Integration of a Mobile Laser Scanning System with a Forest Harvester for Accurate Localization and Tree Stem Measurements
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Harvester System
2.2. Test Site
2.3. Data Acquisition with the Harvester System
2.4. Reference Data
2.4.1. Reference for Harvester Positioning
2.4.2. Reference for Tree Attributes
3. Algorithms for Real-Time Localization and Offline Tree Attribute Estimation
3.1. Algorithms for Real-Time Localization and Mapping from MLS Data
3.1.1. Scan Pre-Processing
3.1.2. Smoothing and Mapping Framework
3.1.3. Analysis of Positioning Estimation
3.2. Algorithms for Tree Stem Measurements from the SLAM-Corrected Point Cloud
3.2.1. Digital Terrain Model
3.2.2. Detection of Tree Stems
3.2.3. Calibration and Correction of Stem Diameter Bias
3.2.4. Estimation of Stem Curve and DBH
3.2.5. Statistical Analysis of Stem Detection and Stem Attribute Estimation
4. Results
4.1. Results for Harvester Localization Using SLAM
4.2. Results for Stem Detection and Stem Attribute Estimation
5. Discussion
5.1. Discussion on Harvester Localization Using SLAM
5.2. Discussion on Stem Detection and Stem Attribute Estimation
5.3. Current Limitations and Potential Future Applications
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
GNSS | Global Navigation Satellite Systema |
DBH | Diameter at Breast Height |
SLAM | Simultaneous Localization and Mapping |
ALS | Airborne Laser Scanning |
IMU | Inertial Measurement Unit |
NDT | Normal Distributions Transform |
MLS | Mobile Laser Scanning |
DOF | Degrees of Freedom |
EKF | Extended Kalman Filter |
SE(3) | Special Euclidean Group |
Appendix A. Strip-Wise Results for Stem Detection and Stem Attribute Estimation
Completeness (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DBH ∈[0, 20) cm | DBH ∈[20, 28) cm | DBH ∈[28, 36) cm | DBH ∈ cm | Overall |
Correctness
(%) | |
accurate attributes | ||||||
Test strip 1 | 8.1 (9/111) | 48.1 (38/79) | 65.4 (34/52) | 60.0 (6/10) | 34.5 (87/252) | 95.6 (87/91) |
Test strip 2 | 12.8 (5/39) | 50.0 (31/62) | 51.5 (34/66) | 68.2 (15/22) | 45.0 (85/189) | 97.7 (85/87) |
Test strip 5 | 11.8 (2/17) | 42.4 (42/99) | 54.5 (50/91) | 56.3 (9/16) | 46.2 (103/223) | 97.2 (103/106) |
All strips | 9.6 (16/167) | 46.3 (111/240) | 56.5 (118/209) | 62.5 (30/48) | 41.4 (275/664) | 96.8 (275/284) |
tree map | ||||||
Test strip 1 | 53.2 (59/111) | 92.4 (73/79) | 94.2 (49/52) | 80.0 (8/10) | 75.0 (189/252) | 74.1 (189/255) |
Test strip 2 | 33.3 (13/39) | 87.1 (54/62) | 83.3 (55/66) | 100.0 (22/22) | 76.2 (144/189) | 76.6 (144/188) |
Test strip 5 | 58.8 (10/17) | 85.7 (84/98) | 92.3 (84/91) | 81.3 (13/16) | 86.0 (191/222) | 83.4 (191/229) |
All strips | 49.1 (82/167) | 88.3 (211/239) | 90.0 (188/209) | 89.6 (43/48) | 79.0 (524/663) | 78.0 (524/672) |
DBH | ||||||
Bias (cm) | Bias (%) | RMSE (cm) | RMSE (%) | MAE (cm) | MAE (%) | |
Parameter mode accurate attributes | ||||||
Test strip 1 | −0.3 | −1.2 | 1.9 | 6.9 | 1.3 | 4.6 |
Test strip 2 | 0.6 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 6.3 | 0.9 | 3.1 |
Test strip 5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2.4 | 8.2 | 1.0 | 3.5 |
All strips | 0.1 | 0.2 | 2.1 | 7.3 | 1.0 | 3.4 |
Parameter mode tree map | ||||||
Test strip 1 | −0.4 | −1.5 | 3.9 | 16.2 | 1.5 | 6.3 |
Test strip 2 | −0.2 | −0.7 | 2.5 | 8.6 | 1.3 | 4.6 |
Test strip 5 | −0.4 | −1.3 | 3.0 | 10.5 | 1.6 | 5.7 |
All strips | −0.3 | −1.2 | 3.2 | 12.0 | 1.5 | 5.5 |
Stem Curve | ||||||
Bias (cm) | Bias (%) | RMSE (cm) | RMSE (%) | MAE (cm) | MAE (%) | |
Parameter mode accurate attributes | ||||||
Test strip 1 | −0.2 | −0.6 | 2.3 | 8.5 | 1.4 | 5.3 |
Test strip 2 | 0.4 | 1.4 | 2.3 | 7.9 | 1.2 | 4.0 |
Test strip 5 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 2.4 | 8.5 | 1.0 | 3.5 |
All strips | 0.1 | 0.5 | 2.3 | 8.3 | 1.2 | 4.3 |
Parameter mode tree map | ||||||
Test strip 1 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 4.4 | 18.9 | 2.0 | 8.4 |
Test strip 2 | −0.2 | −0.8 | 3.0 | 10.5 | 1.7 | 5.9 |
Test strip 5 | −0.2 | −0.8 | 3.2 | 11.6 | 1.8 | 6.6 |
All strips | −0.1 | −0.3 | 3.6 | 13.9 | 1.8 | 6.9 |
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Property | Value for Ouster OS0-128 Rev C |
---|---|
Range | 45 m for >90% detection probability |
50 m for >50% detection probability | |
Range accuracy | ±3 cm for lambertian targets |
±10 cm for retroreflectors | |
Field of view (vertical) | 90% (−45° to +45°) |
Field of view (horizontal) | 360° |
Vertical resolution | 128 |
Horizontal resolution | 1024 |
Rotation rate | 10 Hz |
Pulse repetition rate | 1.31 MHz |
Laser wavelength | 865 nm |
Beam diameter exiting sensor | 5 mm |
Beam divergence | 6.1 mrad (0.35°) |
Test Strip | Length of Strip (m) | Number of Trees | Stem Density (1/ha) | Mean DBH (cm) | Mean Tree Height (m) | Mean Stem Volume () |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 93 | 252 | 630 | 22.3 (±7.6) | 18.3 (±4.2) | 0.47 (±0.36) |
2 | 76 | 190 | 540 | 27.0 (±7.9) | 21.4 (±3.9) | 0.75 (±0.45) |
5 | 139 | 216 | 490 | 27.9 (±5.7) | 22.7 (±2.4) | 0.79 (±0.34) |
Positioning RMSE (m) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Final Trajectory | Online Trajectory | |||||||
x | y | z | norm | x | y | z | norm | |
Initial Fix | ||||||||
Test strip 1 | 0.135 | 0.405 | 0.358 | 0.557 | 0.360 | 3.023 | 0.400 | 3.070 |
Test strip 2 | 0.019 | 0.150 | 0.194 | 0.246 | 0.546 | 1.820 | 0.276 | 1.920 |
Test strip 5 | 0.203 | 0.871 | 1.547 | 1.787 | 0.100 | 0.974 | 1.592 | 1.869 |
All strips | 0.150 | 0.588 | 0.961 | 1.136 | 0.353 | 2.206 | 0.998 | 2.447 |
Optimized Fix | ||||||||
Test strip 1 | 0.074 | 0.094 | 0.038 | 0.126 | 0.354 | 2.661 | 0.078 | 2.686 |
Test strip 2 | 0.025 | 0.043 | 0.051 | 0.071 | 0.534 | 1.688 | 0.073 | 1.772 |
Test strip 5 | 0.131 | 0.214 | 0.200 | 0.321 | 0.116 | 1.751 | 0.304 | 1.781 |
All strips | 0.093 | 0.143 | 0.125 | 0.212 | 0.348 | 2.162 | 0.193 | 2.199 |
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Faitli, T.; Hyyppä, E.; Hyyti, H.; Hakala, T.; Kaartinen, H.; Kukko, A.; Muhojoki, J.; Hyyppä, J. Integration of a Mobile Laser Scanning System with a Forest Harvester for Accurate Localization and Tree Stem Measurements. Remote Sens. 2024, 16, 3292. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173292
Faitli T, Hyyppä E, Hyyti H, Hakala T, Kaartinen H, Kukko A, Muhojoki J, Hyyppä J. Integration of a Mobile Laser Scanning System with a Forest Harvester for Accurate Localization and Tree Stem Measurements. Remote Sensing. 2024; 16(17):3292. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173292
Chicago/Turabian StyleFaitli, Tamás, Eric Hyyppä, Heikki Hyyti, Teemu Hakala, Harri Kaartinen, Antero Kukko, Jesse Muhojoki, and Juha Hyyppä. 2024. "Integration of a Mobile Laser Scanning System with a Forest Harvester for Accurate Localization and Tree Stem Measurements" Remote Sensing 16, no. 17: 3292. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173292