Evaluation of Groundwater Resources in the Qeft Area of Egypt: A Geophysical and Geochemical Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Geophysical Exploration
3.2. Water Sampling and Analytical Techniques
3.3. Assessment and Evaluation
4. Results
4.1. Geophysical Exploration
4.1.1. Subsurface Layer Sequance
- The first and topmost layer covers the entire study area. The surface altitude (Figure 3a) decreases from 127 m above sea level in the northeast to 72 in the west near the Nile, representing the natural topographic gradient of this area. This layer is divided based on its resistivity values into sublayers a and b. Layer 1a has resistivity values ranging from 16 Ω∙m to 64 Ω∙m and covers the western portion of the study area. Layer 1a consists of Nile silt and fine sand and was formed by successive annual floods of the Nile, with thicknesses ranging from 7 m to 41 m. The resistivity values of layer 1b in the eastern part of the study area vary from 333 Ω∙m to 711 Ω∙m. (Figure 3b). The relatively high resistivity values represent layers of unreclaimed soil with thicknesses ranging from 5 m to 42 m (Figure 3c).
- The second layer reaches its greatest depth, 42 m, in the northern and northeastern parts of the study area, as well as below VES station No. 18, and its shallowest depth, 4 m, in the southeastern part below VES station No. 47 (Figure 3d) because the thickness of the surface layer is less in the stream valleys. The recorded resistivity values of this layer oscillate between 738 Ω∙m and 1112 Ω∙m (Figure 3e), and its thickness gradually decreases from 51 m in the eastern part to 7 m in the western part of the study area (Figure 3f). This layer consists of a mixture of weathering sediments and valley sediments as gravelly sand.
- The third geoelectric layer is the water-bearing layer, consisting of a shallow aquifer formed by Quaternary alluvial deposits. It increases in depth from 20 m in the west to 93 m in the east (Figure 3g). Resistivity ranges from 18 Ω∙m to 120 Ω∙m (Figure 3h). The resistivity of this layer varies due to the diversity of its components, which include sand, gravel, boulders, and some clay lenses, as recorded through piezometers. The thickness of this water-bearing layer increases from 42 m upstream (in the east) to approximately 90 m downstream (in the west), with an average thickness of 60 m (Figure 3i).
- The maximum separation between two current electrodes helped to determine the depth of the upper surface of the fourth (last) layer, and this depth ranges from 94 m to 145 m (Figure 3j), with altitudes 7 m to 43 m below sea level (Figure 3k). However, this separation distance was not sufficient to reach the bottom surface of this layer and, therefore, it was not possible to determine its thickness. The fourth layer is interpreted as being composed of different lithologies ranging from Pliocene lacustrine deposits to the Lower Eocene Thebes Formation, with resistivity values that are limited to the range between 1250 and 1450 Ω∙m (Figure 3l).
4.1.2. Geophysical Based Protectivity Assessment
4.2. Geochemical Evaluation
4.2.1. Descriptive Statistics and Spatial Distribution
4.2.2. Pollution and Suitability Indices
4.2.3. Multivariate Statistical Analysis
4.2.4. Health-Risk Assessment
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
7. Limitations and Recommendations
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Mean | Minimum | Maximum | World Health Organization (2011) Standards | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Major Anions and Cations (mg/L) | pH | 7.7 | 7.5 | 7.9 | 6.5–8.5 |
EC | 567.9 | 375.5 | 803.5 | 300 | |
TDS | 373.0 | 240.00 | 532.00 | 1000 | |
Tur. | 14.8 | 8.0 | 26.5 | 0.2 | |
DO | 4.7 | 1.7 | 6.8 | 5.0 | |
BOD | 11.9 | 5.0 | 52.5 | 1.5 | |
Cl− | 53.5 | 21.8 | 81.2 | 5 | |
NO3− | 20.8 | 5.7 | 37.2 | 50 | |
SO42- | 52.4 | 30.4 | 83.8 | 250 | |
CO32- | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | - | |
HCO3− | 193.8 | 151.0 | 236.0 | - | |
Ca2+ | 40.9 | 32.1 | 52.6 | 100–300 | |
K+ | 8.6 | 6.5 | 11.0 | - | |
Mg2+ | 18.1 | 16.0 | 21.5 | 50 | |
Na+ | 50.7 | 30.0 | 79.5 | 200 | |
Heavy Metals (µg/L) | Ba | 33.2 | 2.8 | 77.4 | 700.0 |
Cr | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 50.0 | |
Fe | 18.1 | 4.8 | 31.2 | 300 | |
Mn | 3.2 | 0.0 | 5.7 | 80.0 | |
Ni | 1.2 | 0.2 | 1.6 | 70.0 | |
Sb | 7.0 | 0.1 | 33.1 | 20.0 | |
Al | 1.8 | 1.0 | 2.6 | 100.0 | |
As | 4.5 | 0.4 | 8.4 | 10.0 | |
Cd | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 3.0 | |
Co | 0.9 | 0.8 | 1.1 | 10.0 | |
Cu | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 2000.0 | |
V | 9.9 | 3.0 | 23.0 | - | |
Zn | 1.1 | 0.0 | 2.6 | 3000.0 |
Parameter | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC4 | PC5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | −0.77 | −0.52 | −0.01 | 0.14 | 0.29 |
EC | 0.68 | 0.24 | 0.33 | 0.42 | 0.38 |
TDS | 0.80 | 0.19 | 0.31 | 0.27 | 0.29 |
Tur. | 0.93 | 0.07 | −0.01 | 0.13 | 0.17 |
NH4 | 0.26 | 0.86 | −0.33 | 0.09 | −0.02 |
DO | 0.06 | −0.73 | −0.51 | −0.36 | −0.08 |
BOD | 0.03 | 0.97 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.06 |
Cl− | 0.53 | 0.57 | 0.36 | 0.16 | 0.39 |
NO3− | 0.32 | 0.64 | 0.56 | 0.21 | 0.25 |
SO42- | 0.71 | 0.08 | 0.35 | 0.55 | 0.24 |
HCO3− | 0.64 | −0.01 | 0.29 | 0.41 | 0.56 |
Ca2+ | 0.61 | −0.22 | 0.36 | 0.57 | 0.23 |
K+ | 0.39 | 0.06 | 0.90 | 0.05 | −0.07 |
Na+ | 0.67 | 0.41 | 0.19 | 0.32 | 0.36 |
Mg2+ | 0.67 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.54 | 0.29 |
B | 0.95 | 0.22 | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.15 |
Cr | 0.92 | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.07 | 0.17 |
Fe | 0.91 | 0.12 | 0.26 | 0.03 | 0.25 |
Mn | 0.48 | 0.13 | −0.09 | 0.06 | 0.84 |
Ni | 0.71 | 0.07 | 0.44 | −0.19 | 0.40 |
Sb | 0.90 | 0.04 | −0.08 | 0.31 | 0.08 |
Al | 0.92 | 0.12 | 0.27 | 0.04 | 0.23 |
As | 0.91 | 0.12 | 0.30 | 0.02 | 0.24 |
Cd | 0.94 | 0.12 | 0.22 | 0.05 | 0.17 |
Co | 0.92 | 0.12 | 0.28 | 0.03 | 0.23 |
Cu | 0.11 | −0.34 | 0.03 | −0.87 | 0.04 |
V | 0.96 | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.11 | 0.10 |
Zn | 0.94 | 0.12 | 0.22 | 0.05 | 0.18 |
Eigenvalues | 14.74 | 3.88 | 2.91 | 2.60 | 2.43 |
% of Variance | 52.63 | 13.85 | 10.39 | 9.28 | 8.69 |
Cumulative % | 52.63 | 66.48 | 76.87 | 86.15 | 94.85 |
Ingestion | Metal | Adult | Child | ||||
Minimum | Maximum | Average | Minimum | Maximum | Average | ||
Cr | 0.0000 | 0.0019 | 0.0009 | 0.0000 | 0.0028 | 0.0013 | |
Mn | 0.0000 | 0.0081 | 0.0046 | 0.0000 | 0.0118 | 0.0067 | |
Ni | 0.0004 | 0.0028 | 0.0020 | 0.0006 | 0.0041 | 0.0030 | |
Cu | 0.0000 | 0.0006 | 0.0002 | 0.0000 | 0.0008 | 0.0003 | |
Zn | 0.0000 | 0.0029 | 0.0013 | 0.0000 | 0.0004 | 0.0002 | |
As | 0.0468 | 0.9600 | 0.5106 | 0.0681 | 1.3978 | 0.7435 | |
Cd | 0.0000 | 0.2123 | 0.0932 | 0.0000 | 0.3092 | 0.1356 | |
B | 0.0005 | 0.0133 | 0.0057 | 0.0007 | 0.0193 | 0.0083 | |
HQ | 0.0490 | 1.2004 | 0.6185 | 0.0713 | 1.7440 | 0.8988 | |
Dermal | Cr | 0.0000 | 0.0009 | 0.0004 | 0.0000 | 0.0010 | 0.0005 |
Mn | 0.0000 | 0.0011 | 0.0006 | 0.0000 | 0.0013 | 0.0007 | |
Ni | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | |
Cu | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | |
Zn | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | |
As | 0.0001 | 0.0016 | 0.0009 | 0.0003 | 0.0062 | 0.0033 | |
Cd | 0.0000 | 0.0237 | 0.0104 | 0.0000 | 0.0272 | 0.0120 | |
B | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0001 | 0.0000 | |
HQ | 0.0003 | 0.0273 | 0.0124 | 0.0005 | 0.0357 | 0.0165 | |
HI | 0.0492 | 1.2277 | 0.6309 | 0.0718 | 1.7797 | 0.9153 |
Cr—CRing | As—CRing | Sum 1–2 | Cr—CRderm | As—CRderm | TCRCr-As | Sum | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
L1 | 3.58 × 10−6 | 5.90 × 10−13 | 3.59 × 10−6 | 3.58 × 10−6 | 1.77 × 10−4 | 1.81 × 10−4 | 1.85 × 10−4 |
L2 | 3.16 × 10−6 | 4.65 × 10−13 | 3.16 × 10−6 | 3.16 × 10−6 | 1.58 × 10−4 | 1.62 × 10−4 | 1.65 × 10−4 |
L3 | 2.74 × 10−6 | 3.56 × 10−13 | 2.74 × 10−6 | 2.74 × 10−6 | 1.40 × 10−4 | 1.43 × 10−4 | 1.45 × 10−4 |
L4 | 2.53 × 10−6 | 2.88 × 10−13 | 2.53 × 10−6 | 2.53 × 10−6 | 1.23 × 10−4 | 1.25 × 10−4 | 1.28 × 10−4 |
L5 | 1.69 × 10−6 | 1.66 × 10−13 | 1.69 × 10−6 | 1.69 × 10−6 | 1.06 × 10−4 | 1.08 × 10−4 | 1.10 × 10−4 |
L6 | 1.27 × 10−6 | 1.03 × 10−13 | 1.27 × 10−6 | 1.27 × 10−6 | 8.73 × 10−5 | 8.86 × 10−5 | 8.98 × 10−5 |
L7 | 6.33 × 10−6 | 3.95 × 10−14 | 6.33 × 10−7 | 6.33 × 10−7 | 6.73 × 10−5 | 6.79 × 10−5 | 6.85 × 10−5 |
L8 | 4.22 × 10−7 | 1.87 × 10−14 | 4.22 × 10−7 | 4.22 × 10−7 | 4.77 × 10−5 | 4.81 × 10−5 | 4.85 × 10−5 |
L9 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 5.45 × 10−15 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 2.78 × 10−5 | 2.80 × 10−5 | 2.83 × 10−5 |
L10 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 5.45 × 10−15 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 8.65 × 10−6 | 8.86 × 10−6 | 9.07 × 10−6 |
Minimum | 2.11 × 10−7 | 5.45 × 10−15 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 2.11 × 10−7 | 8.65 × 10−6 | 8.86 × 10−6 | 9.07 × 10−6 |
Maximum | 3.58 × 10−6 | 5.90 × 10−13 | 3.59 × 10−6 | 3.58 × 10−6 | 1.77 × 10−4 | 1.81 × 10−4 | 1.85 × 10−4 |
Average | 1.64 × 10−6 | 2.04 × 10−13 | 1.64 × 10−6 | 1.64 × 10−6 | 9.43 × 10−5 | 9.60 × 10−5 | 9.76 × 10−5 |
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Basheer, A.A.; Selim, E.I.; Ahmed, A.; Kotb, A. Evaluation of Groundwater Resources in the Qeft Area of Egypt: A Geophysical and Geochemical Perspective. Sustainability 2024, 16, 4815. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114815
Basheer AA, Selim EI, Ahmed A, Kotb A. Evaluation of Groundwater Resources in the Qeft Area of Egypt: A Geophysical and Geochemical Perspective. Sustainability. 2024; 16(11):4815. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114815
Chicago/Turabian StyleBasheer, Alhussein Adham, Elsayed I. Selim, Alaa Ahmed, and Adel Kotb. 2024. "Evaluation of Groundwater Resources in the Qeft Area of Egypt: A Geophysical and Geochemical Perspective" Sustainability 16, no. 11: 4815. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114815