Portable and Affordable Light Source-Based Photoacoustic Tomography
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Principles of Photoacoustic Imaging
2.1. Generation of Photoacoustic Signals
2.2. Illumination Sources
2.3. Optical Absorption
2.4. Ultrasound Propogation and Detection
2.5. Image Reconstruction
3. LED-Based Photoacoustic Tomography
3.1. High-Power LEDs Suitable for Photoacoustic Tomography
3.2. High-Power LEDs—Technical Aspects
3.2.1. Emission Wavelength
3.2.2. Overdriving LEDs
3.2.3. Optical Output Power
3.2.4. Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR)
3.2.5. Pulse Width
3.2.6. Spatial Divergence of LEDs
3.3. Technical Developments in LED-Based Photoacoustic Tomography
4. Laser Diode-Based Photoacoustic Tomography
4.1. High-Power Pulsed Laser Diodes
4.2. Pulsed Laser Diodes—Technical Aspects
4.2.1. Emission Wavelengths
4.2.2. Pulsed Laser Diode Drivers
4.2.3. Optical Output Power
4.2.4. Pulse Repetition Rate
4.2.5. Pulse Width
4.2.6. Spatial Divergence of LD
4.3. Technical Developments in LD-Based Photoacoustic Tomography
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Energy (mJ) | PRR (Hz) | Pulse Width (ns) | Cost * | Advantages | Disadvantages | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solid-state lasers | 5–120 | 10–200 | <10 | $70–200 K | Powerful, ~5 cm penetration depth, tunable wavelength | Bulky size, eye protection and laser safe rooms needed |
LD | 0.5–2.5 | ~1 K–6 K | 30–200 | ~$10–25 K | Integration in a handheld probe feasible, high PRR | Limited penetration depth, eye protection and laser safe rooms needed, wavelength tuning not possible |
LED | 0.2 | ~200–16 K | 30–100 | $10–15 K | Integration in a handheld probe feasible, high PRR, wide wavelength range, no need of laser-safe rooms and eye-safety goggles | Limited penetration depth, wavelength tuning not possible |
Q-switched DPSS laser | 1 | 100 K | 2–10 | - | High PRR, low pulse width, Reasonably high optical energy per pulse | Less number of wavelengths (266 nm, 355 nm, 532 nm, 1064 nm) available and spectral tuning may be cumbersome |
High-energy DPSS laser | 200 | 200 | 10–30 | - | High optical output per pulse, reasonably high PRR | Less number of wavelengths (266 nm, 355 nm, 532 nm, 1064 nm) available and spectral tuning may be cumbersome |
Wavelength (nm) | 440–550 | 570–650 | 624–920 |
Material | InGaN | AlGaInP | AlGaAs |
Target | Application | Depth (mm) | Contrast Agent | Wavelength (nm) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Medical needles, Vasculature | Guidance of minimally invasive procedures with peripheral tissue targets [18] | Phantom and ex vivo studies | 38 | N/A | 850 |
Vasculature | Imaging of human placental vasculature [48] | 7 | N/A | 850 | |
Tumor | Imaging of intraocular tumors [26] | 10 | N/A | 850 | |
Vasculature | Non-invasive monitoring of angiogenesis [51] | Animal in vivo | 10 | N/A | 850 |
Ulcer | Noninvasive imaging of pressure ulcers [47] | 10 | N/A | 690 | |
Oxygen saturation | Oxygen saturation imaging in rheumatoid arthritis [39] | 5 | N/A | 750/850 | |
Molecular | Detection and monitoring of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species [49] | 10 | CyBA | 850 | |
Tumor/Contrast agents | Imaging of tumor using contrast enhancement [44] | 10 | NC | 850 | |
Cells/Contrast agents | Imaging of molecular-labelled cells [38] | 10 | DiR | 850 | |
Vasculature | Imaging of peripheral microvasculature and function [26] | Healthy human | 10 | N/A | 690/850 |
Vasculature | Simultaneous imaging of veins and lymphatic vessels [40] | 10 | ICG | 940/820 | |
Finger joints | Full view tomography of finger joints [28] | 5 | N/A | 850 | |
Finger joints | Imaging of inflammatory arthritis [42] | Patient | 5 | N/A | 850 |
Skin | Imaging of port wine stain [43] | 10 | N/A | 850 |
Wavelength (nm) | 630–670 | 720–850 | 900–1100 |
Material | AlGaInP/GaAs | AlGaAs/GaAs | InGaAs/GaAs |
Target | Application | Depth (mm) | Contrast Agent | Wavelength (nm) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vasculature | Detection of intraplaque hemorrhage in carotid artery [62] | Phantom and ex vivo studies | 20 | N/A | 808 |
Vasculature | Dynamic imaging studies (for example in cardiovascular medicine) [73] | 20 | N/A | 803 | |
Red blood cells | Non-invasive blood flow imaging [66] | 7 | N/A | 805 | |
Vasculature | Detection of liver fibrosis [64] | Animal in vivo | 5 | N/A | 808 |
Cortical vasculature | Brain imaging [68] | 5 | ICG | 803 | |
Cerebro-spinal fluid volume level | Detection of venous sinus distension by measuring intra-cranial hypertension [69] | 5 | N/A | 803 | |
Vasculature and perfusion | Vascular/dermal pathologies [63] | Healthy human | 5 | N/A | 805 |
Vasculature | Detection of intraplaque hemorrhage in carotid artery [65] | 15 | N/A | 808 | |
Finger joints | Imaging of rheumatoid arthritis [57] | 5 | N/A | 808 | |
Finger joints | Imaging of rheumatoid arthritis [61] | Patient | 5 | N/A | 808 |
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Kuniyil Ajith Singh, M.; Xia, W. Portable and Affordable Light Source-Based Photoacoustic Tomography. Sensors 2020, 20, 6173. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216173
Kuniyil Ajith Singh M, Xia W. Portable and Affordable Light Source-Based Photoacoustic Tomography. Sensors. 2020; 20(21):6173. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216173
Chicago/Turabian StyleKuniyil Ajith Singh, Mithun, and Wenfeng Xia. 2020. "Portable and Affordable Light Source-Based Photoacoustic Tomography" Sensors 20, no. 21: 6173. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216173