Germany has experienced significant terrorism in its history, particularly during the Weimar Republic and during the Cold War, carried out by far-left and far-right German groups as well as by foreign terrorist organisations.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F051866-0010%2C_%22Landshut%22-Entf%C3%BChrung%2C_R%C3%BCckkehr_GSG_9.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F051866-0010%2C_%22Landshut%22-Entf%C3%BChrung%2C_R%C3%BCckkehr_GSG_9.jpg)
Year | Incidents | Deaths | Injuries |
---|---|---|---|
2020 | 3 | 11 | 12 |
2019 | 12 | 3 | 14 |
2018 | 22 | 0 | 8 |
2017 | 27 | 1 | 10 |
2016 | 44 | 27 | 117 |
2015 | 66 | 1 | 38 |
2014 | 13 | 0 | 0 |
2013 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
2012 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
2011 | 8 | 2 | 2 |
2010 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
2009 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
2008 | 3 | 0 | 2 |
2007 | 3 | 1 | 1 |
2006 | 4 | 2 | 0 |
2005 | 3 | 2 | 0 |
2004 | 3 | 1 | 25 |
2003 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
2002 | 3 | 0 | 2 |
2001 | 8 | 3 | 6 |
2000 | 8 | 1 | 28 |
1999 | 13 | 3 | 47 |
1998 | 6 | 0 | 0 |
1997 | 12 | 0 | 27 |
1996 | 52 | 1 | 5 |
1995 | 147 | 10 | 26 |
1994 | 79 | 2 | 85 |
1993 | 37 | 7 | 58 |
1992 | 156 | 17 | 217 |
1991 | 65 | 10 | 35 |
1990 | 13 | 1 | 4 |
1989 | 22 | 5 | 8 |
1988 | 18 | 1 | 14 |
1987 | 20 | 2 | 33 |
1986 | 49 | 10 | 276 |
1985 | 57 | 9 | 114 |
1984 | 22 | 0 | 3 |
1983 | 6 | 2 | 25 |
1982 | 30 | 5 | 44 |
1981 | 31 | 2 | 31 |
1980 | 20 | 17 | 218 |
1979 | 17 | 0 | 10 |
1978 | 20 | 0 | 4 |
1977 | 41 | 6 | 2 |
1976 | 50 | 4 | 36 |
1975 | 35 | 1 | 12 |
1974 | 29 | 2 | 10 |
1973 | 27 | 1 | 1 |
1972 | 24 | 23 | 45 |
1971 | 17 | 0 | 0 |
1970 | 32 | 8 | 9 |
Total | 1,307 | 205 | 1,633 |
In recent years, far-left, far-right and Islamist extremist violence have resurged, and groups have been suspected of terrorism or terrorist plans. The country has experienced several attacks and plots linked to Islamist extremists, prompting increased security measures and counterterrorism efforts. High-profile incidents, such as the 2016 Berlin Christmas market attack, point to the persistent danger of radicalization and violent extremism within Germany's borders.
Since the 2000s, jihadism in Germany has emerged as one of Europe's most dynamic scenes. This phenomenon is characterized by strong anti-American sentiment and extensive international networks. German-born jihadists, often radicalized in German cities, frequently travel to regions such as Turkey, Chechnya, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. In these locations, they exchange ideologies and form alliances with various extremist organizations.[3]
Weimar Republic
editGermany's loss in the First World War resulted in a chaotic situation, with multiple far-left and far-right organisations attempting to seize power. Both the far left and the far right organised their own militias, and carried out assassinations. For example, the Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau was assassinated in 1922 by a far-right group. Members of the Communist Party of Germany assassinated police captains Paul Anlauf and Franz Lenck in Berlin in 1931.
Terrorism in Germany
editTurkish and Kurdish Islamist groups are also active in Germany.[4] Political scientist Guido Steinberg stated that many top leaders of Islamist organizations in Turkey fled to Germany in the 2000s, and that the Turkish (Kurdish) Hezbollah has also "left an imprint on Turkish Kurds in Germany."[4] Also many Kurds from Iraq (there are about 50,000 to 80,000 Iraqi Kurds in Germany) financially supported Kurdish-Islamist groups like Ansar al-Islam.[4] Many Islamists in Germany are ethnic Kurds (Iraqi and Turkish Kurds) or Turks. Before 2006, the German Islamist scene was dominated by Iraqi Kurds and Palestinians, but since 2006 Kurds from Turkey and Turks are dominant.[4]
According to a research conducted by the Abba Eban Institute as part of an initiative called Janus Initiative, Shiite clans in Germany are involved in organized crime and are specifically supporting Hezbollah.[5]
In 2015, 11 verdicts concerning jihadist terrorism related offences were issued by German courts.[6] In 2016, 28 verdicts for jihadist terrorism related offences were delivered.[7] In 2017 there were 27 verdicts.[8]
Almost all known terrorist networks and individuals in Germany have links to Salafism,[9] an ultra-conservative Islamic ideology.[10]
Terrorism in (or involving) West Germany and reunified Germany
editDuring the Cold War, especially in the 1970s, West Germany experienced severe terrorism, mostly perpetrated by far-left terrorist groups and culminating in the German Autumn of 1977, the country's most serious national crisis in postwar history. Terrorist incidents also took place in the 1980s and 1990s. Some of the terrorist groups had connections to international terrorism, notably Palestinian militant groups, and were aided and abetted by the communist regime of East Germany.
Right Wing Extremists | Anarchists and Left Wing Extremists | Islamists and Salafists | Separatists and foreign Nationalists |
---|---|---|---|
Atomwaffen Division since 2018 | Red Army Faction 1970–1998 | Al-Qaeda since 2006 | Provisional Irish Republican Army |
Freikorps Havelland 2003–2005 | Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine | Islamic State since 2015 | Black September |
Gruppe Freital 2015–2018 | Revolutionary Cells 1973–1993 | Ansar al-Islam | Grey Wolves since 1968 |
National Socialist Underground 1999–2011 | Anti-Imperialist Cell 1992 – 1995 | ||
Deutsche Aktionsgruppen 1980 | Movement 2 June 1972–1980 | ||
Wehrsportsgruppe Hoffman 1973–1980 | Tupamaros West-Berlin (and Munchen) 1969-1970 | ||
Combat 18 since 1992 | Revolutionäre Aktionszellen (RAZ) 2009–2011[11] | ||
Action Front of National Socialists/National Activists 1977–1983 | Rote Zora 1974–1995 | ||
Revolution Chemnitz 2018–2019[12] | Militante gruppe 2001–2009 | ||
Nationale Bewegung 2000-2001 | Klasse gegen Klasse 1992–2003 | ||
Hepp-Kexel-Group 1982 | Feministische Autonome Zelle (FAZ) since 2019 |
List of significant terrorist incidents in Germany
editGermany | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Date | Location | Deaths | Injuries | Type | Perpetrator or motives | Description | |
2 April 1968 | Frankfurt | — | — | Arson | Red Army Faction | -- Shopping Mall
| |
11 April 1968 | Berlin | — | 1 | Small arms fire | Josef Bachmann | -- Rudi Dutschke, prominent figure of the left-wing students movement
| |
10 February 1970 | Munich | 1 | 23 | Grenade attack and Small arms fire | PDFLP (Palestinian nationalists) | -- Airports & airlines
| |
13 February 1970 | Munich | 7 | 10 | Arson | Anarchist group (suspected) | -- Cultural institutions | |
2 February 1972 | Berlin | 1 | — | Bomb attack | 2 June Movement | -- British Military Vehicles and a British yacht-club (British Armed Forces)
| |
11 May 1972 | Frankfurt | 1 | 13 | Bomb attack | Red Army Faction | -- Government institutions (Foreign: United States Army)
| |
24 May 1972 | Heidelberg | 3 | 5 | Car bombing | Red Army Faction | -- Government institutions (Foreign: United States Army)
| |
5 September 1972 | Munich | 17 (5 perps.) |
— | Hostage taking
(2 days) |
Black September (Palestinian nationalists) | -- Olympic Games
| |
7 April 1977 | Karlsruhe | 3 | — | Small arms fire | Red Army Faction | -- Government institutions
| |
30 July 1977 | Oberursel | 1 | — | Small arms fire | Red Army Faction | -- Business
| |
5 September 1977 | Cologne | 5 | — | Small arms fire | Red Army Faction | -- Business
| |
22 August 1980 | Hamburg | 2 | — | Arson | Deutsche Aktionsgruppen Right-wing terrorism | -- Private citizens (Refugees) & property
| |
27 September 1980 | Munich | 12 (one perp.) |
213 | Suicide bombing | Right-Wing Terrorism (perpetrator: Gundolf Köhler) | -- Private citizens & property
| |
11 May 1982 | Seckbach (Frankfurt am Main) | 1 | — | Assassination | Revolutionary Cells (German group) | -- German Politician Heinz-Herbert Karry | |
15 January 1982 | Berlin | 1 | 46 | Bomb attack | Palestinian Nationalists | -- Private citizens & property
| |
25 August 1983 | Berlin | 2 | 23 | Bomb attack | ASALA (Armenian nationalists) and Carlos the Jackal | -- Diplomatic (French)
| |
1 February 1985 | Munich | 1 | — | Small arms fire | Red Army Faction | -- Business
| |
19 June 1985 | Frankfurt | 3 | 74 | Bombing | Abu Nidal Organization | -- Airports & airlines
| |
8 August 1985 | Rhein-Main Air Base | 2 | 20 | Car bombing | Red Army Faction & Action Directe | -- Government institutions (Foreign: United States Army)
| |
4 April 1986 | Berlin | 3 | 231 | Bombing | Libyan agents | -- Private Citizens & Property
| |
9 July 1986 | Munich | 2 | — | Bombing | Red Army Faction | -- Business
| |
23 March 1987 | Rheindahlen | — | 31 | Car bombing | Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) | -- British military base
| |
19 June 1989 | Osnabrück | — | — | Bomb attack | Provisional Irish Republican Army | -- Government institutions (Foreign: British Army)
| |
30 November 1989 | Bad Homburg vor der Höhe | 1 | 1 | Bombing | Red Army Faction | -- Business
| |
13 February 1991 | Bonn | — | — | Sniper attack | Red Army Faction | -- Government institutions (Foreign: United States)
| |
16 June 1991 | Friedrichshafen | 1 | — | Stabbing | Neo Nazi | -- Angolan migrant
| |
12 October 1991 | Holzminden | 2 | 0 | Ambush, Shooting | Action Group for the Destruction of the Police State | --Police officers | |
24 August 1992 | Koblenz | 1 | 7 | Shooting | Neo-Nazi Andy Johann H. | --Civilians
| |
23 November 1992 | Mölln | 3 | — | Firebombing | Neo-Nazis | -- Private Citizens & Property
| |
29 May 1993 | Solingen | 5 | 14 | Firebombing | Far-Right | -- Private Citizens & Property
| |
17 November 1993 | Cologne | — | — | Small arms fire | Anti-Imperialist Cell | -- Property
| |
27 October 1994 | Bad Freienwalde | — | — | Arson | Das K.O.M.I.T.E.E. | -- Bundeswehr Building & Property
| |
28 June 1996 | Osnabrück | — | — | Mortar attack | Provisional Irish Republican Army | -- Government institutions (Foreign: British Army) | |
23 October 1996 | Leipzig | 1 | — | Stabbing | Neo-Nazis | --Syrian migrant
| |
23 February 1997 | Roseburg | 1 | 1 | Shooting | Kay D. Neo-Nazi | --Police officers
| |
9 June 2004 | Cologne | — | 22 | Pipe bombing | National Socialist Underground | -- Private Citizens & Property
| |
9 September 2000 to 25 April 2007 | 10 | 1 | Serial Killing, Small arms fire | National Socialist Underground | -- Government institutions, Private Citizens & Property
| ||
26 February 2009 | Burg bei Magdeburg | — | — | Arson | Militante gruppe left-wing extremists | --Bundeswehr vehicle
| |
11 November 2009 | Frankfurt | — | — | Arson | Bewegung Morgenlicht | Solitary activist pretending to be a movement attacked a bank with fire bomb[60] | |
30 December 2009 | Berlin | — | — | Bomb attack | Revolutionäre Aktionszellen (RAZ) left-wing terrorists | --Employmeent agency
| |
4 February 2010 | Berlin | — | — | Bomb attack | Revolutionäre Aktionszellen (RAZ) left-wing terrorists | --House of economy
| |
19 November 2010 | Berlin | — | — | Firebombing | Revolutionäre Aktionszellen (RAZ) left-wing terrorists | --German Federal Administrative Office Berlin
| |
2 March 2011 | Frankfurt | 2 | 2 | Small arms fire | Arid Uka | -- Government institutions (Foreign: United States Army)
| |
3 December 2011 | Göttingen | — | — | Firebombing | Revolutionäre Aktionszellen (RAZ) | --County Court
| |
14 May 2012 | Potsdam | 0 | 0 | Arson | Friends of Loukanikos | --County Court
| |
17 September 2015 | Cologne | — | 5 | Stabbing | Right-wing extremist Frank S. | -- Henriette Reker (Politician)
| |
17 October 2015 | Berlin | 1 (one perp.) |
1 | Stabbing | Rafik Mohamad Yousef | -- Ayad Allawi (Politician)
Plotted to assassinate the Prime Minister of Iraq during his visit to Germany .[69] | |
1 November 2015 | Freital | — | 1 | Bomb attack | Gruppe Freital (Right-wing extremists) | -- Refugee accommodation | |
5 February 2016 | Hanover | — | — | Arson | Saleh S. (Islamist) | -- Civilians
| |
26 February 2016 | Hanover | — | 1 | Stabbing | Safia S. (Islamist) | -- Government institutions (Police) | |
16 April 2016 | Essen | — | 3 | Bomb attack | Yussuf T. and Mohammed B. Islamic Terrorism | -- Sikh temple
| |
19 July 2016 | Würzburg | 1 (one perp.) |
5 | Axe attack | Riaz Khan Ahmadzai (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) | -- Private Citizens & Property | |
22 July 2016 | Munich | 10 (one perp.) |
36 | Shooting | David Sonboly (Right-wing terrorism) | -- Private Citizens & Property | |
24 July 2016 | Ansbach | 1 (one perp.) |
12 | Suicide bombing | Mohammad Daleel (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) | -- Private Citizens & Property | |
26 September 2016 | Dresden | — | — | Pipe bombing | Nino K. Right-wing terrorism | -- Mosque & International Congress Center Dresden
| |
19 December 2016 | Berlin | 13 | 55 | Truck attack | Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant | -- Private Citizens & Property | |
28 July 2017 | Hamburg | 1 | 6 | Stabbing | Ahmad Alhaw (Islamic State) | -- Private Citizens | |
March 2018 | Multiple cities | — | — | Multiple arson | Kurdish extremists and left-wing extremists | --Turkish Mosques, stores and cultural centers
| |
12 March 2018 | Gütersloh | — | — | Arson | Left-wing extremist cell Vulkangruppe NetzHerrschaft zerreißen | --Power supply system
| |
26 March 2018 | North Rhine-Westphalia | — | — | Arson | Anarchist communist extremist group Action Cell Haukur Hilmarsson | --Power supply system
| |
24 December 2018 | Hambach Forest | — | — | Arson | Green anarchist group Hambi Chaos Crew | --Pumping station | |
3 January 2019 | Döbeln | — | — | Bomb attack | Left-wing extremists | --Alternative for Germany office
| |
31 May 2019 | Bremen | — | 1 | Stabbing | Right-wing extremists | --Muslim civilian
| |
2 June 2019 | Wolfhagen | 1 | — | Assassination | Right-wing extremist | --Walter Lübcke
| |
22 July 2019 | Wächtersbach | 1 (one perp.) |
1 | Murder-suicide/Drive-by-shooting | Right-wing extremist | --Random African citizen
| |
23 July 2019 | Zittau | — | — | Bombing | Suspected right-wing extremists | --Home of a left-wing politician | |
27 September 2019 | Berlin | — | — | Arson | Left-wing extremists | --Court building
| |
9 October 2019 | Halle (Saale) | 2 | 2 | Attempted mass shooting | Right-wing extremist | --Synagogue and Turkish restaurant
|
|
19 February 2020 | Hanau | 11 (one perp.) |
5 | Mass shootings | Right-wing extremist | --Hookah bars
| |
18 August 2020 | Berlin | — | 6 | Vehicle-ramming attack | Islamist | --Motorists
| |
4 October 2020 | Dresden | 1 | 1 | Stabbing | Islamist | --Civilians | |
26 May 2021 | Berlin | — | — | Arson | Left-wing extremist group Vulkangruppe NetzHerrschaft zerreißen | --Power cables to factory
| |
18 September 2021 | Idar-Oberstein | 1 | — | Shooting | Opponent of Covid restrictions | --Civilian
| |
23 June 2024 | Minden | 1 | 1 | Beating | A 20-year-old Greek man was beaten to death in the street in Germany.[96] |
Islamic terrorism
editThwarted islamist terror attacks
editIn December 2019, German authorities reported to have thwarted ten Islamic terrorist plots since the 2016 Berlin truck attack.[98][99] Among these:
- Abu Ali group
- 2006 German train bombing plot
- 2007 bomb plot in Germany
- 2015 Eschborn-Frankfurt City Loop
- 2016 Düsseldorf terrorism plot
- 2016 Chemnitz terrorism plot
- 2016 Ludwigshafen terrorism plot
- 2018 Cologne terrorist plot
List of international terrorist incidents (outside Germany) with significant German casualties
edit- Eleven German nationals died as a result of the September 11 attacks in 2001 in the United States.
- Six German nationals died as a result of the bombings of several Balinese tourist clubs in Indonesia on 12 October 2002.[100]
- Fourteen German nationals died as a result of the bombing of a synagogue on the island of Djerba in Tunisia on 11 April 2002.[101]
- 12 out of 13 tourists killed in the January 2016 Istanbul bombing were German, while another six were injured.
Response to terrorism
editThe terrorism of the 1970s has formed Germany's political culture and its policy of not negotiating with terrorists. It also led to the formation of the GSG9 counter-terrorism unit. In 1972, a law was passed, the Extremist Act (Radikalenerlass), which banned radicals or those with a 'questionable' political persuasion from public sector jobs.
In 2019 the Federal Criminal Police Office created a department dedicated towards Islamic terrorism and extremism.[102]
Traditionally counter-terrorist organisations in Germany have been slower to respond to extreme right-wing groups than extreme left-wing ones. It has been suggested that this is due to the extreme right being seen as corrigible (fighting for attainable, tangible goals that can be negotiated) while the extreme left are regarded as incorrigible (fighting for ideological goals that are "pure" and cannot be negotiated). Thus because the extreme left are seen as targeting the heart of the German political system while the extreme right is not, this tends to result in a reduced response to extreme right-wing terrorism. In addition, far-right terrorism was at times dubiously regarded as a form of terrorism by the security services, as it did not seem to have self-explanatory political statements nor were any official announcements made by far-right groups explaining the act; for example, a house burning of Turkish immigrants was initially blamed on organised crime and was only later determined to have been perpetrated by extreme right-wing groups, leading officials to doubt it was a form of terrorism as it did not seem to have any broader political goals beyond the killing itself.[103]
In popular culture
editA number of books and films address this topic.
Films
edit- The Arsonists (Brandstifter, 1969)
- The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum (1975)
- Germany in Autumn (1978)
- The Third Generation (1979)
- The German Sisters (1981)
- Stammheim (1986)
- Die Hard (1988)
- Die Hard With A Vengeance (1995)
- Death Game (1997)
- The State I Am In (2000)
- The Legend of Rita (2000)
- Black Box BRD (2001)[104]
- Baader (2002)
- Enemy of the State (2003)
- In Love With Terror (2003)
- Munich (2005)
- The Baader Meinhof Complex (2008)
- Children of the Revolution (2010)
- A Most Wanted Man (2014)
- NSU German History X (2016)
See also
editReferences
edit- German Jihad: On the Internationalisation of Islamist Terrorism by Guido Steinberg. Columbia University Press, 2013
- ^ National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (globalterrorismdb_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
- ^ National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (gtd1993_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
- ^ Steinberg, Guido W. (June 2013). German Jihad: On the Internationalization of Islamist Terrorism. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-50053-1.
- ^ a b c d Guido Steinberg, German Jihad: On the Internationalisation of Islamist Terrorism, Columbia University Press, 2013
- ^ "Home - Janus Initiative". janus-initiative.com. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
- ^ "EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) 2016". EU Terrorism Situation & Trend Report (Te-Sat). Europol: 47. 2016. ISBN 978-92-95200-68-5.
- ^ "EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) 2017". EU Terrorism Situation & Trend Report (Te-Sat). Europol: 52. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95200-79-1.
- ^ European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2018 (TE SAT 2018) (PDF). Europol. 2018. p. 58. ISBN 978-92-95200-91-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
- ^ "Salafistische Bestrebungen". Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz (in German). 15 January 2018. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
Die Mehrzahl der Salafisten in Deutschland sind keine Terroristen, sondern politische Salafisten. Andererseits sind fast alle in Deutschland bisher identifizierten terroristischen Netzwerkstrukturen und Einzelpersonen salafistisch geprägt bzw. haben sich im salafistischen Milieu entwickelt. [The majority of Salafists in Germany are not terrorists, but political Salafists. On the other hand, almost all hitherto identified terrorist networks and individuals in Germany are influenced by Salafism, for instance having developed in a Salafist environment.]
- ^ "Gewaltbereite Islamisten: Erstmals mehr als 10.000 Salafisten in Deutschland". FOCUS Online (in German). Retrieved 13 January 2019.
- ^ "Verfassungsschutzbericht 2013" (PDF) (in German). Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
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bomb heidelberg.
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- ^ Aubrey, Stefan M. (11 September 2001). The new dimension of international ... vdf Hochschulverlag AG. ISBN 9783728129499. Retrieved 22 June 2010.
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munich massacre terrorists.
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- ^ Diedrich, Oliver (27 November 2012). ""Deutsche Aktion": Neonazi-Terror 1980" (in German). NDR. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
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- ^ "Terrorist Incidents against Jewish Communities and Israeli Citizens Abroad, 1968-2003". International Institute for Counter-Terrorism. 20 December 2003.
- ^ Rubin, Barry; Rubin, Judith Colp (2015). Chronologies of Modern Terrorism. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 9781317474654.
- ^ "French Consulate Bombed in Berlin". The New York Times. 26 August 1983. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
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- ^ "Arab Group Asserts it Planted Bomb in Frankfurt". The New York Times. 22 June 1985. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
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- ^ Tagliabue, John (9 August 1985). "Car Bomb Kills 2 on a U.S. Air Base in West Germany". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
- ^ Chalk, Peter (2012). Encyclopedia of Terrorism. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 401–402. ISBN 9780313308956.
- ^ "Germans Get 3 Suspects In an Ice Cream Parlor". The New York Times. 4 August 1986. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
- ^ Tagliabue, John (26 July 1986). "Car Bomb Hits a West German Company Involved in 'Star Wars'". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
- ^ Westminster, Department of the Official Report (Hansard), House of Commons. "House of Commons Hansard Debates for 22 Jun 1989". UK Parliament. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
{{cite web}}
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- ^ Charles Hawley; Daryl Lindsey (24 August 2012). "Twenty Years after Rostock: Racism and Xenophobia Still Prevalent in Germany". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
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- ^ Kinzer, Stephen (4 June 1993). "Thousands of Germans Rally for the Slain Turks". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 September 2015.
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Further reading
edit- Manthe, Barbara (January–February 2018). "On the Pathway to Violence: West German Right-Wing Terrorism in the 1970s, Terrorism and Political Violence". Terrorism and Political Violence. 33 (1). doi:10.1080/09546553.2018.1520701. S2CID 150252263.