(h)akaminenga o Nga Rangatiratanga o Nga Hapu o Nu Tireni, the United Tribes of New Zealand, and a copy was sent to King William IV who had already acknowledged the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and who recognised the Declaration in a letter from Lord Glenelg.[18][19]
Aotearoa (pronounced [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa] in Māori and /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/ in English; often translated as "land of the long white cloud")[20] is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.[21] Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.[22] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).[23] In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands, and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.[17] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.[24] For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.[24]
History
editNew Zealand is one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation[28] and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations[29] suggest that Eastern Polynesians first settled the New Zealand archipelago between 1250 and 1300,[22][30] although newer archaeological and genetic research points to a date no earlier than about 1280, with at least the main settlement period between about 1320 and 1350,[31][32] consistent with evidence based on genealogical traditions.[33][34] This represented a culmination in a long series of voyages through the Pacific islands.[35] Over the centuries that followed, the Polynesian settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population formed different iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) which would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other.[36] At some point, a group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.[37][38] The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862 only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.[39]
In a hostile 1642 encounter,[40] four of Dutch explorer Abel Tasman's crew members were killed, and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.[41] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.[40] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts and water.[42] The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.[43] The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.[44] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.[45] The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.[46]
In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.[47] The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.[48] In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.[48] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.[49] The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.[50] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington[51] and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa,[52] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.[53] With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty, the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.[54]
New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841.[55] Armed conflict began between the Colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large amounts of Māori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.[56]
The colony gained a representative government in 1852, and the first Parliament met in 1854.[57] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters (except native policy,[57] which was granted in the mid-1860s[57]). Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.[58] Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.[59]
In 1891 the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party.[60] The Liberal Government, led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office,[61] passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote[60] and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.[62]
In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire,[63] reflecting its self-governing status.[64] In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.[57]
Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars[65] and suffering through the Great Depression.[66] The depression led to the election of the First Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.[67] New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War,[68] and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.[69] A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi.[70] In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.[50] The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi,[71] although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s.[72][73]
Government and politics
editNew Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy,[74] although its constitution is not codified.[75] Elizabeth II is the queen of New Zealand[76] and thus the head of state.[77] The queen is represented by the governor-general, whom she appoints on the advice of the prime minister.[78] The governor-general can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors, and other key public officials,[79] and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law).[80] The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints, and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers.[80]
The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the queen and the House of Representatives.[81] It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.[81] The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.[81] The House of Representatives is democratically elected, and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured.[81] The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.[82] Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.[83] Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.[84]
A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.[85] Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.[86] Since the 1996 election, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.[75] Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate, and the other is for a party. Since the 2014 election, there have been 71 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote),[87] and the remaining 49 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.[88]
Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.[86] Between March 2005 and August 2006, New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land—head of state, governor-general, prime minister, speaker, and chief justice—were occupied simultaneously by women.[89] The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern, who has been in office since 26 October 2017.[90] She is the country's third female prime minister.[91]
New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice,[92] includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.[93] Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence.[75] This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.[94]
New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.[95] As at 2017[update], the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions[96] and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.[97] A 2017 Human Rights Report by the U.S. Department of State noted that the government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.[98] New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 80% voter turnout during recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 68%.[99]
Foreign relations and military
editEarly colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.[100] The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties, and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939, New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."[101]
In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,[102] while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.[103] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,[104] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,[105] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues, and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.[106][107] Despite the United States' suspension of ANZUS obligations, the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.[108] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.[109] In 2013[update] there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand.[110]
New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries, and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.[111] Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007, and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.[112] New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).[109] New Zealand has been described as an emerging power.[113][114] The country is a member of the United Nations,[115] the Commonwealth of Nations[116] and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),[117] and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements.[118]
New Zealand's military services—the Defence Force—comprise the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the Royal New Zealand Navy.[119] New Zealand's national defence needs are modest since a direct attack is unlikely.[120] However, its military has had a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete,[121] El Alamein,[122] and Cassino.[123] The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity[124][125] and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia.[126]
In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War,[127] the Korean War,[128] the Malayan Emergency,[129] the Gulf War, and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands.[130]
Local government and external territories
editThe early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.[131] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales, and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.[132] The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays[133] and sporting rivalries.[134]
Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.[131][135] In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.[136] The 249 municipalities[136] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.[137] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",[136] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents, and other local matters.[138][139] Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.[139] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.[140]
The Realm of New Zealand, one of 16 Commonwealth realms,[141] is the entire area over which the queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands, and Niue.[74] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.[142][143] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as a non-self-governing territory but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).[144] The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.[145] New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens.[146][n 7]
Geography and environment
editNew Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands. The two main islands (the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu) are separated by Cook Strait, 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide at its narrowest point.[148] Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island (across the Foveaux Strait), Chatham Island, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf),[149] D'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds)[150] and Waiheke Island (about 22 km (14 mi) from central Auckland).[151]
New Zealand is long and narrow—over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)[152]—with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline[153] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi).[154] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.[155]
The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.[156] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3,724 metres (12,218 ft).[157] Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island.[158] The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.[159] The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo,[12] nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.[160]
The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates.[161] New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.[162][163] About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches[164] further north.[161]
New Zealand is part of a region known as Australasia, together with Australia.[165] It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia.[166] The term Oceania is often used to denote the wider region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.[167]
-
Rural scene near Queenstown
-
The Emerald Lakes, Mt Tongariro
-
Pencarrow Head, Wellington
Climate
editNew Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime (Köppen: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north.[168] Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly, Otago.[169] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury, and subtropical in Northland.[170][171] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.[172] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.[173] The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season.[174] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.[168]
The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest months in New Zealand's six largest cities. North Island cities are generally warmest in February. South Island cities are warmest in January.
Location | Jan/Feb (°C) | Jan/Feb (°F) | July (°C) | July (°F) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Auckland | 23/16 | 74/60 | 14/7 | 58/45 |
Wellington | 20/13 | 68/56 | 11/6 | 52/42 |
Christchurch | 22/12 | 72/53 | 10/0 | 51/33 |
Hamilton | 24/13 | 75/56 | 14/4 | 57/39 |
Tauranga | 24/15 | 75/59 | 14/6 | 58/42 |
Dunedin | 19/11 | 66/53 | 10/3 | 50/37 |
Biodiversity
editNew Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years[176] and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.[177][178] The flora and fauna of New Zealand were originally thought to have originated from New Zealand's fragmentation off from Gondwana, however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal.[179] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera.[180][181] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand[180] and 40% of these are endemic.[182] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.[183] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.[184] New Zealand had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.12/10, ranking it 55th globally out of 172 countries.[185]
Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.[186] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.[187] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.[188]
The forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kakapo, weka and takahē evolving flightlessness.[189] The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.[190][191]
Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuatara, skinks and geckos), frogs,[192] spiders,[193] insects (wētā)[194] and snails.[195] Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils.[196] Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.[197][198] Marine mammals, however, are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.[199] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.[200] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.[201]
Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.[190] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering and ecological restoration of islands and other protected areas.[202][203][204][205]
Economy
editNew Zealand has an advanced market economy,[206] ranked 14th in the 2019[update] Human Development Index[9] and third in the 2020[update] Index of Economic Freedom.[207] It is a high-income economy with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$36,254.[7] The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands.[208]
Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.[209] The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.[210] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.[211] In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community[212] and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression.[213] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.[214] In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period.[215][216] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protected and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.[217][218]
Unemployment peaked above 10% in 1991 and 1992,[220] following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low (since 1986) of 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).[220] However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,[221][222] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.[223] Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends but are consistently higher among youth. In the December 2014 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 5.8%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 15.6%.[220] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s[224] that still continue today.[225] Nearly one-quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.[226] In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.[227][228] Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level of innovation.[229]
Trade
editNew Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,[230] particularly in agricultural products.[231] Exports account for 24% of its output,[153] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%).[232] New Zealand's main trading partners, as at June 2018[update], are China (NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), the European Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b).[233] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.[234] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.[153] Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016.[235] International visitor arrivals are expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022.[235]
Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century.[209] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,[209] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities,[236] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.[237] In contrast, dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,[238] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.[239] In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports,[233] and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.[240] Other exports in 2017-18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%).[233] New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,[241] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.[242][243]
Infrastructure
editIn 2015, renewable energy generated 40.1% of New Zealand's gross energy supply.[244] The majority of the country's electricity supply is generated from hydroelectric power, with major schemes on the Waikato, Waitaki and Clutha rivers, as well as at Manapouri. Geothermal power is also a significant generator of electricity, with several large stations located across the Taupo Volcanic Zone in the North Island. The five main companies in the generation and retail market are Contact Energy, Genesis Energy, Mercury Energy, Meridian Energy, and TrustPower. State-owned Transpower operates the high-voltage transmission grids in the North and South Islands, as well as the Inter-Island HVDC link connecting the two together.[244]
The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.[245][246]
New Zealand's transport network comprises 94,000 kilometres (58,410 mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124 mi) of motorways,[247] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.[153] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.[248] The railways were privatised in 1993 but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington, which are operated by Transdev[249] and Metlink,[250] respectively. Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.[251] The road and rail networks in the two main islands are linked by roll-on/roll-off ferries between Wellington and Picton, operated by Interislander (part of KiwiRail) and Bluebridge. Most international visitors arrive via air,[252] and New Zealand has six international airports, but currently[update] only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.[253]
The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications in New Zealand until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990.[254] Chorus, which was split from Telecom (now Spark) in 2011,[255] still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased.[254] A large-scale rollout of gigabit-capable fibre to the premises, branded as Ultra-Fast Broadband, began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87% of the population by 2022.[256] As of 2017[update], the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure.[257]
Science and technology
editEarly indigenous contribution to science in New Zealand was by Māori tohunga accumulating knowledge of agricultural practice and the effects of herbal remedies in the treatment of illness and disease.[258] Cook's voyages in the 1700s and Darwin's in 1835 had important scientific botanical and zoological objectives.[259] The establishment of universities in the 19th century fostered scientific discoveries by notable New Zealanders including Ernest Rutherford for splitting the atom, William Pickering for rocket science, Maurice Wilkins for helping discover DNA, Beatrice Tinsley for galaxy formation, Archibald McIndoe for plastic surgery, and Alan MacDiarmid for conducting polymers.[260]
Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) were formed in 1992 from existing government-owned research organisations. Their role is to research and develop new science, knowledge, products and services across the economic, environmental, social and cultural spectrum for the benefit of New Zealand.[261] The total gross expenditure on research and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP rose to 1.37% in 2018, up from 1.23% in 2015. New Zealand ranks 21st in the OECD for its gross R&D spending as a percentage of GDP.[262]
Demography
editThe 2018 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,699,755, an increase of 10.8% over the 2013 census figure.[3] As of December 2024, the total population has risen to an estimated 5,438,230.[6] New Zealand's population increased at a rate of 1.9% per year in the seven years ended June 2020. In September 2020 Statistics New Zealand reported that the population had climbed above 5 million people in September 2019, according to population estimates based on the 2018 census.[263][n 8]
New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 84.3% of the population living in urban areas, and 51.0% of the population living in the seven cities with populations exceeding 100,000.[265] Auckland, with over 1 million residents, is by far the largest city.[265] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2016, Auckland was ranked the world's third most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.[266]
Life expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females, and 80.2 years for males.[267] Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050, and infant mortality is expected to decline.[268] New Zealand's fertility rate of 2.1 is relatively high for a developed country, and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth. Consequently, the country has a young population compared to most industrialised nations, with 20% of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger.[153] In 2018 the median age of the New Zealand population was 38.1 years.[269] By 2050 the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%.[268] In 2008 the leading cause of premature death was cancer, at 29.8%, followed by ischaemic heart disease, 19.7%, and then cerebrovascular disease, 9.2%.[270] As of 2016[update], total expenditure on health care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP.[271]
Largest cities or towns in New Zealand
Statistics New Zealand June 2024 estimate (SSGA18 boundaries)[265] | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | ||
Auckland Christchurch |
1 | Auckland | Auckland | 1,531,400 | 11 | Porirua | Wellington | 60,600 | Wellington Hamilton |
2 | Christchurch | Canterbury | 403,300 | 12 | New Plymouth | Taranaki | 60,100 | ||
3 | Wellington | Wellington | 214,200 | 13 | Rotorua | Bay of Plenty | 58,800 | ||
4 | Hamilton | Waikato | 192,000 | 14 | Whangārei | Northland | 56,800 | ||
5 | Tauranga | Bay of Plenty | 162,800 | 15 | Nelson | Nelson | 51,300 | ||
6 | Lower Hutt | Wellington | 114,500 | 16 | Hastings | Hawke's Bay | 52,200 | ||
7 | Dunedin | Otago | 106,700 | 17 | Invercargill | Southland | 51,700 | ||
8 | Palmerston North | Manawatū-Whanganui | 83,100 | 18 | Upper Hutt | Wellington | 45,000 | ||
9 | Napier | Hawke's Bay | 67,500 | 19 | Whanganui | Manawatū-Whanganui | 42,500 | ||
10 | Hibiscus Coast | Auckland | 67,800 | 20 | Gisborne | Gisborne | 38,800 |
Ethnicity and immigration
editIn the 2018 census, 71.8% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European or Pākehā, and 16.5% as native Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (15.3%) and Pacific peoples (9.0%), two-thirds of whom live in the Auckland Region.[n 3][3] The population has become more diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.[272]
While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally[273] and by locals.[274] The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this name. The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.[275]
The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy.[276] There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,[277] German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.[278][279] Net migration increased after the Second World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies were relaxed, and immigration from Asia was promoted.[279][280] In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.[281] In the 2018 census, 27.4% of people counted were not born in New Zealand, up from 25.2% in the 2013 census. Over half (52.4%) of New Zealand's overseas-born population lives in the Auckland Region.[282] The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's immigrant population, with around a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa.[283] The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.[284]
Language
editEnglish is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 95.4% of the population.[3] New Zealand English is similar to Australian English, and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.[286] The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-"i" sound (as in "kit") has centralised towards the schwa sound (the "a" in "comma" and "about"); the short-"e" sound (as in "dress") has moved towards the short-"i" sound; and the short-"a" sound (as in "trap") has moved to the short-"e" sound.[287]
After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces, and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.[288] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,[289] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,[290] and is spoken by 4.0% of the population.[3][n 9] There are now Māori language immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.[292] Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.[293]
As recorded in the 2018 census,[3] Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 2.0%), Hindi (1.5%), and French (1.2%). 22,986 people (0.5%) reported the ability to use New Zealand Sign Language, which became one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.[294]
Religion
editChristianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world.[296][297] In the 2018 census, 44.7% of respondents identified with one or more religions, including 37.0% identifying as Christians. Another 48.5% indicated that they had no religion.[n 10][3] Of those who affiliate with a particular Christian denomination, the main responses are Anglicanism (6.7%),[n 11] Roman Catholicism (6.3%), and Presbyterianism (4.7%).[3] The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.2%) are also Christian in origin.[3][295] Immigration and demographic change in recent decades have contributed to the growth of minority religions, such as Hinduism (2.6%), Islam (1.3%), Buddhism (1.1%), and Sikhism (0.9%).[3] The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity.[298]
Education
editPrimary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5.[299] There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.[300] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%,[153] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.[299] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,[301] in addition to private training establishments.[302] In the adult population, 14.2% have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4% have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification, and 22.4% have no formal qualification.[303] The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the seventh-best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.[304]
Culture
editEarly Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval.[305] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,[306][307] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.[308] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.[309] More recently, American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.[310]
The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[311] Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.[312] At the time, New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.[313] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.[288] In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available, and cities expanded[314] urban culture began to dominate.[315] However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media.[316]
New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.[317] Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".[317]
Art
editAs part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised, and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.[318] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.[319] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.[320] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.[321]
Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.[322] Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.[323] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.[324] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as an ideal race untainted by civilisation.[324] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism.[325] During the 1960s and 1970s, many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.[326] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.[318][327]
Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.[328] Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.[329] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.[330] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.[331][332] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.[332]
Literature
editMāori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[333] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain, and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.[334] Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period, literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.[335] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.[336] Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.[337]
Media and entertainment
editNew Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[338] Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient Southeast Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound.[339] Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments[340] or as signalling devices during war or special occasions.[341] Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.[342][343] Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.[344] The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards, and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.[338] Some artists release Māori language songs, and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[345] The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards.[346] Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.[347]
Public radio was introduced in New Zealand in 1922.[349] A state-owned television service began in 1960.[350] Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations.[351] New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with many Australian and local shows.[352] The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers, and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement.[351] The highest-grossing New Zealand films are Hunt for the Wilderpeople, Boy, The World's Fastest Indian, Whale Rider, Once Were Warriors and The Piano.[353] The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,[354] have encouraged some producers to shoot big-budget productions in New Zealand, including The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies, Avatar, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong, Wolverine and The Last Samurai.[355] The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations.[356] Since 1994, Freedom House has consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty, with the 19th freest media in 2015[update].[357]
Sport
editMost of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.[358] Rugby union is considered the national sport[359] and attracts the most spectators.[360] Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) are particularly popular among young people.[360][361] Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school.[361] Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.[362] Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture during the 1960s.[363] Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby, and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.[364] New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism[365] and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary.[366][367] Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports, surfing and sailing are also popular.[368] New Zealand has seen regular sailing success in the America's Cup regatta since 1995.[369] The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[370]
New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, rugby league, netball, cricket, softball, and sailing. New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia, before first participating on its own in 1920.[371] The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games.[372][373] The "All Blacks", the national rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby[374] and have won the World Cup three times.[375]
Cuisine
editThe national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia, and Asia.[376] New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.[377] Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, kōura (crayfish),[378] Bluff oysters, whitebait, pāua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipi and tuatua (both are types of New Zealand shellfish),[379] kūmara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo and pavlova (considered a national dish).[380][376] A hāngi is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven; still used for large groups on special occasions,[381] such as tangihanga.[382]
See also
editFootnotes
edit- ^ "God Save the Queen" is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions.[1]
- ^ English is a de facto official language due to its widespread use.[2]
- ^ a b Ethnicity figures add to more than 100% as people could choose more than one ethnic group.
- ^ The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database,[5] is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 – 92499–26033 – 19216) = 1.6%. If estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%.
- ^ The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand.
- ^ Clocks are advanced by an hour from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April.[10] Daylight saving time is also observed in the Chatham Islands, 45 minutes ahead of NZDT.
- ^ A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. People born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth (jus soli).[147]
- ^ A provisional estimate initially indicated the milestone was reached six months later in March 2020, before population estimates were rebased from the 2013 census to the 2018 census.[264]
- ^ In 2015, 55% of Māori adults (aged 15 years and over) reported knowledge of te reo Māori. Of these speakers, 64% use Māori at home and 50,000 can speak the language "very well" or "well".[291]
- ^ Religion percentages may not add to 100% as people could claim multiple religions or object to answering the question.
- ^ This is a percentage of total respondents to the census, not a percentage of Christians.
Citations
edit- ^ "Protocol for using New Zealand's National Anthems". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
- ^ New Zealand Government (21 December 2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand (PDF) (Report). p. 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
In addition to the Māori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "2018 Census totals by topic – national highlights" (Spreadsheet). Statistics New Zealand. 23 September 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ "2018 Census totals by topic national highlights". Statistics New Zealand. Table 26. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ^ "The New Zealand Land Cover Database". New Zealand Land Cover Database 2. Ministry for the Environment. 1 July 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Population clock". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2016. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
- ^ a b c d e "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2020". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
- ^ "Household income and housing-cost statistics: Year ended June 2019". Statistics New Zealand. Table 9. Archived from the original (Spreadsheet) on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
- ^ a b "Human Development Report 2020" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
- ^ "New Zealand Daylight Time Order 2007 (SR 2007/185)". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 6 July 2007. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
- ^ There is no official all-numeric date format for New Zealand, but government recommendations generally follow Australian date and time notation. See "The Govt.nz style guide", New Zealand Government, 9 December 2016, retrieved 7 March 2019.
- ^ a b Walrond, Carl (8 February 2005). "Natural environment - Geography and geology". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand.
- ^ a b Wilson, John (March 2009). "European discovery of New Zealand – Tasman's achievement". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
- ^ John Bathgate. "The Pamphlet Collection of Sir Robert Stout:Volume 44. Chapter 1, Discovery and Settlement". NZETC. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
He named the country Staaten Land, in honour of the States-General of Holland, in the belief that it was part of the great southern continent.
- ^ Mackay, Duncan (1986). "The Search For The Southern Land". In Fraser, B (ed.). The New Zealand Book Of Events. Auckland: Reed Methuen. pp. 52–54.
- ^ Wood, James (1900). The Nuttall Encyclopaedia: Being a Concise and Comprehensive Dictionary of General Knowledge. London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co. p. iii. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
- ^ a b McKinnon, Malcolm (November 2009). "Place names – Naming the country and the main islands". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
- ^ The Lord Glenelg (25 May 1836), "EXTRACT of a DESPATCH from Lord GLENELG to Major-General Sir RICHARD BOURKE, New South Wales", written at London, Documents > Declaration of Independence, Christchurch: Waitangi Associates, retrieved 11 January 2010
- ^ Palmer 2008, p. 41.
- ^ King 2003, p. 41.
- ^ Hay, Maclagan & Gordon 2008, p. 72.
- ^ a b Mein Smith 2005, p. 6.
- ^ Brunner, Thomas (1851). The Great Journey: an expedition to explore the interior of the Middle Island, New Zealand, 1846-8. Royal Geographical Society.
- ^ a b Williamson, Maurice (10 October 2013). "Names of NZ's two main islands formalised" (Press release). New Zealand Government. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
- ^ Anderson, Atholl; Spriggs, Matthew (1993). "Late colonization of East Polynesia". Antiquity. 67 (255): 200–217. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00045324. ISSN 1745-1744.
- ^ Jacomb, Chris; Anderson, Atholl; Higham, Thomas (1999). "Dating the first New Zealanders: the chronology of Wairau Bar". Antiquity. 73 (280): 420–427. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00088360. ISSN 1745-1744.
- ^ Wilmshurst, J. M.; Hunt, T. L.; Lipo, C. P.; Anderson, A. J. (2010). "High-precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (5): 1815–20. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.1815W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015876108. PMC 3033267. PMID 21187404.
- ^ McGlone, M.; Wilmshurst, J. M. (1999). "Dating initial Maori environmental impact in New Zealand". Quaternary International. 59 (1): 5–16. Bibcode:1999QuInt..59....5M. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(98)00067-6.
- ^ Murray-McIntosh, Rosalind P.; Scrimshaw, Brian J.; Hatfield, Peter J.; Penny, David (1998). "Testing migration patterns and estimating founding population size in Polynesia by using human mtDNA sequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (15): 9047–52. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.9047M. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.15.9047. PMC 21200. PMID 9671802.
- ^ Wilmshurst, J. M.; Anderson, A. J.; Higham, T. F. G.; Worthy, T. H. (2008). "Dating the late prehistoric dispersal of Polynesians to New Zealand using the commensal Pacific rat". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (22): 7676–80. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.7676W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801507105. PMC 2409139. PMID 18523023.
- ^ Jacomb, Chris; Holdaway, Richard N.; Allentoft, Morten E.; Bunce, Michael; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Walter, Richard; Brooks, Emma (2014). "High-precision dating and ancient DNA profiling of moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes) eggshell documents a complex feature at Wairau Bar and refines the chronology of New Zealand settlement by Polynesians". Journal of Archaeological Science. 50: 24–30. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.023.
- ^ Walters, Richard; Buckley, Hallie; Jacomb, Chris; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth (7 October 2017). "Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand". Journal of World Prehistory. 30 (4): 351–376. doi:10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y.
- ^ Roberton, J.B.W. (1956). "Genealogies as a basis for Maori chronology". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 65 (1): 45–54.
- ^ Te Hurinui, Pei (1958). "Maori genealogies". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 67 (2): 162–165.
- ^ Moodley, Y.; Linz, B.; Yamaoka, Y.; Windsor, H.M.; Breurec, S.; Wu, J.-Y.; Maady, A.; Bernhöft, S.; Thiberge, J.-M.; et al. (2009). "The Peopling of the Pacific from a Bacterial Perspective". Science. 323 (5913): 527–530. Bibcode:2009Sci...323..527M. doi:10.1126/science.1166083. PMC 2827536. PMID 19164753.
- ^ Ballara, Angela (1998). Iwi: The Dynamics of Māori Tribal Organisation from c. 1769 to c. 1945 (1st ed.). Wellington: Victoria University Press. ISBN 9780864733283.
- ^ Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas (ed.). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123–135.
- ^ Davis, Denise (September 2007). "The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
- ^ Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui (March 2009). "Moriori – The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ a b Mein Smith 2005, p. 23.
- ^ Salmond, Anne (1991). Two Worlds: First Meetings Between Maori and Europeans 1642–1772. Auckland: Penguin Books. p. 82. ISBN 0-670-83298-7.
- ^ King 2003, p. 122.
- ^ Fitzpatrick, John (2004). "Food, warfare and the impact of Atlantic capitalism in Aotearo/New Zealand" (PDF). Australasian Political Studies Association Conference: APSA 2004 Conference Papers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011.
- ^ Brailsford, Barry (1972). Arrows of Plague. Wellington: Hick Smith and Sons. p. 35. ISBN 0-456-01060-2.
- ^ Wagstrom, Thor (2005). "Broken Tongues and Foreign Hearts". In Brock, Peggy (ed.). Indigenous Peoples and Religious Change. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 71 and 73. ISBN 978-90-04-13899-5.
- ^ Lange, Raeburn (1999). May the people live: a history of Māori health development 1900–1920. Auckland University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-86940-214-3.
- ^ "A Nation sub-divided". Australian Heritage. Heritage Australia Publishing. 2011. Archived from the original on 28 February 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
- ^ a b Rutherford, James (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. McLintock, Alexander (ed.). Busby, James. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Sir George Gipps. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ a b Wilson, John (March 2009). "Government and nation – The origins of nationhood". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Settlement from 1840 to 1852. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ Foster, Bernard (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. McLintock, Alexander (ed.). Akaroa, French Settlement At. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ Simpson, K (September 2010). "Hobson, William – Biography". In McLintock, Alexander (ed.). Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ Phillips, Jock (April 2010). "British immigration and the New Zealand Company". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ "Crown colony era – the Governor-General". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. March 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ "New Zealand's 19th-century wars – overview". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. April 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ a b c d Wilson, John (March 2009). "Government and nation – The constitution". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2 February 2011. See pages 2 and 3.
- ^ Temple, Philip (1980). Wellington Yesterday. John McIndoe. ISBN 0-86868-012-5.
- ^ "Parliament moves to Wellington". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. January 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ a b Wilson, John (March 2009). "History – Liberal to Labour". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ Hamer, David. "Seddon, Richard John". Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ Boxall, Peter; Haynes, Peter (1997). "Strategy and Trade Union Effectiveness in a Neo-liberal Environment". British Journal of Industrial Relations. 35 (4): 567–591. doi:10.1111/1467-8543.00069. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011.
- ^ "Proclamation". The London Gazette. No. 28058. 10 September 1907. p. 6149.
- ^ "Dominion status – Becoming a dominion". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2014. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
- ^ "War and Society". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ Easton, Brian (April 2010). "Economic history – Interwar years and the great depression". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ Derby, Mark (May 2010). "Strikes and labour disputes – Wars, depression and first Labour government". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Easton, Brian (November 2010). "Economic history – Great boom, 1935–1966". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Keane, Basil (November 2010). "Te Māori i te ohanga – Māori in the economy – Urbanisation". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ Royal, Te Ahukaramū (March 2009). "Māori – Urbanisation and renaissance". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Healing the past, building a future: A Guide to Treaty of Waitangi Claims and Negotiations with the Crown (PDF). Office of Treaty Settlements. March 2015. ISBN 978-0-478-32436-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
- ^ Report on the Crown's Foreshore and Seabed Policy (Report). Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
- ^ Barker, Fiona (June 2012). "Debate about the foreshore and seabed". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
- ^ a b "New Zealand's Constitution". The Governor-General of New Zealand. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
- ^ a b c "Factsheet – New Zealand – Political Forces". The Economist. The Economist Group. 15 February 2005. Archived from the original on 14 May 2006. Retrieved 4 August 2009.
- ^ "Royal Titles Act 1974". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. February 1974. Section 1. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
- ^ Constitution Act 1986. New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 January 1987. Section 2.1. Retrieved 15 July 2018.
The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.
- ^ "The Role of the Governor-General". The Governor-General of New Zealand. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ Harris, Bruce (2009). "Replacement of the Royal Prerogative in New Zealand". New Zealand Universities Law Review. 23: 285–314. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
- ^ a b "The Reserve Powers". The Governor-General of New Zealand. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
- ^ a b c d "Parliament Brief: What is Parliament?". New Zealand Parliament. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
- ^ McLean, Gavin (February 2015). "Premiers and prime ministers". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
- ^ Wilson, John (November 2010). "Government and nation – System of government". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ "Principles of Cabinet decision making". Cabinet Manual. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
- ^ "The electoral cycle". Cabinet Manual. Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
- ^ a b "First past the post – the road to MMP". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ "Reviewing electorate numbers and boundaries". Electoral Commission. 8 May 2005. Archived from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
- ^ "Sainte-Laguë allocation formula". Electoral Commission. 4 February 2013. Archived from the original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
- ^ Paxton, Pamela; Hughes, Melanie M. (2015). Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective. CQ Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-48-337701-8. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
- ^ "Jacinda Ardern sworn in as new Prime Minister". The New Zealand Herald. 26 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
- ^ "Female political leaders have been smashing glass ceilings for ages". Stuff. Fairfax NZ. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
- ^ "Role of the Chief Justice". Courts of New Zealand. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
- ^ "Structure of the court system". Courts of New Zealand. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
- ^ "The Judiciary". Ministry of Justice. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ "Fragile States Index Heat Map | Fragile States Index". fragilestatesindex.org. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
- ^ "Democracy Index 2017" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 2018. p. 5. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
- ^ "Corruption Perceptions Index 2017". Transparency International. 21 February 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
- ^ "New Zealand". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2017. United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
- ^ "New Zealand". OECD Better Life Index. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. External Relations. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ "Michael Joseph Savage". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ Patman, Robert (2005). "Globalisation, Sovereignty, and the Transformation of New Zealand Foreign Policy" (PDF). Working Paper 21/05. Centre for Strategic Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2007. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
- ^ "Department Of External Affairs: Security Treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America". Australian Government. September 1951. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "The Vietnam War". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. June 2008. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "Sinking the Rainbow Warrior – nuclear-free New Zealand". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2008. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "Nuclear-free legislation – nuclear-free New Zealand". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2008. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ Lange, David (1990). Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way. New Zealand: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-014519-2.
- ^ "Australia in brief". Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived from the original on 22 December 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ a b "New Zealand country brief". Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ Collett, John (4 September 2013). "Kiwis face hurdles in pursuit of lost funds". Retrieved 4 October 2013.
- ^ Bertram, Geoff (April 2010). "South Pacific economic relations – Aid, remittances and tourism". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ Howes, Stephen (November 2010). "Making migration work: Lessons from New Zealand". Development Policy Centre. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ "Caught between China and the US: The Kiwi place in a newly confrontational world". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
- ^ Steff, Reuben (5 June 2018). "New Zealand's Pacific reset: strategic anxieties about rising China". University of Waikato. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
- ^ "Member States of the United Nations". United Nations. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "New Zealand". The Commonwealth. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
- ^ "Members and partners". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "The future of the Five Power Defence Arrangements". The Strategist. 8 November 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
- ^ "About Us: Role and Responsibilities". New Zealand Defence Force. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ Ayson, Robert (2007). "New Zealand Defence and Security Policy,1990–2005". In Alley, Roderic (ed.). New Zealand In World Affairs. Vol. IV: 1990–2005. Wellington: Victoria University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-86473-548-5.
- ^ "The Battle for Crete". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. May 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ "El Alamein – The North African Campaign". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. May 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ Holmes, Richard (September 2010). "World War Two: The Battle of Monte Cassino". Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ "Gallipoli stirred new sense of national identity says Clark". The New Zealand Herald. April 2005. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
- ^ Prideaux, Bruce (2007). Ryan, Chris (ed.). Battlefield tourism: history, place and interpretation. Elsevier Science. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-08-045362-0.
- ^ Burke, Arthur. "The Spirit of ANZAC". ANZAC Day Commemoration Committee. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "South African War 1899–1902". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. February 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "New Zealand in the Korean War". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
- ^ "NZ and the Malayan Emergency". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
- ^ "New Zealand Defence Force Overseas Operations". New Zealand Defence Force. January 2008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
- ^ a b "New Zealand's Nine Provinces (1853–76)" (PDF). Friends of the Hocken Collections. University of Otago. March 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Provincial Divergencies. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
- ^ Swarbrick, Nancy (September 2016). "Public holidays". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Overview – regional rugby". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
- ^ Dollery, Brian; Keogh, Ciaran; Crase, Lin (2007). "Alternatives to Amalgamation in Australian Local Government: Lessons from the New Zealand Experience" (PDF). Sustaining Regions. 6 (1): 50–69. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2007.
- ^ a b c Sancton, Andrew (2000). Merger mania: the assault on local government. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-7735-2163-1.
- ^ "Subnational population estimates at 30 June 2010 (boundaries at 1 November 2010)". Statistics New Zealand. 26 October 2010. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
- ^ Smelt & Jui Lin 2009, p. 33.
- ^ a b "Glossary". Department of Internal Affairs. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
- ^ "Chatham Islands Council Act 1995 No 41". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 29 July 1995. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
- ^ Gimpel, Diane (2011). Monarchies. ABDO Publishing Company. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-617-14792-0. Retrieved 18 November 2016.
- ^ "System of Government". Government of Niue. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
- ^ "Government – Structure, Personnel". Government of the Cook Islands. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
- ^ "Tokelau Government". Government of Tokelau. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
- ^ "Scott Base". Antarctica New Zealand. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
- ^ "Citizenship Act 1977 No 61". Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 December 1977. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
- ^ "Check if you're a New Zealand citizen". Department of Internal Affairs. Archived from the original on 23 September 2014. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. The Sea Floor. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
- ^ "Hauraki Gulf islands". Auckland City Council. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
- ^ Hindmarsh (2006). "Discovering D'Urville". Heritage New Zealand. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
- ^ "Distance tables". Auckland Coastguard. Archived from the original on 23 January 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
- ^ McKenzie, D. W. (1987). Heinemann New Zealand atlas. Heinemann Publishers. ISBN 0-7900-0187-X.
- ^ a b c d e f "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 4 May 2013.
- ^ "Geography". Statistics New Zealand. 1999. Archived from the original on 22 May 2010. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
- ^ Offshore Options: Managing Environmental Effects in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone (PDF). Wellington: Ministry for the Environment. 2005. ISBN 0-478-25916-6. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
- ^ Coates, Glen (2002). The rise and fall of the Southern Alps. Canterbury University Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-908812-93-0.
- ^ Garden 2005, p. 52.
- ^ Grant, David (March 2009). "Southland places – Fiordland's coast". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
- ^ "Central North Island volcanoes". Department of Conservation. Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
- ^ "Taupo". GNS Science. Archived from the original on 24 March 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
- ^ a b Lewis, Keith; Nodder, Scott; Carter, Lionel (March 2009). "Sea floor geology – Active plate boundaries". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Wallis, G. P.; Trewick, S. A. (2009). "New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent". Molecular Ecology. 18 (17): 3548–3580. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x. PMID 19674312. S2CID 22049973.
- ^ Mortimer, Nick; Campbell, Hamish (2014). Zealandia : our continent revealed. Auckland, New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-14-357156-8. OCLC 887230882.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Wright, Dawn; Bloomer, Sherman; MacLeod, Christopher; Taylor, Brian; Goodliffe, Andrew (2000). "Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: A Map Series". Marine Geophysical Researches. 21 (5): 489–512. Bibcode:2000MarGR..21..489W. doi:10.1023/A:1026514914220. S2CID 6072675.
- ^ Deverson, Tony; Kennedy, Graeme, eds. (2005). "Australasia". New Zealand Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001. ISBN 9780195584516.
- ^ Hobbs, Joseph J. (2016). Fundamentals of World Regional Geography. Cengage Learning. p. 367. ISBN 9781305854956.
- ^ Hillstrom, Kevin; Hillstrom, Laurie Collier (2003). Australia, Oceania, and Antarctica: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues. Vol. 3. ABC-CLIO. p. 25. ISBN 9781576076941.
...defined here as the continent nation of Australia, New Zealand, and twenty-two other island countries and territories sprinkled over more than 40 million square kilometres of the South Pacific.
- ^ a b Mullan, Brett; Tait, Andrew; Thompson, Craig (March 2009). "Climate – New Zealand's climate". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ^ "Summary of New Zealand climate extremes". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 2004. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
- ^ Walrond, Carl (March 2009). "Natural environment – Climate". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ^ Orange, Claudia (1 May 2015). "Northland region". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
- ^ "Mean monthly rainfall". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original (XLS) on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "Mean monthly sunshine hours". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original (XLS) on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "New Zealand climate and weather". Tourism New Zealand. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
- ^ "Climate data and activities". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 28 February 2007. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
- ^ Cooper, R.; Millener, P. (1993). "The New Zealand biota: Historical background and new research". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (12): 429–33. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90004-9. PMID 21236222.
- ^ Trewick SA, Morgan-Richards M. 2014. New Zealand Wild Life. Penguin, New Zealand. ISBN 9780143568896
- ^ Lindsey, Terence; Morris, Rod (2000). Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife. HarperCollins (New Zealand) Limited. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-86950-300-0.
- ^ McDowall, R. M. (2008). "Process and pattern in the biogeography of New Zealand – a global microcosm?". Journal of Biogeography. 35 (2): 197–212. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01830.x. ISSN 1365-2699.
- ^ a b "Frequently asked questions about New Zealand plants". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. May 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ^ De Lange, Peter James; Sawyer, John William David & Rolfe, Jeremy (2006). New Zealand indigenous vascular plant checklist. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. ISBN 0-473-11306-6.
- ^ Wassilieff, Maggy (March 2009). "Lichens – Lichens in New Zealand". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2010) [originally published in 1966]. Mixed Broadleaf Podocarp and Kauri Forest. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
- ^ Mark, Alan (March 2009). "Grasslands – Tussock grasslands". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 17 January 2010.
- ^ Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 33293507.
- ^ "Commentary on Forest Policy in the Asia-Pacific Region (A Review for Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand and Western Samoa)". Forestry Department. 1997. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ McGlone, M.S. (1989). "The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 12(S): 115–129. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 July 2014.
- ^ Taylor, R. and Smith, I. (1997). The state of New Zealand’s environment 1997. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington.
- ^ "New Zealand ecology: Flightless birds". TerraNature. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
- ^ a b Holdaway, Richard (March 2009). "Extinctions – New Zealand extinctions since human arrival". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Kirby, Alex (January 2005). "Huge eagles 'dominated NZ skies'". BBC News. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "Reptiles and frogs". Department of Conservation. Archived from the original on 29 January 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ Pollard, Simon (September 2007). "Spiders and other arachnids". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ "Wētā". Department of Conservation. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
- ^ Ryan, Paddy (March 2009). "Snails and slugs – Flax snails, giant snails and veined slugs". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Herrera-Flores, Jorge A.; Stubbs, Thomas L.; Benton, Michael J.; Ruta, Marcello (May 2017). "Macroevolutionary patterns in Rhynchocephalia: is the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) a living fossil?". Palaeontology. 60 (3): 319–328. doi:10.1111/pala.12284.
- ^ "Tiny Bones Rewrite Textbooks, first New Zealand land mammal fossil". University of New South Wales. 31 May 2007. Archived from the original on 31 May 2007.
- ^ Worthy, Trevor H.; Tennyson, Alan J. D.; Archer, Michael; Musser, Anne M.; Hand, Suzanne J.; Jones, Craig; Douglas, Barry J.; McNamara, James A.; Beck, Robin M. D. (2006). "Miocene mammal reveals a Mesozoic ghost lineage on insular New Zealand, southwest Pacific". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (51): 19419–23. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10319419W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605684103. PMC 1697831. PMID 17159151.
- ^ "Marine Mammals". Department of Conservation. Archived from the original on 8 March 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
- ^ "Sea and shore birds". Department of Conservation. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ "Penguins". Department of Conservation. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Jones, Carl (2002). "Reptiles and Amphibians". In Perrow, Martin; Davy, Anthony (eds.). Handbook of ecological restoration: Principles of Restoration. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 362. ISBN 0-521-79128-6.
- ^ Towns, D.; Ballantine, W. (1993). "Conservation and restoration of New Zealand Island ecosystems". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (12): 452–7. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90009-E. PMID 21236227.
- ^ Rauzon, Mark (2008). "Island restoration: Exploring the past, anticipating the future" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 35: 97–107.
- ^ Diamond, Jared (1990). Towns, D; Daugherty, C; Atkinson, I (eds.). New Zealand as an archipelago: An international perspective (PDF). Wellington: Conservation Sciences Publication No. 2. Department of Conservation. pp. 3–8.
- ^ World Economic Outlook. International Monetary Fund. April 2018. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-48434-971-7. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ^ "Rankings on Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation. 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
- ^ "Currencies of the territories listed in the BS exchange rate lists". Bank of Slovenia. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ a b c McLintock, Alexander, ed. (November 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Historical evolution and trade patterns. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
- ^ Stringleman, Hugh; Peden, Robert (October 2009). "Sheep farming – Growth of the frozen meat trade, 1882–2001". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
- ^ Baker, John (February 2010) [1966]. McLintock, Alexander (ed.). Some Indicators of Comparative Living Standards. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 30 April 2010. PDF Table
- ^ Wilson, John (March 2009). "History – The later 20th century". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ Nixon, Chris; Yeabsley, John (April 2010). "Overseas trade policy – Difficult times – the 1970s and early 1980s". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Evans, N. "Up From Down Under: After a Century of Socialism, Australia and New Zealand are Cutting Back Government and Freeing Their Economies". National Review. 46 (16): 47–51.
- ^ Trade, Food Security, and Human Rights: The Rules for International Trade in Agricultural Products and the Evolving World Food Crisis. Routledge. 2016. p. 125. ISBN 9781317008521.
- ^ Wayne Arnold (2 August 2007). "Surviving Without Subsidies". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
... ever since a liberal but free-market government swept to power in 1984 and essentially canceled handouts to farmers ... They went cold turkey and in the process it was very rough on their farming economy
- ^ Easton, Brian (November 2010). "Economic history – Government and market liberalisation". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Hazledine, Tim (1998). Taking New Zealand Seriously: The Economics of Decency (PDF). HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 1-86950-283-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2011.
- ^ "NZ tops Travellers' Choice Awards". Stuff Travel. May 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
- ^ a b c "Unemployment: the Social Report 2016 – Te pūrongo oranga tangata". Ministry of Social Development. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ "New Zealand Takes a Pause in Cutting Rates". The New York Times. 10 June 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
- ^ "New Zealand's slump longest ever". BBC News. 26 June 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
- ^ Bascand, Geoff (February 2011). "Household Labour Force Survey: December 2010 quarter – Media Release". Statistics New Zealand. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Davenport, Sally (2004). "Panic and panacea: brain drain and science and technology human capital policy". Research Policy. 33 (4): 617–630. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2004.01.006.
- ^ O'Hare, Sean (September 2010). "New Zealand brain-drain worst in world". The Daily Telegraph. United Kingdom.
- ^ Collins, Simon (March 2005). "Quarter of NZ's brightest are gone". The New Zealand Herald.
- ^ Winkelmann, Rainer (2000). "The labour market performance of European immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s". The International Migration Review. 33 (1). The Center for Migration Studies of New York: 33–58. doi:10.2307/2676011. JSTOR 2676011. Journal subscription required
- ^ Bain 2006, p. 44.
- ^ "GII 2016 Report" (PDF). Global Innovation Index. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ^ Groser, Tim (March 2009). "Speech to ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement Seminars". New Zealand Government. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ "Improving Access to Markets:Agriculture". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ "Standard International Trade Classification R4 – Exports (Annual-Jun)". Statistics New Zealand. April 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
- ^ a b c "Goods and services trade by country: Year ended June 2018 – corrected". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
- ^ "China and New Zealand sign free trade deal". The New York Times. April 2008.
- ^ a b "Key Tourism Statistics" (PDF). Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. 26 April 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
- ^ Easton, Brian (March 2009). "Economy – Agricultural production". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Stringleman, Hugh; Peden, Robert (March 2009). "Sheep farming – Changes from the 20th century". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Stringleman, Hugh; Scrimgeour, Frank (November 2009). "Dairying and dairy products – Dairying in the 2000s". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Stringleman, Hugh; Scrimgeour, Frank (March 2009). "Dairying and dairy products – Dairy exports". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Stringleman, Hugh; Scrimgeour, Frank (March 2009). "Dairying and dairy products – Manufacturing and marketing in the 2000s". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Dalley, Bronwyn (March 2009). "Wine – The wine boom, 1980s and beyond". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ "Wine in New Zealand". The Economist. 27 March 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ "Agricultural and forestry exports from New Zealand: Primary sector export values for the year ending June 2010". Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 14 January 2011. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ a b Energy in New Zealand 2016 (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. September 2016. p. 47. ISSN 2324-5913. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2017.
- ^ "Appendix 1: Technical information about drinking water supply in the eight local authorities". Office of the Auditor-General. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
- ^ "Water supply". Greater Wellington Regional Council. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
- ^ "State highway frequently asked questions". NZ Transport Agency. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
- ^ Humphris, Adrian (April 2010). "Public transport – Passenger trends". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Atkinson, Neill (November 2010). "Railways – Rail transformed". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ "About Metlink". Retrieved 27 December 2016.
- ^ Atkinson, Neill (April 2010). "Railways – Freight transport". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ "International Visitors" (PDF). Ministry of Economic Development. June 2009. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ "10. Airports". Infrastructure Stocktake: Infrastructure Audit. Ministry of Economic Development. December 2005. Archived from the original on 22 May 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ a b Wilson, A. C. (March 2010). "Telecommunications - Telecom". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ "Telecom separation". Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. 14 September 2015. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ "Broadband and mobile programmes". www.mbie.govt.nz. Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ "2017 Global ICT Development Index". International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
- ^ Voyce, Malcolm (December 1989). "Maori Healers in New Zealand: The Tohunga Suppression Act 1907". Oceania. 60 (2): 99-123. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1989.tb02347.x.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Science – History and Organisation in New Zealand". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ Morton, Jamie (5 April 2017). "150 years of Kiwi science". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ "Crown Research Institutes". www.mbie.govt.nz. Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ "Research and development (R&D) - Gross domestic spending on R&D - OECD Data". OECD. 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ "New Zealand's population nears 5.1 million" (Press release). Statistics New Zealand. 22 September 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
- ^ Pullar-Strecker, Tom (18 May 2020). "New Zealand population tops 5 million". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
- ^ a b c "Aotearoa Data Explorer". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 26 October 2024.
- ^ "Quality of Living Ranking 2016". London: Mercer. 23 February 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
- ^ "NZ life expectancy among world's best". Stuff.co.nz. Fairfax NZ. Retrieved 6 July 2014.
- ^ a b Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009). "World Population Prospects" (PDF). 2008 revision. United Nations. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
- ^ "World Factbook EUROPE : NEW ZEALAND", The World Factbook, 12 July 2018
- ^ "New Zealand mortality statistics: 1950 to 2010" (PDF). Ministry of Health of New Zealand. 2 March 2011. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
- ^ "Health expenditure and financing". stats.oecd.org. OECD. 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
- ^ Pool, Ian (May 2011). "Population change - Key population trends". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 18 August 2017. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ Dalby, Simon (September 1993). "The 'Kiwi disease': geopolitical discourse in Aotearoa/New Zealand and the South Pacific". Political Geography. 12 (5): 437–456. doi:10.1016/0962-6298(93)90012-V.
- ^ Callister, Paul (2004). "Seeking an Ethnic Identity: Is "New Zealander" a Valid Ethnic Category?" (PDF). New Zealand Population Review. 30 (1&2): 5–22.
- ^ Ranford, Jodie. "'Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning". Māori News. Retrieved 20 February 2008.
Originally the Pakeha were the early European settlers, however, today 'Pakeha' is used to describe any peoples of non-Maori or non-Polynesian heritage. Pakeha is not an ethnicity but rather a way to differentiate between the historical origins of our settlers, the Polynesians and the Europeans, the Maori and the other
- ^ Socidad Peruana de Medicina Intensiva (SOPEMI) (2000). Trends in international migration: continuous reporting system on migration. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. pp. 276–278.
- ^ Walrond, Carl (21 September 2007). "Dalmatians". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
- ^ "Peoples". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. 2005. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
- ^ a b Phillips, Jock (11 August 2015). "History of immigration". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
- ^ Brawley, Sean (1993). "'No White Policy in NZ': Fact and Fiction in New Zealand's Asian Immigration Record, 1946-1978" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of History. 27 (1): 33–36. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
- ^ "International Migration Outlook – New Zealand 2009/10" (PDF). International Migration Outlook. New Zealand : OECD Continuous Reporting System on Migration (Sopemi). New Zealand Department of Labour: 2. 2010. ISSN 1179-5085. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ "Birthplace (detailed), for the census usually resident population count, 2006, 2013, and 2018 Censuses (RC, TA, SA2, DHB)". nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz. Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
- ^ "2018 Census totals by topic – national highlights". Statistics New Zealand. 23 September 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
- ^ Butcher, Andrew; McGrath, Terry (2004). "International Students in New Zealand: Needs and Responses" (PDF). International Education Journal. 5 (4).
- ^ 2013 Census QuickStats, Statistics New Zealand, 2013, ISBN 978-0-478-40864-5
- ^ Hay, Maclagan & Gordon 2008, p. 14.
- ^ * Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
- ^ a b Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "The New Zealanders – Bicultural New Zealand". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ Squires, Nick (May 2005). "British influence ebbs as New Zealand takes to talking Māori". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
- ^ "Waitangi Tribunal claim – Māori Language Week". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ "Ngā puna kōrero: Where Māori speak te reo – infographic". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 8 September 2016.
- ^ Drinnan, John (8 July 2016). "'Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
According to 2015 figures supplied by Maori TV, its two channels broadcast an average of 72 per cent Maori language content - 59 per cent on the main channel and 99 per cent on te reo.
- ^ "Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 20 May 2014 [1 October 1998]. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
- ^ New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 No 18 (as at 30 June 2008), Public Act. New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
- ^ a b Kaa, Hirini (March 2017). "Ngā hāhi – Māori and Christian denominations - Ringatū and Rātana". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ^ Zuckerman, Phil (2006). Martin, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Atheism (PDF). Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–66. ISBN 978-0-521-84270-9. S2CID 16480812. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
- ^ Walrond, Carl (May 2012). "Atheism and secularism – Who is secular?". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
- ^ "2018 Census place summaries". stats.govt.nz. Statistics New Zealand. 23 September 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ^ a b Dench, Olivia (July 2010). "Education Statistics of New Zealand: 2009". Education Counts. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ "Education Act 1989 No 80". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1989. Section 3. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
- ^ "Education Act 1989 No 80 (as at 01 February 2011), Public Act. Part 14: Establishment and disestablishment of tertiary institutions, Section 62: Establishment of institutions". Education Act 1989 No 80. New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 February 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
- ^ "Studying in New Zealand: Tertiary education". New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
- ^ "Educational attainment of the population". Education Counts. 2006. Archived from the original (xls) on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
- ^ "What Students Know and Can Do: Student Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science 2010" (PDF). OECD. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 398.
- ^ Hearn, Terry (March 2009). "English – Importance and influence". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ "Conclusions – British and Irish immigration". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. March 2007. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ Stenhouse, John (November 2010). "Religion and society – Māori religion". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ "Māori Social Structures". Ministry of Justice. March 2001. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ "Thousands turn out for Pasifika Festival". Radio New Zealand. 25 March 2017. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 400.
- ^ Kennedy 2007, p. 399.
- ^ Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "The New Zealanders – Post-war New Zealanders". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "The New Zealanders – Ordinary blokes and extraordinary sheilas". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "Rural mythologies – The cult of the pioneer". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ Barker, Fiona (June 2012). "New Zealand identity – Culture and arts". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
- ^ a b Wilson, John (September 2016). "Nation and government – Nationhood and identity". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
- ^ a b Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life – Visual arts and crafts". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Elements of Carving. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Surface Patterns. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ McKay, Bill (2004). "Māori architecture: transforming western notions of architecture". Fabrications. 14 (1&2): 1–12. doi:10.1080/10331867.2004.10525189. S2CID 144007691. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Painted Designs. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (2009) [1966]. Tattooing. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ a b "Beginnings – history of NZ painting". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. December 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
- ^ "A new New Zealand art – history of NZ painting". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2010. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
- ^ "Contemporary Maori art". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2010. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
- ^ Rauer, Julie. "Paradise Lost: Contemporary Pacific Art At The Asia Society". Asia Society and Museum. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Textile Designs. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ Keane, Basil (March 2009). "Pounamu – jade or greenstone – Implements and adornment". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
- ^ Wilson, John (March 2009). "Society – Food, drink and dress". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
- ^ Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life – Design and fashion". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ a b "Fashion in New Zealand – New Zealand's fashion industry". The Economist. 28 February 2008. Retrieved 6 August 2009.
- ^ Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life – Writing and publishing". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ "The making of New Zealand literature". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2010. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ "New directions in the 1930s – New Zealand literature". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ "The war and beyond – New Zealand literature". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2007. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ "28 cities join the UNESCO Creative Cities Network". UNESCO. December 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- ^ a b Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life – Music". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Maori Music. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. Musical Instruments. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. Instruments Used for Non-musical Purposes. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. Music: General History. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. Music: Brass Bands. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [1966]. Music: Pipe Bands. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life – Performing arts". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ "History – celebrating our music since 1965". Recording Industry Association of New Zealand. 2008. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
- ^ "About RIANZ – Introduction". Recording Industry Association of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 21 December 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
- ^ Downes, Siobhan (1 January 2017). "World famous in New Zealand: Hobbiton Movie Set". Stuff Travel. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ Brian, Pauling (October 2014). "Radio – The early years, 1921 to 1932". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ "New Zealand's first official TV broadcast". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. December 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ a b Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life – Film and broadcasting". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ Horrocks, Roger. "A History of Television in New Zealand". NZ On Screen. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
- ^ "Top 10 Highest Grossing New Zealand Movies Ever". Flicks.co.nz. May 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ Cieply, Michael; Rose, Jeremy (October 2010). "New Zealand Bends and 'Hobbit' Stays". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ "Production Guide: Locations". Film New Zealand. Archived from the original on 7 November 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
- ^ Myllylahti, Merja (December 2016). JMAD New Zealand Media Ownership Report 2016 (PDF) (Report). Auckland University of Technology. pp. 4–29. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
- ^ "Scores and Status Data 1980-2015". Freedom of the Press 2015. Freedom House. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
- ^ Hearn, Terry (March 2009). "English – Popular culture". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
- ^ "Sport, Fitness and Leisure". New Zealand Official Yearbook. Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2008.
Traditionally New Zealanders have excelled in rugby union, which is regarded as the national sport, and track and field athletics.
- ^ a b Phillips, Jock (February 2011). "Sports and leisure – Organised sports". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ a b "More and more students wear school sports colours". New Zealand Secondary School Sports Council. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
- ^ Crawford, Scott (January 1999). "Rugby and the Forging of National Identity" (PDF). In Nauright, John (ed.). Sport, Power And Society In New Zealand: Historical And Contemporary Perspectives. ASSH Studies In Sports History. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ "Rugby, racing and beer". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2010. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
- ^ Derby, Mark (December 2010). "Māori–Pākehā relations – Sports and race". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Bain 2006, p. 69.
- ^ Langton, Graham (1996). A history of mountain climbing in New Zealand to 1953 (Thesis). Christchurch: University of Canterbury. p. 28. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
- ^ "World mourns Sir Edmund Hillary". The Age. Melbourne. 11 January 2008.
- ^ "Sport and Recreation Participation Levels" (PDF). Sport and Recreation New Zealand. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
- ^ "New Zealand and the America's Cup". New Zealand History. 17 May 2018.
- ^ Barclay-Kerr, Hoturoa (September 2013). "Waka ama – outrigger canoeing". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
- ^ "NZ's first Olympic century". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ "London 2012 Olympic Games: Medal strike rate – Final count (revised)". Statistics New Zealand. 14 August 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
- ^ "Rio 2016 Olympic Games: Medals per capita". Statistics New Zealand. 30 August 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
- ^ Kerr, James (14 November 2013). "The All Blacks guide to being successful (off the field)". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
- ^ "New Zealand". rugbyworldcup.com. Rugby World Cup Limited. 2019. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
- ^ a b "New Zealand Cuisine". New Zealand Tourism Guide. January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
- ^ Petrie, Hazel (November 2008). "Kai Pākehā – introduced foods". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
- ^ Whaanga, Mere (June 2006). "Mātaitai – shellfish gathering". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
- ^ "Story: Shellfish". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
- ^ Burton, David (September 2013). "Cooking – Cooking methods". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
- ^ Satyanand, Anand. "Hangi for Prince William". The Governor-General. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- ^ Royal, Charles; Kaka-Scott, Jenny (September 2013). "Māori foods – kai Māori". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
References
edit- Alley, Roderic (2008). New Zealand in World Affairs IV 1990–2005. New Zealand: Victoria University Press. ISBN 978-0-864-73548-5.
- Bain, Carolyn (2006). New Zealand. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74104-535-5.
- Garden, Donald (2005). Stoll, Mark (ed.). Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental History. Nature and Human Societies. ABC-CLIO/Greenwood. ISBN 978-1-57607-868-6.
- Hay, Jennifer; Maclagan, Margaret; Gordon, Elizabeth (2008). Dialects of English: New Zealand English. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2529-1.
- Kennedy, Jeffrey (2007). "Leadership and Culture in New Zealand". In Chhokar, Jagdeep; Brodbeck, Felix; House, Robert (eds.). Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies. United States: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-8058-5997-3.
- King, Michael (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. New Zealand: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-301867-4.
- Mein Smith, Philippa (2005). A Concise History of New Zealand. Australia: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54228-6.
- Matthew Palmer (2008). The Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand's Law and Constitution. Victoria University of Wellington Press. ISBN 978-0-86473-579-9.
- Smelt, Roselynn; Jui Lin, Yong (2009). New Zealand. Cultures of the World (2nd ed.). New York: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-3415-3.
Further reading
edit- Bateman, David, ed. (2005). Bateman New Zealand Encyclopedia (6th ed.). ISBN 1-86953-601-0.
- Sinclair, Keith; revised by Dalziel, Raewyn (2000). A History of New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-14-029875-8.
- Statistics New Zealand. New Zealand Official Yearbook (annual). ISBN 1-86953-776-9 (2010).
External links
edit- Government
- New Zealand Government portal
- Ministry for Culture and Heritage – includes information on flag, anthems and coat of arms
- Statistics New Zealand
- Travel
- General Information
- New Zealand entry from The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- New Zealand from BBC News
- Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
- New Zealand OECD
- New Zealand, directory from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- New Zealand at Encyclopædia Britannica
- New Zealand weather
- Key Development Forecasts for New Zealand from International Futures
- Wikimedia Atlas of New Zealand
- Geographic data related to Lbothwe/New Zealand at OpenStreetMap
Category:Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean
Category:Countries in Australasia
Category:Countries in Polynesia
Category:English-speaking countries and territories
Category:Island countries
Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
Category:Member states of the United Nations
Category:States and territories established in 1907
Category:Zealandia
Category:Countries in Oceania