Application of the Ostrom framework in the analysis of a social-ecological system with multiple resources in a marine protected area

The social-ecological subsystem of lobster fishery

The actors [A1] are the members of the cooperative who hold the concession for catching lobster in the bay since 1994. In 2014 the cooperative had 42 members and 48 boats (Headley et al., 2017). [A3] The human settlement of Punta Allen dates back to the 1950s with the arrival of agricultural workers. After agricultural activities decreased in the late 1960s due to coconut lethal yellowing disease, people focused exclusively on the lobster fishery (Panulirus argus).

[A4] In 1968 the fishers’ village was established at the end of a sandbar north of the mouth of the bay (Fig. 1). In that year, the fishing cooperative “Vigia Chico” was created. [A5] Before the concession were granted to the cooperative, fishers had internal agreements to distribute fishing grounds, so historically they have established inheritable or transferable territorial rights (Seijo, 1993). [A6] In 1988, the cooperative administration established new and stricter internal rules for its members, such as severe sanctions for the illegal sale of lobster or fishing in the grounds of other members, which led to the expulsion of some members of the cooperative with a subsequent decrease in the membership from 120 to 70 (Méndez-Medina, Schmook & McCandless, 2015). [A9] The fishing technique is an artificial shelter for lobster, locally known as “casita” made of steel wire covered with concrete. To catch live lobster, fishers only have to dive (apnea) and use the nets to extract the lobster from the shelters. There is an estimate of 27,000 artificial shelters settled in the bay (Headley et al., 2017; Villanueva-Poot et al., 2017). With the support of GPS, each fisher knows and have perfect control of the exploitation of his own shelters.

[RS1] The RS of the lobster fishery is comprised of all the elements of the environment and marine ecosystem that supports the lobster population and the fishing grounds (Fig. 1). [RS2] Currently there are 69 lobster fishing grounds (locally known as “campos”). The fishing grounds are clearly delimited in a geographic information system developed and donated by an academic institution (Villanueva-Poot et al., 2017). [RS3] The fishing grounds occupy 30% of the bay (170 km²), and are located mainly near the mouth, near coral reef formations, and in the mangrove forests.

[RS4] In the village, the cooperative has constructed a dock, office, freezers, storage rooms, and an auditorium. [RS5] The natural system is highly productive as it has large areas [RS9] of seagrass beds, mangroves and coral reefs, which support a great biodiversity, such as fish, sea turtles, sea birds, and dolphins, among other taxa. [RS6] Due to the relatively undisturbed interface of sea and land along a well-conserved coastline, SKBR was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987 (UNESCO, 1988). [RS7] The dynamics of the ecosystem can be predicted to a certain extent, as more information is produced thanks to the empirical knowledge of the fishers.

[RU1] The lobsters are the RUs, since they are the target species. Because the catch depends mainly on the artificial shelters and these allow for the management of the lobsters in there, only the lobsters that were inside the artificial shelters were considered as RUs for analytical purposes. [RU3] The interaction between the fishing grounds can be negligible, since lobsters tend to stay in the same place. [RU4] The historical data series based on the cooperative’s logbooks, indicates that from 2007 to 2016 the annual average catch was 75 tons (S.D. = ±19.7) [RU5], with an estimated value of US$1.05 million per year. [RU6] The spiny lobster forms a meta-population throughout the Caribbean Sea, that is, a geographically separated population in different stocks or sub-populations connected through some stages of the life cycle, such as larval dispersal or adult migration. The Ascension bay holds one of those sub-populations.

[GS1] At the national level, the National Commission for Fisheries and Aquaculture (CONAPESCA) is the federal agency that regulates the fishing resources and has granted the concession to exploit the lobster in the bay to the Vigia Chico Cooperative. In addition, the Harbor Master’s Authority has issued navigation licenses to their fishing boats. Because the bay is within a MPA, additional restrictions for lobster fishery has been established by the SKBR Management Program (SEMARNAT-CONANP, 2014), endorsed by the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) and enforced by the Federal Attorney for Environmental Protection (PROFEPA). [GS2] Since the foundation of the SKBR more than 50 institutions and non-governmental organizations have participated in scientific research, projects to conserve the natural resources, environmental monitoring, and support to local communities (SEMARNAT-CONANP, 2014).

[GS4] At the local level of governance, fishers from Punta Allen have developed property-rights system based on cooperation, which grants exclusive fishing rights of specific parcels or “campos” to each member of the cooperative (Seijo, 1993; Solares-Leal & Alvarez-Gil, 2005; Sosa-Cordero, Liceaga-Correa & Seijo, 2008). [GS5] Federal regulations allow the use of traps, command fishers to release undersized lobsters and berried females. There is a closed season for fishing from March 1 to June 30 (DOF, 2016). [GS6] The internal rules of the cooperative are based on democratic procedures of election. [GS7] The GS at local level is supported by the General Law of Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture. [GS8] Sanctions at the federal level are enforced by CONAPESCA through periodic visits of officers to the area.

[I1] The lobster stock is harvested at sustained levels (Sosa-Cordero, Liceaga-Correa & Seijo, 2008; Villanueva-Poot et al., 2017). [I2 and I7] This and other information (e.g., financial reports or earlier closure seasons due to adverse weather conditions) is shared in periodical meetings or assemblies (Sosa-Cordero, Liceaga-Correa & Seijo, 2008). [I3] Cooperative members have established democratic and accountable deliberative processes, and [I4] internal conflicts are resolved in the assembly. [I6] The leaders participate actively in the Confederation of Fishing Cooperatives of Quintana Roo. [I8] Frequently, cooperative leaders establish commercial networks with local seafood markets such as Cancun and with buyers from other cities, such as Merida. [I5] The artificial shelters imply a large investment, that is why it is a decision of the fishers to obtain more fishing grounds. [I9] The cooperative maintains reliable records on individual production per day, fishing ground and the number of artificial shelters surveyed; [I10] in addition, it makes empirical biological evaluation of the state of lobster that supports decision-making processes.

[O1] The social performance of this activity is high; for instance, Villanueva-Poot et al. (2017) mention that the income distribution among the fishers of the cooperative achieved a high level of equity and solidarity compared to other fisheries. [O2] In addition to the fishing mortality produced in the lobster population, the ecological performance on the impact of the shelters deployed in the bay has not been studied; however, [O3] there is a positive outcome of the artificial shelters in the fishing grounds as these present a rapid colonization generating new habitats, causing a positive externality on the benthic species including those of interest for recreational fishing.

[ECO1] Historically, this area has been affected by several hurricanes, with an adverse influence on human settlements. On average, every 2.5 years, a hurricane hits the area. Because strong winds bring down houses and infrastructure, human settlements are vulnerable, but the ecosystems have the ability to recover from the disturbances maintaining a good conservation status (SEMARNAT-CONANP, 2014). The excess rains or hurricanes also affect lobster production. [ECO3] Because spiny lobster forms a meta-population, it is considered a straddling stock for the Caribbean countries by the Law of the Sea. In this regard, the management strategies of Ascension Bay favors the increase of the refuge area for the lobsters and the sustainability of the fishery.

[S1] Lobster fishing represents the main livelihood in the community. [S3] The democratic values of the fishers can help the cooperative to adapt to future situations and maintain the equity of the benefits and political stability. [S5] Market is the most important driver of the fishery. In general, there is good demand and price for the lobster (it can vary from US$20 to US$25 kg of tail). [S6] The leaders are authorized to make declarations to the media about the situation of the cooperative.

The social-ecological subsystem of boat ecotourism

The actors [A1] are the tourists and the certified naturist guides. In total there are 85 guides members. This study considered data from two cooperatives (“Vigia Grande” and “Punta Allen”). Based on a data series from 2015 to 2017, we estimated a total of 40,945 tourists who practiced snorkeling, watching bird, dolphins, and sea turtles in their natural habitat (Solares-Leal & Alvarez-Gil, 2005; Sosa-Cordero, Liceaga-Correa & Seijo, 2008). [A3] Since 1986 some tourist activity was observed. To respond to the increase in demand for tourist services, the government encouraged the creation of the first tourist cooperative in 1994. Subsequently, three other cooperatives were organized, [A5] which gave the locals an effective system by which to organize the activity. [A6] The social capital facilitated the villagers to develop and agree upon a series of rules and practices to carry out ecological tourism aligned with the federal regulations. In general, the rules are well implemented.

[A7] Over time, the actors have learned about the importance and vulnerability of ecosystems and have acquired a high sense of conservation and responsibility. [A8] Ecotourism has acquired relevance in the community, involving a large part of the population employing naturist guides and other indirect jobs like restaurant services, handcrafts, and lodging services. [A9] The cooperatives have 42 authorized boats adapted to provide tourism services.

[RS1] The sector is tourism and the RS is represented by all the ecosystems of the visited places (Fig. 1). [RS2] The boundaries where the activity takes place are well defined, as well as the routes that tour guides follow. [RS3] The RS coverage is 203 km² (Fig. 1). [RS4] The infrastructure to provide the service consists of an office to receive tourists and a pier dedicated to the activity. [RS5] The landscapes in the bay attract a large number of tourists, so these sites can be considered highly productive in terms of tourism. [RS6] Some studies indicate that in general, coral reef ecosystems and their biodiversity present a good state of conservation (Núñez-Lara, Arias-González & Legendre, 2005; McField et al., 2018; Arias-Gonzalez, 2012). [RS7] It is necessary to study the dynamics of the ecosystem to be predicted. [RS9] The coral reef formations, channels, and islets in the bay are clearly localized.

[RU1] This is a non-extractive activity; therefore, the RUs are the individual ecosystems visited, including inland water channels through the mangroves, islands around the bay, coral reefs, and sandy beaches. [RU2] The biodiversity plays an important role in maintaining the health of these ecosystems. [RU3] The interactions among RUs are very strong, since all the ecosystems in the bay are interconnected through different biophysical elements (e.g., mass of water, fish, mollusks, vegetation, etc.); connectivity can improve the resilience of the ecosystems (Resilience Alliance, 2010).

[RU4] The economic value considered in the study was the total annual income for the tourist cooperatives that reached US$923,000. [RU5] In practical terms, the number of units is the number of sites visited most often, which are 14 coral reef formations. [RU6] The most distinctive characteristic of these ecosystems is that they are relatively isolated from human influence.

[GS1] At the national level of governance, the federal agency in charge of natural protected areas is CONANP, which establishes the control measures of ecotourism activities in the area. The boats must be registered in the Harbor Master Office. It is strictly enforced that all boats belong to any of the four cooperatives, which represent the local level of governance. [GS3] Locals have developed strong social networks, market networks, and environmental networks. The tourism cooperatives have created alliances to negotiate and standardize the prices to avoid conflicts. [GS4] Tourism cooperatives are the only ones authorized to provide the service, and they have developed a system to equitably assign the number of visitors.

[GS5] Tourism activities take place all year round. The activities of boat riding and free diving are subject to a maximum of six visitors per boat. To reduce erosion in the channels and lagoons, the boats are allowed engines up to 40HP. It is mandated that before the visit, tour operators give prior information on the number of visitors they are bringing, so the tourist cooperatives can program and prepare the boats that will provide the service. The maximum number of boats allowed is limited to 140. At the local level of governance, cooperatives have established additional measures to protect both tourists and the ecosystem: well-defined navigation routes to avoid collision of vessels. Speed limits to avoid collisions and avoid damaging the coastal dunes. Departure times of at least 20 min apart from one boat to another (SEMARNAT-CONANP, 2014).

[GS6] Collective choices rules are developed in cooperatives in democratic processes. The self-organization is very important due to the relatively large number of visitors that everyday arrive at the town; in peak days, cooperatives can receive up to 250 tourists, which represents 38% of the local population. [GS7] The rules are properly endorsed by the SKBR Management Program (SEMARNAT-CONANP, 2014). [GS8] To verify compliance, federal officials of CONANP and PROFEPA make regular visits to the site.

[I1] The main interaction between the visitors and the natural system, is the entrance of the latter to the ecosystems for the scenic enjoyment. In the site, there is an estimate of 6,824 trips per year with no studies on the maximum acceptable. [I2] Cooperatives exchange information regarding the availability of boats for tour operators everyday to coordinate the visits. [I3] Each cooperative has its own deliberative processes (assemblies), and sometimes, the leaders hold informal meetings to discuss relevant operational issues. [I4] There are minimum conflicts between the members of the cooperatives, which can be resolved at their assemblies.

Other interactions are the investment of cooperatives to preserve the ecosystem [I5] by training their tour guides in better practices (endorsed by the Ministry of Tourism) and in the maintenance of equipment and infrastructure. [I6] Some lobbying activities of the cooperatives leaders can occur when the collective interests are hampered. [I7] Each cooperative organizes periodical assemblies to take internal agreements, or share financial reports to their members. [I8] The marketing network of tourist services at state and community level is strong and competes with other destinations in the Mayan Riviera. The tourist cooperatives have established commercial contracts and alliances with tourist operators of the Mayan Riviera and Tulum. [I9] The four cooperatives maintain records on the number of tourist and trips per day. [I10] There is a basic evaluation of the climatic conditions for the decision-making processes regarding the appropriate routes and sites.

[O1] The social performance of this activity is good, since it is the activity with the highest rate of increase and with a high economic spill in other sectors of the economy, with an even distribution of benefits among the participants. [O2] In terms of ecological performance, the impact of divers on coral reefs and other ecosystems has not been assessed, as the number of visitors is around 40,000 per year. [O3] This activity has negative externalities to recreational fishing, due to the use of spaces near to the recreational fishing sites where the overcrowding of tourists causes disturbances in the target species.

[ECO1] Atypical massive quantities of pelagic macroalgae (Sargassum fluitans) in recent years into the entire Caribbean coast have negatively affected the tourist industry (Rodríguez-Martínez & Van Tussenbroek, 2017). One year after the Hurricane Gilbert hit Quintana Roo in 1988, a mass bleaching event occurred in the coral reefs of Isla Mujeres, Puerto Morelos, Mahahual, and Sian Ka’an; however, the mortality was moderate to low in the different seasons when there were increases in temperature at sea, with subsequent slow recoveries (Gardner et al., 2003; Reaser, Pomerance & Thomas, 2000; Wilkinson & Souter, 2008). This is latent in Sian Ka’an, as there are reports showing that around 47% of coral reefs in the Mexican Caribbean suffered bleaching in 2015 and 2016 with low mortality (McField et al., 2018). Likewise, hurricanes and storms can destroy coral reefs which then become vulnerable (Reaser, Pomerance & Thomas, 2000). Regarding the ocean acidification, different authors mention that the calcification rates of corals can be affected, depending on the species, but in general most of them can tolerate the expected pH reduction (Crook et al., 2012; Pandolfi et al., 2011).

[ECO2] There are no studies about the impact of boating on the coral ecosystems. The impacts could occur with the increased number of tourists in the natural areas. Additional research is needed on the impact of the waste systems and water extraction in the area of study. [ECO3] The coral reef ecosystems of Ascension Bay belong to the Mesoamerican reef system, therefore, the mass of water and organisms flow to and from that system. For this reason, it is necessary to carry out more studies where tourism is practiced.

[S1] With the growing economic development in the area, ecotourism in Punta Allen has become the second most important livelihood for the community. [S2] According to figures from CONANP, from 2007 to 2015 the number of visitors to the SKBR were 80,000 per year, this was twice the number observed before 2005. [S3] This trend represents a challenge for the community, so according to interviews with villagers who have been able to resolve past conflicts, the democratic values of the cooperatives provide political stability to the village. [S5] Nevertheless, the actors must be clear that the activity is subject to the influence of local and international markets, [S6] as tour operators advertise the site on websites to attract a greater number of visitors, and local cooperatives advertise their services in social networks.

The social-ecological subsystem of recreational fly-fishing

[A1] For the purposes of this study, the actors are considered the anglers and the fishing guides. There are 65 local fly fishing guides. There are no records on the exact number of anglers, but from interviews with fishing guides and lodge managers, we estimated that between 800 and 1,200 anglers visited Punta Allen per year (average = 1,143 anglers per year).

[A3] Since the 1980s, foreigner anglers had contacted local fishers to came to Punta Allen in search of pristine ecosystems to practice fly-fishing sporadically. As the activity gained prestige throughout the world, in 2015 Punta Allen received the nickname of “The Permit Capital of the World.” This activity can be considered as the most recent livelihood in the community. [A4] Most of the fishing guides are locals and few of them are from other communities. From our surveys, 98% of the anglers came from the US.

[A5] The fishing guides are not organized in formal groups, but some of them take the leadership to make independent agreements with the lodges to establish the prices of the contracts, and this information is disseminated. [A6] We observed that the experience of the fishing guides and their ability to interact with the anglers is their social capital, since it is a very important aspect that motivates the decision of the anglers to visit the site. All fishing guides carry out other activities and some of them are members of the tourist cooperatives and/or the lobster fishing cooperative. [A9] Currently, there are 65 boats authorized to provide the service, of which 33 belong to cooperatives and 32 to independent individuals, including foreigner businessmen. A total of 20 of those boats have concessions to provide both fly fishing and ecotourism service. The boats are adapted to sail in shallow waters (60 cm deep), with the capacity to carry up to two anglers and two local guides.

[RS2] The fly fishing sites are well defined (Fig. 1) and [RS3] the effective fishing area is 265 km², estimated through the monitoring of 53 fly fishing trips between January 2016 and September 2017. [RS4] There are ten fishing lodges with 64 rooms for a capacity of up to 117 anglers, but many of them only operate from 4 to 6 months per year. [RS6] According to our survey, 88% of the anglers answered that the ecosystem presents a good state of conservation compared to other sites. [RS9] The ecosystems where the activity takes place, are located mostly in the “flats” of the bay, which are areas of shallow water (<0.60 m depth), like marshes, sites near the mangroves and sea grasses (Fig. 1).

[RU1] The RUs are the four targeted species that are: bonefish (Albula vulpes), tarpon (Megalops atlanticus), permit (Trachinotus falcatus), and snook (Centropomus undecimalis). [RU2] Although these species move freely in the interior of the bay, the migratory, and recruitment processes of the different populations have not been documented in this area. Ascension Bay has abundant mangroves that serve as nursery areas for recruits of these and other species. [RU3] Because the authorized fishing is catch and release, it is not considered an extractive activity, and fishing mortality is presumed to be low, although there are no specific studies on it. Adams (2017) reports a mortality of 5% of these species (permit, bonefish, snook, tarpon) captured in other sites with catch and release. In this sense, there are no evidence that shows a decline of the targeted species populations. [RU7] The spatial distribution of the four species is heterogeneous according to their habitat preferences.

[RU4] The average price to rent a boat was estimated at US$180 per day, in 2016. The total income that the local fishing guides got in that year was estimated to be US$737,450. [RU6] The presence of multiple sport fish in the same place is considered by anglers a distinctive characteristic, since they can achieve a “grand slam” (three species in 1 day) and/or a “super grand slam” (four species in 1 day).

[GS1] At the federal level, the GS is represented by CONANP, which has established the recreational fishing rules in the modality of catch and release. In addition, the Harbor Master Office issues concessions to the boats to provide services of fly-fishing. As for the anglers and guides, they have to get fishing licenses from CONAPESCA. [GS2] The activity is supported by different non-governmental organizations like Bonefish and Tarpon Trust, Yellow Dog, and Amigos de Sian Ka’an. [GS7] The activity is properly authorized in the General Law on Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture, through the norm NOM-017-PESC-1994 and the SKBR Management Program. [GS8] Federal officials of CONANP and PROFEPA make regular visits to verify operations.

[GS3] In general, the fishing guides have an internal social network. The groups only participate in providing the services and the lodges control the market networks, and environmental networks. [GS4] Because the fly fishing concession can be granted to any boat (private local and non-local), the local guides declared that this type of regime generates uncertainty, since they perceive it as a threat to their livelihoods, with fear that owners of the private lodges may not need their services. [GS5] There are few federal regulations to practice the activity, like catch and release and have the proper documents to perform the activity. [GS6] In 2013, the local actors agreed to implement a Code of Conduct, which is binding for boat owners and fishing guides. The purpose of the code was to implement better catch-and-release fishing, and anglers reported full compliance with the code, which represents a social capital for the local guides [A6]. Some rules were: Do not invade areas for recreational fishing already occupied; use artificial lures; do not use fishing nets.

[I1] This is a non-extractive activity, but the interactions can be measured as the number of anglers that visit the area. We estimated that the 1,143 anglers that visited the bay performed a total of 3,430 fishing trips in 2017. [I2] There is limited information shared among small groups of fishing guides. [I3] Each group of fishing guides or individual guides have their own interest, but sometimes they meet to establish non-binding general agreements with minimal deliberative process. [I4] There are few conflicts between lodge managers and fishing guides due to disagreements in the prices. On peak days there are conflicts with ecotourism boats due to overcrowding. Some conflicts between guides for non-compliance with the code of conduct.

[I5] Cooperatives and guides invest in training for certification as tourist guides (endorsed by the Ministry of Tourism). Owners of the lodges organize fishing tournaments and part of the profits are earmarked for community assistance.

[I6] Lobbying is limited as there are no organized formal groups. [I7] The organization between guides is at two levels: (1) between leaders of different groups, and (2) in the groups, which facilitates the achievement of collective agreements. [I8] Networking activities are carried out through the lodges and international fishing clubs and some lodges attend international fairs to promote the site. [I9] There are no systematized records for all recreational activities related to fishing, including those of the lodges. Additional research is needed on the target species in the bay.

[O1] The activity provides great benefits to an important sector of the community, in particular to families of fishing guides, and other activities such as restaurants and housekeeping in the lodges. [O2] According to the interviews, the anglers stated that the quality of the fishing is good. The catch of target species has an impact on fish mortality by release, but it has not been estimated. However, the community contributes to the conservation and protection of marine life inside of the bay by avoiding commercial fishing with the exception of lobster.

[O3] Although the flats are located in lobster fishing areas or ecotourism sites, the guides look for quiet and isolated places, so this activity is considered low impact to the environment and, according to the recreational fishing guides, the populations of targeted species receive a positive externality from the artificial shelters for lobsters.

[ECO1] The abundance of target species is susceptible to changing weather patterns, such as variations in wind patterns, salinity due to drought patterns or heavy rainfall. [ECO2] As long as CONANP controls lodges infrastructure development in the area, and the human population does not increase, these threats can be considered low. [ECO3] Fishing guides mentioned that outside the bay the targeted species are captured for commercial purposes with nets, which reduce the benefits of the activity.

[S5] The recreational fishing service starts with the promotion of local lodges in international fishing clubs that offer all-inclusive packages from 3 to 6 or more days of fishing in the bay. This activity is in great demand by foreign anglers from developed countries (mostly from the US) who travel to different Caribbean countries, like Cuba, Belize, Honduras, or Mexico, in search of these trophy species (Adams & Cooke, 2015; Arlinghaus & Cooke, 2009; Barnett et al., 2016). Because quality of the service and target population are important in the market, Punta Allen compete with those destinations. [S6] Fishing clubs, lodges, and international organizations advertise the site on websites to attract foreign anglers.

Toward a nested conceptual map of the three sub-SES of Ascension Bay

A segmented vision of the MRS using the SESF is useful to understand how the whole system functions. For a holistic understanding, we must consider the multiple interactions of each of the parties in a multi-level environment (i.e., biophysical and social). This new approach of the SES framework can be represented in a conceptual model of the system as a whole. We start with the biophysical bases common to the three sub-systems, i.e., the RS of Ascension Bay, which comprises all the elements of the environment and marine ecosystems that supports the lobster fishery, the fly-fishing, and the ecotourism. It includes areas of seagrass beds, mangroves, coral reefs, and flats, which support a great biodiversity of crustaceans, fish, mollusks, echinoderms, sea turtles, sea birds and dolphins, and other. Therefore, the RS represents the bases of the three sub-SES.

The RS provides the RUs [RU1] (lobster, target fishes, and landscapes) to the human component [A1]. The actors employ technologies [A9] (e.g., boats, artificial shelters) to extract or access the resources. As actors interact with the RUs, which become the central part or raison d’être of the users, these interactions result in the production of goods and services. Because lobster fishing is the only extractive activity in Ascension Bay, harvesting [I1] is important for the conceptual model, contrary to tourism activities, in which case services are cultural experiences. The next step in the conceptual model is to identify the market forces [S5] that drive the activities; in our case, these are the national market for seafood and the international tourism markets. As a result of the exchanges in the markets, the community obtains income from the economic value [RU4] of these goods and services. Once the locals receive the corresponding payments, the cycle is closed, so these interactions can be represented as a circular process that can be replicated infinitely, as long as the same conditions are maintained (Fig. 2).

The outcomes of these interactions differ according to the level of organization of the local actors; for example, income from lobster fishing and ecotourism is distributed more equitably through cooperatives [O1], while income distribution in fly-fishing varies among fishing guides. The actors use resources that impact the ecological system generating externalities in the related SES, for example they could affect the productivity and affect the ecosystems (Binder et al., 2013; Charles, 2012; Perry et al., 2010). On the other hand, lobster fishing has positive externalities [O3] in the other two activities, since artificial shelters enhance the habitat for marine life, while ecotourism generates negative externalities to recreational fishing since visitors disturb the fishing sites.

With the second-tier input–output variables a nested conceptual model was created, which shows the links between the variables. Nevertheless, there is an additional element that determines the functioning of the MRS: the governance, which in our model, is directly related to the actors. Due to the complexity of the GS, we decided to separate these into independent models according to the SES (Fig. 3).

In the lobster fishery, the GS has a more complex structure involving eight second-tier variables. At the local level, the governance is represented by the cooperative [GS1], which has democratic deliberation processes through the assembly [I3]. At the same time, the cooperative leaders have a strong lobbying capacity [I6] to negotiate with governmental (e.g., CONAPESCA and CONANP) and non-governmental agencies. When the federal government grants the cooperative legitimate exclusive fishing rights in the area [GS5], fishers enact additional collective rules [GS4–6] that grant them individual property rights due to their social capital for self-enforcement [A6]. The individual fishing grounds (“campos”) are managed under the approach of territorial use rights for fishing system (TURF) [A5].

In ecotourism, the natural guides and local boat owners are organized in cooperatives [GS1]. These cooperatives have deliberation processes [I3] and their leaders have the capacity to lobby [I6] with the federal institutions (CONANP and Harbor Master), which grant boat licenses exclusively to the community and the issued tourist guide credential by the Ministry of Tourism (SECTUR) [GS5]. Recreational fishing has the simplest GS, with only four identified variables. The boat owners [A1] that acquire the licenses for recreational fishing may belong to ecotourism cooperatives or be independent, for that reason the administrative procedures vary. The federal government (CONAPESCA, CONANP, and Harbor Master) grants licenses and establishes specific regulations for recreational fishing, such as capture and release [GS1-5]. In addition, the fishing guides with the support of non-governmental organizations and the federal government developed the Code of Conduct for Better Fishing Practices [GS6] with strong self-compliance [A6].

The users who possess the property rights of the resources can become owners, proprietors, claimants, or simply authorized users (Schlager & Ostrom, 1992) depending on the GS. In the case of the lobster fishery and ecotourism, the fishers and guides could be considered as proprietors, since they have right to access, withdraw, manage and exclude other potential users. For the fly-fishing, the actors are just authorized users, but are not allowed to withdraw any fish from the natural system.