Next Article in Journal
Experimental Study on the Flow and Heat Transfer of Graphene-Based Lubricants in a Horizontal Tube
Next Article in Special Issue
Microbial Production and Enzymatic Biosynthesis of γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Using Lactobacillus plantarum FNCC 260 Isolated from Indonesian Fermented Foods
Previous Article in Journal
Methanol Synthesis with Steel-Mill Gases: Simulation and Practical Testing of Selected Gas Utilization Scenarios
Previous Article in Special Issue
Fermentation of Organic Residues to Beneficial Chemicals: A Review of Medium-Chain Fatty Acid Production
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Processes
Volume 8
Issue 12
10.3390/pr8121674
processes-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Antifungal Effect of Volatile Organic Compounds from Bacillus velezensis CT32 against Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum

by
Xinxin Li
1,2,3,
Xiuhong Wang
2,3,
Xiangyuan Shi
2,3,
Baoping Wang
1,2,3,
Meiping Li
1,
Qi Wang
1 and
Shengwan Zhang
1,*
1
School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
2
Shanxi Institute of Organic Dryland Farming, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taiyuan 030031, China
3
Research Center of Modern Agriculture, Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Taiyuan 030031, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2020, 8(12), 1674; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121674
Submission received: 2 November 2020 / Revised: 14 December 2020 / Accepted: 15 December 2020 / Published: 18 December 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Microbial Fermentation Processes)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The present study focuses on the inhibitory effect of volatile metabolites released by Bacillus velezensis CT32 on Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum, the causal agents of strawberry vascular wilt. The CT32 strain was isolated from maize straw compost tea and identified as B. velezensis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Bioassays conducted in sealed plates revealed that the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by the strain CT32 possessed broad-spectrum antifungal activity against eight phytopathogenic fungi. The volatile profile of strain CT32 was obtained by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 30 volatile compounds were identified, six of which have not previously been detected in bacteria or fungi: (Z)-5-undecene, decyl formate, 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol, dodecanenitrile, 2-methylpentadecane and 2,2’,5,5’-tetramethyl-1,1’-biphenyl. Pure compounds were tested in vitro for their inhibitory effect on the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and F. oxysporum. Decanal, benzothiazole, 3-undecanone, 2-undecanone, 2-undecanol, undecanal and 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol showed high antifungal activity, with benzothiazole and 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol being the most potent compounds. These results indicate that the VOCs produced by B. velezensis CT32 have the potential to be used as a biofumigant for management of vascular wilt pathogens.

1. Introduction

Vascular wilt diseases, caused by Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum, are devastating diseases of strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) that severely affect the production of this crop. Due to the fact that the persistent resting structures produced by the pathogens are able to survive in the absence of hosts for long periods of time, vascular wilt diseases are particularly difficult to control [1,2]. Due to the lack of resistant strawberry cultivars, soil fumigation with methyl bromide is an effective way to manage vascular wilt diseases, but this fumigant has been withdrawn from routine use under the Montreal Protocol [3]. Non-chemical soil disinfections, such as steam sterilization and solarization, show potential in reducing soil inoculum levels, but these approaches may negatively impact soil microbial communities and associated functions [4]. Crop rotation is generally ineffective for Verticillium and Fusarium wilt of strawberry because of the wide host range of the pathogenic fungi. Therefore, the need to develop eco-friendly and highly efficient biocontrol agents (BCAs) for sustainable strawberry production is extremely urgent.
Over the past few decades, impressive progress has been made in the development, registration and commercialization of BCAs based on microbial antagonists. Members of the Bacillus genus are good candidates as BCAs because they form endospores that can be readily formulated into biopesticide products [5,6]. Moreover, they produce a vast array of bioactive molecules with strong inhibitory potential against plant pathogens, such as bacteriocins, lipopeptides, siderophores, polyketides and volatile compounds [7,8]. Among these metabolites, non-volatile substances have received considerable research attention, whereas volatile compounds are less frequently studied. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are low-molecular-weight (<300 Da) organic compounds that are characterized by a low boiling point, high vapor pressure and lipophilic character [9]. Several studies have demonstrated that the VOCs emitted by microbes may benefit plants by promoting growth, activating defence responses, and suppressing or eliminating potential pathogens [10,11,12,13,14,15]. Moreover, as naturally occurring chemicals, VOCs emitted by microorganisms are biodegradable. Therefore, microbial VOCs can be exploited as a sustainable strategy for use in crop enhancement and protection.
Muscodor albus, a biofumigant fungus, is the first commercially available BCA acting through its volatile emissions. In-package biofumigation with M. albus was shown to provide an effective control of fungal decay in grapes and extend their shelf life [16]. In addition, previous publications have shown the potential application of M. albus to protect building materials from biological damage and manage plant-parasitic nematodes of plants [17,18]. The successful application of M. albus inspired researchers to further explore the benefits of employing VOCs produced by antagonistic bacteria to control plant diseases.
Bacterial VOCs have been demonstrated to inhibit the growth and differentiation of numerous phytopathogenic fungi, suggesting that the complex mixtures of bacterial emissions represent a source of novel antifungal natural substances. For example, dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), a volatile sulphur compound frequently emitted by bacteria, has been shown to possess broad-range antifungal activities [19,20]. DMDS-containing products are used as novel soil fumigants. Recently, Zhang et al. [21] reported the inhibitory activity of 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol and 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol produced by B. siamensis G-3 against Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer both in vitro and in vivo. Given the diversity of microbes, only a small fraction of these volatile metabolites have been detected and studied, and more novel compounds with interesting bioactivities are yet to be discovered. A large number of phytopathogenic fungi have been used to investigate the antifungal potential of bacterial volatiles. However, the response of strawberry vascular wilt-causing agents to these volatile signals has largely been ignored in previous studies, despite the heavy losses they cause in strawberry production.
The objectives of this study were three-fold: (i) to investigate the response of two fungal vascular wilt pathogens to bacterial volatiles, (ii) to determine the chemical composition of bacterial VOCs, and (iii) to identify the bioactive compounds responsible for the antifungal effects. To achieve these aims, we isolated 73 strains of bacteria from maize straw compost tea and assessed their volatile-mediated effects on the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and F. oxysporum. From the above isolates, we selected B. velezensis CT32, which exhibited the highest antagonistic activity through the production of antifungal VOCs. Moreover, the VOCs produced by strain CT32 were qualitatively analysed by headspace solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) and tested for their antifungal activity in vitro against V. dahliae and F. oxysporum.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Phytopathogenic Fungi and Culture Conditions

V. dahliae (ACCC 36196) and F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum (ACCC 30220) were obtained from the Agricultural Culture Collection of China (ACCC), Beijing, China. Glomerella cingulata (CFCC 83279) and Thanatephorus cucumeris (CFCC 83233) were obtained from the China Forestry Culture Collection Center (CFCC). F. oxysporum f. sp. fragariae (FOF), F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum, Botryosphaeria dothidea and Botrytis cinerea were provided by the Research Center of Modern Agriculture, Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences. The plant pathogens were grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates in the dark at 28 °C, except B. cinerea, which was incubated at 25 °C.

2.2. Isolation of Bacteria from Maize Straw Compost Tea

Maize straw compost tea samples for the isolation of antagonistic bacteria were prepared as described previously [22]. Briefly, 10 mL of the compost tea was added to 90 mL of sterile distilled water in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask and shaken at 180 rpm and 30 °C for 30 min on a rotary shaker. Serial 10-fold dilutions of the suspension were prepared in sterile distilled water, and aliquots (200 μL) of each dilution were spread-plated onto nutrient agar (NA). After 48 h of incubation at 30 °C, bacterial colonies with dissimilar morphologies were selected and further purified by streaking on NA plates. All isolates were routinely maintained on slants of NA at 4 °C until further use.

2.3. Screening for Bacteria Producing Antifungal Volatiles

Seventy-three bacterial isolates were tested for their volatile-mediated effect on the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF using the sealed plate method. A Petri dish containing NA was inoculated by spreading 200 μL of cell suspension (1 × 107 cfu ml−1) of bacterial strain and incubated at 28 °C for 24 h. A 5 mm diameter mycelial plug was taken from an actively growing culture of the tested pathogen and placed in the centre of a second Petri dish containing PDA. The lids of the two plates were removed. Subsequently, the plate inoculated with the mycelial plug was inverted and placed over the bacterial plate. The two plates were sealed with 3 turns of Parafilm. Sealed plates with only mycelial plugs growing in them served as controls. All plates were incubated at 28 °C until control plates were fully covered with mycelia of the tested pathogen. Three plates for each bacterial strain and control were used. The inhibition rate was calculated using the formula presented by Gao et al. [23]:
Inhibition rate (%) = (DCK − DTR)/(DCK − 5 mm) × 100
where DCK is the colony diameter of the target pathogen in the control and DTR is the colony diameter of the target pathogen in the treatment.
The broad-spectrum antifungal effect of the VOCs produced by the selected antagonistic bacterium, designated as CT32, against 8 plant pathogenic fungi was determined using the same method described above.

2.4. Analysis of Bacterial VOCs by HS-SPME-GC-MS

2.4.1. Sample Preparation

Three millilitres of melted NA culture medium was added into 20 mL headspace vials. The vials containing NA were sterilized at 121 °C for 20 min. Then, 90 µL of cell suspension of the strain CT32 (1 × 107 cfu ml−1) was inoculated on the surface of the culture medium in sample vials. The vials were capped with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)/silicone septa and incubated for 4 d at 28 °C in the dark. Three samples were prepared, and uninoculated vials containing only NA medium served as controls.

2.4.2. HS-SPME Procedure

An SPME fibre with 50/30 µm divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) coating (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) was conditioned following the manufacturer’s instructions. The vials were positioned inside a water bath to equilibrate for 27 min at 74 °C, and then extraction was carried out by exposing the SPME fibre to the headspace of the vial for 53 min. The trapped compounds were desorbed for 4 min within the GC injector at 250 °C.

2.4.3. GC-MS Analysis

GC-MS analysis was performed on an Agilent 7890A GC coupled to a 5975C mass selective detector (MSD) (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Chromatographic separation was carried out on an HP-5MS capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm ID, 0.25 μm film thickness). Helium flow rate was 1 mL min−1. Injector temperature was maintained at 250 °C, and the splitless mode was chosen for injection. The oven programme was: initial 40 °C with a 2 min hold, ramped to 110 °C at 4 °C min−1, ramped to 130 °C at 2 °C min−1 (held for 2 min), ramped to 150 °C at 2 °C min−1 (held for 2 min), ramped to 200 °C at 3 °C min−1, ramped to 300 °C at 30 °C min−1 (held for 5 min). The total run time was 68.5 min. MSD settings: electron impact mode at 70 eV, full scan acquisition mode, scan range 33–500 m/z. Ion source temperature was 230 °C. Quadrupole temperature was 150 °C. The retention index (RI) of each volatile compound was calculated using n-alkanes (C7-C40) as reference compounds, as described by Bianchi et al. [24]. Identification of bacterial VOCs was accomplished by comparing the obtained mass spectra with those stored in the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Mass Spectral Library (version 11) as well as by comparing the determined RIs with those reported in the literature. The relative amounts (RA) of the detected volatile compounds were calculated by dividing the area data of each component by the summed total peak area of all components. The analysis of NA medium was performed under the same conditions.

2.5. Effect of Synthetic VOCs on Mycelial Growth of V. dahliae and FOF

Pure standards of 26 commercially available VOCs produced by strain CT32 and identified by GC-MS analysis were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich LLC (Saint Louis, USA), Aladdin Reagent Inc. (Shanghai, China), and Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan). These VOC standards were tested to determine their effect against the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF. A sterile filter paper disc containing 100 μL of each pure compound was placed inside a Petri dish. For solid standards, 100 mg of each solid alcohol was dissolved with 100 μL methanol, 100 mg of each solid ketone was dissolved with 100 μL acetone. The remaining solid standards were added directly to the filter paper. The lid of the Petri dish was replaced by the PDA plate previously inoculated with a 5 mm diameter mycelial plug of the target pathogen in the centre. The two plates were quickly sealed with Parafilm and incubated at 28 °C in the dark. The inhibition rate was calculated according to the formula previously described in Section 2.3. In the control plates, pure VOCs were substituted by an equivalent amount of sterile distilled water. The experiment was performed in triplicate.

2.6. Identification of Strain CT32

Strain CT32 was subjected to Gram staining. The spore formation and cell morphology of strain CT32 were observed under a transmission electron microscope as well as a light microscope. Then, 16S rRNA gene sequencing was conducted to assess the phylogenetic relationship of the unidentified bacterium to other related taxa. Genomic DNA was extracted using an Ezup Column Bacteria Genomic DNA Purification Kit (Sangon Biotech, Shanghai, China). Amplification was performed using the primer pair 27F (5′-AGTTTGATCMTGGCTCAG-3′) and 1492R (5′-GGTTACCTTGTTACGACTT-3′) under the conditions described by Zhang et al. [21]. The purified PCR product was sequenced by Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of unknown bacterium and of closely related type strains were aligned using Clustal X (version 2.0). The phylogenetic tree was built using MEGA (version 6.0) via the neighbor-joining method.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses of inhibition rates were performed using SPSS 21.0 software. Data were calculated and subjected to one-way ANOVA.

3. Results

3.1. Screening for Bacteria with Volatile-Mediated Antagonistic Activity

In total, 73 isolates of bacteria with distinct morphologies were isolated from maize straw compost tea. Among these isolates, five bacterial strains produced volatiles able to significantly (p < 0.05) inhibit the mycelial growth of both V. dahliae and FOF (Table 1). One of these bacterial strains, designated as CT32, was found to have the highest antagonistic activity. Upon exposure to VOCs emitted by strain CT32, the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF was reduced by 66.94% and 45.72%, respectively. Therefore, strain CT32 was selected for further investigation.

3.2. In Vitro Antifungal Activity of VOCs Produced by Strain CT32

The VOCs emitted by strain CT32 significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited the mycelial growth of all tested pathogens, although with different inhibition extents (Figure 1). V. dahliae was the most susceptible fungus to VOCs emitted by strain CT32, and its mycelial growth was inhibited by 66.67%. In contrast, T. cucumeris showed the greatest resistance to bacterial volatiles. Additionally, the VOCs produced by strain CT32 significantly reduced the mycelial growth of G. cingulata, B. cinerea, B. dothidea, F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum, FOF and F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum, with percentages of inhibition ranging from 19.76% to 55.02%. The suppressive effect of the VOCs emitted by strain CT32 on the in vitro growth of eight pathogenic fungi is presented in Figure 2.

3.3. HS-SPME-GC-MS Analysis of VOCs Produced by Strain CT32

The total ion chromatogram of VOCs emitted by strain CT32 is shown in Figure 3. A total of 30 volatile compounds derived from strain CT32, i.e., eight alkanes, six ketones, five alcohols, four aldehydes, two phenols, one alkene, one thiazole, one ester, one nitrogen compound and one biphenyl, were identified by GC-MS (Table S1). Alkanes, ketones, alcohols, and aldehydes were found to be the predominant VOCs emitted by strain CT32, which constituted 76.67% of the 30 detected compounds. The relative amounts of aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, and alkanes were calculated to account for 50.32%, 24.31%, 11.28% and 2.75% of the total volatile components, respectively. The most abundant volatile compound was dodecanal (48.56%), followed by 1-dodecanol (10.27%), 2-undecanol (8.46%), 2-undecanone (3.37%) and 2-dodecanol (3.24%).

3.4. Antifungal Activity of Synthetic VOCs against V. dahliae and FOF

As shown in Table 2, 26 out of the 30 volatile compounds were commercially available and tested for their antifungal activities against V. dahliae and FOF in vitro. Benzothiazole significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited the mycelial growth of the two target pathogens. Furthermore, 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol proved highly suppressive against both fungi, showing an inhibition rate greater than 90%. The inhibition rates of dodecanenitrile were 51.10% against V. dahliae and 20.04% against FOF. All four aldehydes negatively impacted both pathogens, but the strength of their impact varied. Although dodecanal was the most abundant compound in the headspace of strain CT32, it exhibited significant but weak inhibitory activity. Decanal and undecanal possessed high antifungal activity against V. dahliae and FOF, but they were produced in low amounts. In general, FOF was more tolerant to alcohols than V. dahliae. The antifungal activity of alcohols was negatively correlated with the number of carbon atoms in the alcohols, and thus, 2-undecanol showed the highest inhibitory activity. Among the six ketones tested for bioactivity against V. dahliae and FOF, 2-undecanone showed the highest level of inhibition under the experimental conditions, followed by 3-undecanone and 2-dodecanone.

3.5. Identification of Antagonistic Bacterium CT32

The cells of strain CT32 are Gram-positive rods, (0.5–0.7) × (1.5–4.2) μm, occurring singly and occasionally in pairs. Endospores are ellipsoidal and lie in subterminal positions in non-swollen sporangia (Figure 4). The 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain CT32 (GenBank accession number MT509863) comprised 1381 nucleotides. A BLAST search of GenBank revealed that the unidentified bacterium was a member of the genus Bacillus. A neighbor-joining tree depicting the phylogenetic affinity of the unidentified strain CT32 is shown in Figure 5. Tree analysis showed that strain CT32 was most closely related to B. velezensis CBMB205T. Pairwise comparison revealed approximately 99% sequence similarity between bacterial strain CT32 and the CBMB205T and FZB42T type strains of B. velezensis. Thus, strain CT32 was identified as B. velezensis.

4. Discussion

Vascular wilts are devastating plant diseases that cause major economic losses in strawberry production globally. The present work aims to address this issue by isolating potential bacterial antagonists that can be integrated into disease management strategies. In this study, 73 strains of bacteria were isolated from maize straw compost tea and screened for their ability to produce VOCs with antifungal activity against V. dahliae and FOF. One of the most effective isolates, designated as CT32, was identified as B. velezensis. Members of the species B. velezensis are well known for their ability to promote plant growth and to synthesize of a diverse array of secondary metabolites, such as bacillomycin D, plantazolicin and amylocyclicin, that can inhibit the growth of plant pathogens [25,26,27,28]. Our results provide evidence that VOC production can play an essential role in the biocontrol activity of B. velezensis CT32 against vascular wilt pathogens.
A broad-spectrum antifungal effect was exhibited by VOCs emitted by strain CT32, even though the inhibition rate was low for some pathogenic fungi. The experimental data revealed that the extent of inhibition varied greatly depending on the fungal species. This is consistent with the results obtained by Che et al. [29], who reported that the volatiles from Lysinibacillus sp. FJAT-4748 did not affect the growth of all pathogenic fungi to the same extent. The observed differences in fungal susceptibilities to bacterial VOCs may be explained by differences in the action site or in the ability of fungal pathogens to detoxify the volatiles [30]. In addition, considering that different isolates of each pathogen type vary in terms of their physiological properties and pathogenicity, the inhibitory effect on one pathogen isolate observed in our study may not represent the responses of all isolates of the species to bacterial volatiles. Notably, the VOCs produced by strain CT32 were particularly active in inhibiting the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and F. oxysporum. Similarly, previous studies have reported the in vitro growth inhibition of tomato vascular wilt pathogens by VOCs released from Bacillus spp.; however, they did not identify the bioactive compounds responsible for the inhibition [31,32].
To identify the volatile compounds composing the natural emissions of strain CT32, HS-SPME-GC-MS was employed. In comparison with other sampling techniques, HS-SPME allows the volatile metabolites in the headspace of the bacterial cultures to be preconcentrated prior to analysis by GC-MS [33]. In fact, HS-SPME-GC-MS has been used for profiling VOCs from various microbial samples without contaminating the culture or causing damage to living cells [34,35,36]. The results of this study show that the volatile blend produced by strain CT32 comprised 30 individual compounds. To the best of our knowledge, six of the 30 identified volatiles have not previously been reported to be produced by bacteria or fungi: (Z)-5-undecene, decyl formate, 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol, dodecanenitrile, 2-methylpentadecane and 2,2’,5,5’-tetramethyl-1,1’-biphenyl. The predominant classes of compounds detected in the headspace of strain CT32 were alkanes, ketones, alcohols, and aldehydes. However, Dhouib et al. [31] reported that terpenes, alcohols, and alkanes were the major classes of compounds released from the endophytic B. velezensis strain C2. This discrepancy may be explained by the different methods applied to collect and detect VOCs. It needs to be recognized that bacterial VOC profiles are greatly influenced by the sample preparation method as well as the extraction and chromatographic procedures, such as the choice of culture media, duration of incubation, choice of capillary column and selection of SPME fibres, all of which can lead to inconsistent results and hinder the comparison between different studies.
To investigate the precise contribution of 26 commercially available compounds identified in the headspace of strain CT32 to the previously observed volatile-mediated inhibition of mycelial growth, we assessed their antifungal activity against V. dahliae and FOF. The majority of the tested compounds showed low to moderate fungistatic effects, while benzothiazole exhibited 100% inhibition against the two tested pathogens. Benzothiazole is widely found in the volatiles produced by Paenibacillus polymyxa, Bacillus spp., Ensifer adhaerens, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Sporosarcina ginsengisoli and Arthrobacter nitroguajacolicus [37,38]. This sulphur-containing heterocyclic compound has been shown to display a wide range of pharmacological and biological properties, such as antifungal, anticancer, antidiabetic and antimicrobial activities [39]. A previous study based on transcriptomic and proteomic analyses has suggested that benzothiazole has antimicrobial activity against Phytophthora capsici by suppressing detoxification and stress responses as well as by inducing apoptosis [40]. In the present study, 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol showed excellent growth inhibition towards all of the fungi tested in vitro (reaching > 90% inhibition), and thus this phenolic antioxidant can be considered a potential inhibitor of phytopathogenic fungi. Dodecanenitrile is an important fragrance ingredient widely used in consumer products such as detergents and cosmetics, but its effect on fungal growth has so far not been reported. In the present study, this nitrogen-containing compound greatly hindered the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF.
According to the mVOC 2.0 database, almost 70% of the recorded VOCs produced by Bacillus spp. are fatty acid derivatives, for example, alkenes, alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes, which make them the most important group of volatile metabolites [41]. Alcohols have long been known to display broad antimicrobial activity and are utilized as preservatives or disinfectants [42]. All five alcohols assayed in this study showed antifungal activity against both pathogens. In addition, we found that the antifungal activity of alcohols was negatively correlated with the number of carbon atoms in the alcohols, and thus, 2-undecanol showed the highest level of inhibition. As proposed by Yuan et al. [43], the antifungal activities of ketones towards F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense decreased in the following order: 2-undecanone > 2-dodecanone > 2-tridecanone. In this work, when individual compounds were tested on V. dahliae and FOF, this order was also observed. In addition, 3-undecanone was proven to be effective against the two target pathogens. The antimicrobial properties of aldehydes have been demonstrated in previous studies, for example, the in vitro inhibition of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by decanal and nonanal [44] and the in vitro inhibition of P. infestans by undecanal and tridecanal [45]. Similarly, decanal and undecanal showed high antifungal activity against the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF, but they were produced in low amounts. In contrast, dodecanal was the most abundant compound in the headspace of strain CT32, but it had a weak effect on the mycelial growth of the two target pathogens. The results presented here indicate that the inhibition of V. dahliae and FOF observed with the natural emissions of strain CT32 is probably not caused by one or a few of these compounds but is most likely the result of synergistic or additive actions of various components of the complex mixture.
However, our study was performed in vitro, which differs from that under natural conditions as most of the volatiles evaporate easily under greenhouse and field conditions. Nevertheless, field applications of bacterial VOCs have been reported recently, and some showed promising results. For example, drench application of 2-butanone emitted from Bacillus spp. on cucumber seedlings consistently triggered a higher resistance against bacterial pathogens, decreased the Myzus persicae population, as well as increased the number of ladybird beetles, even under open-field conditions [46]. Further studies are needed to develop appropriate application techniques and formulations for the effective usage of bacterial VOCs.

5. Conclusions

The data obtained confirmed the antifungal activity of B. velezensis CT32 towards eight plant pathogens and indicated the pivotal role of VOC production in antagonist–pathogen interactions. GC-MS analysis of the bacterial volatile profile suggested the contribution of ketones, alcohols, aldehydes, phenols, nitrogen compound and thiazole to the antifungal property of strain CT32 emissions, which was verified by in vitro assays where individual chemical compounds were tested against the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF. Among these compounds, benzothiazole and 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol showed the strongest antifungal activity. These findings will hopefully provide lead compounds for the development of new antifungal agents. Although further studies are required to evaluate the efficacy of the volatile-producing strain CT32 for the protection of strawberry plants, it shows potential to be used as a biofumigant for the control of vascular wilt diseases.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/8/12/1674/s1, Table S1: Volatile compounds identified in the headspace of strain CT32 by HS-SPME-GC-MS.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.L. and S.Z.; methodology, X.W.; validation, B.W., Q.W. and M.L.; formal analysis, X.L.; investigation, M.L.; resources, S.Z.; data curation, Q.W.; writing—original draft preparation, X.L.; writing—review and editing, S.Z.; supervision, X.S.; project administration, B.W.; funding acquisition, X.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Key Research and Development Program of Shanxi Province, grant number 201703D211022; the Postdoctoral Foundation of Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, grant number YCX2018D2BH1 and the Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Programs of Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, grant number YGC2019TD07, YCX2020YQ24.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge everyone who has provided helpful guidance.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Eljounaidi, K.; Lee, S.K.; Bae, H. Bacterial endophytes as potential biocontrol agents of vascular wilt diseases—Review and future prospects. Biol. Control 2016, 103, 62–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Yadeta, K.A.; Thomma, B.P.H.J. The xylem as battleground for plant hosts and vascular wilt pathogens. Front. Plant Sci. 2013, 4, 97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  3. Bell, C. Fumigation in the 21st century. Crop. Prot. 2000, 19, 563–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Roux-Michollet, D.; Czarnes, S.; Adam, B.; Berry, D.; Commeaux, C.; Guillaumaud, N.; Le Roux, X.; Clays-Josserand, A. Effects of steam disinfestation on community structure, abundance and activity of heterotrophic, denitrifying and nitrifying bacteria in an organic farming soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2008, 40, 1836–1845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Emmert, E.A.B.; Handelsman, J. Biocontrol of plant disease: A (Gram-) positive perspective. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1999, 171, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Ongena, M.; Jacques, P. Bacillus lipopeptides: Versatile weapons for plant disease biocontrol. Trends Microbiol. 2008, 16, 115–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Fira, D.; DimkiC, I.; Beric, T.; Lozo, J.; Stankovic, S. Biological control of plant pathogens by Bacillus species. J. Biotechnol. 2018, 285, 44–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Kai, M.; Haustein, M.; Molina, F.; Petri, A.; Scholz, B.; Piechulla, B. Bacterial volatiles and their action potential. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2009, 81, 1001–1012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Effmert, U.; Kalderás, J.; Warnke, R.; Piechulla, B. Volatile Mediated Interactions Between Bacteria and Fungi in the Soil. J. Chem. Ecol. 2012, 38, 665–703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Farag, M.A.; Zhang, H.; Ryu, C.-M. Dynamic Chemical Communication between Plants and Bacteria through Airborne Signals: Induced Resistance by Bacterial Volatiles. J. Chem. Ecol. 2013, 39, 1007–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Fincheira, P.; Quiroz, A. Microbial volatiles as plant growth inducers. Microbiol. Res. 2018, 208, 63–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Kanchiswamy, C.N.; Emalnoy, M.; Maffei, M.E. Chemical diversity of microbial volatiles and their potential for plant growth and productivity. Front. Plant Sci. 2015, 6, 151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  13. Lee, B.; Farag, M.A.; Park, H.B.; Kloepper, J.W.; Lee, S.H.; Ryu, C. Induced Resistance by a Long-Chain Bacterial Volatile: Elicitation of Plant Systemic Defense by a C13 Volatile Produced by Paenibacillus polymyxa. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e48744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Ryu, C.-M.; Farag, M.A.; Hu, C.-H.; Reddy, M.S.; Kloepper, J.W.; Pare, P.W. Bacterial Volatiles Induce Systemic Resistance in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 2004, 134, 1017–1026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  15. Ryu, C.-M.; Farag, M.A.; Hu, C.-H.; Reddy, M.S.; Wei, H.-X.; Paré, P.W.; Kloepper, J.W. Bacterial volatiles promote growth in Arabidopsis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 4927–4932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Mercier, J.; Lego, S.F.; Smilanick, J.L. In-package use of Muscodor albus volatile-generating sachets and modified atmosphere liners for decay control in organic table grapes under commercial conditions. Fruits 2010, 65, 31–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Mercier, J.; Jiménez, J.I. Potential of the volatile-producing fungus Muscodor albus for control of building molds. Can. J. Microbiol. 2007, 53, 404–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Riga, E.; Lacey, L.A.; Guerra, N. Muscodor albus, a potential biocontrol agent against plant-parasitic nematodes of economically important vegetable crops in Washington State, USA. Biol. Control 2008, 45, 380–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Wang, C.; Wang, Z.; Qiao, X.; Li, Z.; Li, F.; Chen, M.; Wang, Y.; Huang, Y.; Cui, H. Antifungal activity of volatile organic compounds fromStreptomyces alboflavusTD-1. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2013, 341, 45–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Zhou, J.; Zhao, X.; Dai, C. Antagonistic mechanisms of endophytic Pseudomonas fluorescens against Athelia rolfsii. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2014, 117, 1144–1158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Zhang, X.; Gao, Z.; Zhang, X.; Bai, W.; Zhang, L.; Pei, H.; Zhang, Y. Control effects of Bacillus siamensis G-3 volatile compounds on raspberry postharvest diseases caused by Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer. Biol. Control 2020, 141, 104135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Li, X.; Wang, X.; Shi, X.; Wang, Q.; Li, X.; Zhang, S. Compost tea-mediated induction of resistance in biocontrol of strawberry Verticillium wilt. J. Plant Dis. Prot. 2019, 127, 257–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Gao, Z.; Zhang, B.; Liu, H.; Han, J.; Zhang, Y. Identification of endophytic Bacillus velezensis ZSY-1 strain and antifungal activity of its volatile compounds against Alternaria solani and Botrytis cinerea. Biol. Control 2017, 105, 27–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Bianchi, F.; Careri, M.; Mangia, A.; Musci, M. Retention indices in the analysis of food aroma volatile compounds in temperature-programmed gas chromatography: Database creation and evaluation of precision and robustness. J. Sep. Sci. 2007, 30, 563–572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Fan, B.; Wang, C.; Song, X.; Ding, X.; Wu, L.; Wu, H.; Gao, X.; Borriss, R. Bacillus velezensis FZB42 in 2018: The Gram-Positive Model Strain for Plant Growth Promotion and Biocontrol. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 2491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  26. Meng, Q.; Jiang, H.; Hao, J. Effects of Bacillus velezensis strain BAC03 in promoting plant growth. Biol. Control 2016, 98, 18–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Scholz, R.; Molohon, K.J.; Nachtigall, J.; Vater, J.; Markley, A.L.; Süssmuth, R.D.; Mitchell, D.A.; Borriss, R. Plantazolicin, a Novel Microcin B17/Streptolysin S-Like Natural Product from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens FZB42. J. Bacteriol. 2010, 193, 215–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Scholz, R.; Vater, J.; Budiharjo, A.; Wang, Z.; He, Y.; Dietel, K.; Schwecke, T.; Herfort, S.; Lasch, P.; Borriss, R. Amylocyclicin, a Novel Circular Bacteriocin Produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens FZB42. J. Bacteriol. 2014, 196, 1842–1852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Che, J.; Liu, B.; Liu, G.; Chen, Q.; Lan, J. Volatile organic compounds produced by Lysinibacillus sp. FJAT-4748 possess antifungal activity against Colletotrichum acutatum. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 2017, 27, 1349–1362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Chaves-López, C.; Serio, A.; Gianotti, A.; Sacchetti, G.; Ndagijimana, M.; Ciccarone, C.; Stellarini, A.; Corsetti, A.; Paparella, A. Diversity of food-borne Bacillus volatile compounds and influence on fungal growth. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2015, 119, 487–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Dhouib, H.; Zouari, I.; Ben Abdallah, D.; Belbahri, L.; Taktak, W.; Triki, M.A.; Tounsi, S. Potential of a novel endophytic Bacillus velezensis in tomato growth promotion and protection against Verticillium wilt disease. Biol. Control 2019, 139, 104092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Jangir, M.; Pathak, R.; Sharma, S.; Sharma, S. Biocontrol mechanisms of Bacillus sp., isolated from tomato rhizosphere, against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. Biol. Control 2018, 123, 60–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. A Farag, M.; Song, G.C.; Park, Y.; Audrain, B.; Lee, S.; Ghigo, J.-M.; Kloepper, J.W.; Ryu, C.-M. Biological and chemical strategies for exploring inter- and intra-kingdom communication mediated via bacterial volatile signals. Nat. Protoc. 2017, 12, 1359–1377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Castillo, M.; da Silva, E.; Câmara, J.S.; Khadem, M. Molecular identification and VOMs characterization of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from madeira region winery environments. Processes 2020, 8, 1058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Ghader, M.; Shokoufi, N.; Es-Haghi, A.; Kargosha, K. Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) combined with GC–MS as a process analytical technology (PAT) tool for monitoring the cultivation of C. tetani. J. Chromatogr. B 2018, 1083, 222–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Romoli, R.; Papaleo, M.C.; De Pascale, D.; Tutino, M.L.; Michaud, L.; Logiudice, A.; Fani, R.; Bartolucci, G. Characterization of the volatile profile of Antarctic bacteria by using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Mass Spectrom. 2011, 46, 1051–1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Zhao, L.-J.; Yang, X.-N.; Li, X.-Y.; Mu, W.; Liu, F. Antifungal, Insecticidal and Herbicidal Properties of Volatile Components from Paenibacillus polymyxa Strain BMP-11. Agric. Sci. China 2011, 10, 728–736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Zou, C.-S.; Mo, M.-H.; Gu, Y.-Q.; Zhou, J.; Zhang, K.-Q. Possible contributions of volatile-producing bacteria to soil fungistasis. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2007, 39, 2371–2379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Agarwal, S.; Gandhi, D.; Kalal, P. Benzothiazole: A Versatile and Multitargeted Pharmacophore in the Field of Medicinal Chemistry. Lett. Org. Chem. 2017, 14, 729–742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Mei, X.; Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Du, F.; Huang, L.; Wu, J.; Li, Y.; Zhu, S.; Yang, M. Benzothiazole inhibits the growth of Phytophthora capsici through inducing apoptosis and suppressing stress responses and metabolic detoxification. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 2019, 154, 7–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Caulier, S.; Nannan, C.; Gillis, A.; Licciardi, F.; Bragard, C.; Mahillon, J. Overview of the Antimicrobial Compounds Produced by Members of the Bacillus subtilis Group. Front. Microbiol. 2019, 10, 302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  42. Ingram, L.O.; Buttke, T.M. Effects of Alcohols on Micro-Organisms. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 1985, 25, 253–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Yuan, J.; Raza, W.; Shen, Q.; Huang, Q. Antifungal Activity of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens NJN-6 Volatile Compounds against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2012, 78, 5942–5944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  44. Fernando, W.G.D.; Ramarathnam, R.; Krishnamoorthy, A.S.; Savchuk, S.C. Identification and use of potential bacterial organic antifungal volatiles in biocontrol. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2005, 37, 955–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. De Vrieze, M.; Pandey, P.; Bucheli, T.D.; Varadarajan, A.R.; Ahrens, C.H.; Weisskopf, L.; Bailly, A. Volatile Organic Compounds from Native Potato-associated Pseudomonas as Potential Anti-oomycete Agents. Front. Microbiol. 2015, 6, 1295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  46. Song, K.C.; Ryu, C.-M. Two Volatile Organic Compounds Trigger Plant Self-Defense against a Bacterial Pathogen and a Sucking Insect in Cucumber under Open Field Conditions. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 9803–9819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
Processes 08 01674 g001 550
Figure 1. Inhibitory effect of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by strain CT32 on the mycelial growth of 8 plant pathogenic fungi. Values with different lowercase letters are significantly different according to Duncan’s multiple range test at the 0.05 level.
Figure 1. Inhibitory effect of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by strain CT32 on the mycelial growth of 8 plant pathogenic fungi. Values with different lowercase letters are significantly different according to Duncan’s multiple range test at the 0.05 level.
Processes 08 01674 g001
Processes 08 01674 g002 550
Figure 2. Effect of VOCs emitted by strain CT32 on the growth of 8 phytopathogenic fungi in vitro. In the sealed plates test, fungi in the control groups were cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. The mycelial growth of fungi in the treatment groups was suppressed upon exposure to volatiles emitted by strain CT32. (a) V. dahliae; (b) F. oxysporum f. sp. fragariae; (c) F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum; (d) F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum; (e) B. cinerea; (f) T. cucumeris; (g) G. cingulata; (h) B. dothidea.
Figure 2. Effect of VOCs emitted by strain CT32 on the growth of 8 phytopathogenic fungi in vitro. In the sealed plates test, fungi in the control groups were cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. The mycelial growth of fungi in the treatment groups was suppressed upon exposure to volatiles emitted by strain CT32. (a) V. dahliae; (b) F. oxysporum f. sp. fragariae; (c) F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum; (d) F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum; (e) B. cinerea; (f) T. cucumeris; (g) G. cingulata; (h) B. dothidea.
Processes 08 01674 g002
Processes 08 01674 g003 550
Figure 3. (a) Total ion chromatogram of VOCs from uninoculated nutrient agar (NA) medium; (b) total ion chromatogram of VOCs from strain CT32.
Figure 3. (a) Total ion chromatogram of VOCs from uninoculated nutrient agar (NA) medium; (b) total ion chromatogram of VOCs from strain CT32.
Processes 08 01674 g003
Processes 08 01674 g004 550
Figure 4. (a) Light micrograph of strain CT32 cell morphology; (b) transmission electron microscopy image of strain CT32 endospore.
Figure 4. (a) Light micrograph of strain CT32 cell morphology; (b) transmission electron microscopy image of strain CT32 endospore.
Processes 08 01674 g004
Processes 08 01674 g005 550
Figure 5. Neighbor-joining (NJ) tree based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, highlighting the phylogenetic relationship of strain CT32 to other strain types of the genus Bacillus. Bootstrap values (1000 replications) greater than 50% are given at branch points. Scale bar = 0.02 substitutions per nucleotide position.
Figure 5. Neighbor-joining (NJ) tree based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, highlighting the phylogenetic relationship of strain CT32 to other strain types of the genus Bacillus. Bootstrap values (1000 replications) greater than 50% are given at branch points. Scale bar = 0.02 substitutions per nucleotide position.
Processes 08 01674 g005
Table
Table 1. Inhibitory effect of volatile compounds produced by antagonistic bacteria on the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and F. oxysporum f. sp. fragariae (FOF).
Table 1. Inhibitory effect of volatile compounds produced by antagonistic bacteria on the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and F. oxysporum f. sp. fragariae (FOF).
Bacterial IsolateColony Diameter of Control (mm)Colony Diameter of Treatment (mm)Inhibition Rate (%)
V. dahliaeFOFV. dahliaeFOFV. dahliaeFOF
CT1181.22 ± 0.7087.47 ± 0.6456.12 ± 0.8954.18 ± 2.5832.93 ± 1.17 d 140.36 ± 3.13 b
CT3281.22 ± 0.7087.47 ± 0.6430.20 ± 1.5749.77 ± 1.5366.94 ± 2.06 a45.72 ± 1.86 a
CT5681.22 ± 0.7087.47 ± 0.6447.85 ± 0.6068.55 ± 1.7043.78 ± 0.79 b22.94 ± 2.06 d
CT5881.22 ± 0.7087.47 ± 0.6452.55 ± 2.1965.37 ± 1.0337.61 ± 2.87 c26.80 ± 1.25 c
CT6481.22 ± 0.7087.47 ± 0.6467.82 ± 1.2679.38 ± 0.8317.58 ± 1.65 e9.80 ± 1.01 e
1 Data are the mean ± standard deviation. In the same column, data with different lowercase letters are significantly different according to Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 2. Inhibitory effect of 26 synthetic VOCs on the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF.
Table 2. Inhibitory effect of 26 synthetic VOCs on the mycelial growth of V. dahliae and FOF.
CompoundColony Diameter of Control (mm)Colony Diameter of Treatment (mm)Inhibition Rate (%)
V. dahliaeFOFV. dahliaeFOFV. dahliaeFOF
Undecane83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2588.00 ± 0.0088.00 ± 0.00–p 1–o
Decanal83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2521.13 ± 1.2135.03 ± 0.9679.33 ± 1.54 d 263.71 ± 1.16 c
Benzothiazole83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.255.00 ± 0.005.00 ± 0.00100.00 ± 0.00 a100.00 ± 0.00 a
3-Undecanone83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2532.75 ± 1.7542.85 ± 0.4164.45 ± 2.24 f54.26 ± 0.49 e
2-Undecanone83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2525.47 ± 2.8740.62 ± 1.6273.78 ± 3.67 e56.96 ± 1.95 d
2-Undecanol83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2524.42 ± 1.2341.83 ± 1.1575.12 ± 1.58 e55.49 ± 1.40 de
Undecanal83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2512.05 ± 0.9149.25 ± 1.0990.97 ± 1.17 c46.53 ± 1.32 f
2-Dodecanone83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2554.47 ± 1.5055.35 ± 2.9336.62 ± 1.92 h39.15 ± 3.54 g
2-Dodecanol83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2543.75 ± 2.4164.22 ± 1.5550.35 ± 3.09 g28.44 ± 1.87 h
2,4-Dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.258.45 ± 0.4312.33 ± 0.3895.58 ± 0.55 b91.14 ± 0.46 b
Tetradecane83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2586.75 ± 0.8788.00 ± 0.00–nop–o
Dodecanal83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2561.75 ± 1.2480.58 ± 1.2827.29 ± 1.59 i8.66 ± 1.55 j
1-Dodecanol 483.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2559.55 ± 1.5071.25 ± 1.9130.11 ± 1.93 i19.94 ± 2.31 i
Dodecanenitrile83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2543.17 ± 2.3671.17 ± 1.6151.10 ± 3.03 g20.04 ± 1.94 i
2-Tridecanone 383.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2582.52 ± 0.2384.13 ± 1.040.68 ± 0.29 m4.37 ± 1.26 kl
Pentadecane83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2586.92 ± 1.0188.00 ± 0.00–op–o
2-Tridecanol 483.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2567.47 ± 1.7384.33 ± 0.3819.97 ± 2.22 j4.13 ± 0.46 klm
Butylated Hydroxytoluene83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2576.13 ± 0.8185.40 ± 0.268.86 ± 1.04 l2.84 ± 0.31 lmn
2-Tetradecanone 383.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2584.42 ± 0.8888.00 ± 0.00–mno–o
2-Tetradecanol 483.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2571.77 ± 1.6785.95 ± 0.5114.46 ± 2.13 k2.18 ± 0.61 lmn
Hexadecane83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2586.37 ± 0.6488.00 ± 0.00–nop–o
Tetradecanal83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2575.28 ± 1.3482.50 ± 1.329.95 ± 1.71 l6.34 ± 1.60 k
2,2’,5,5’-Tetramethyl-1,1’-biphenyl83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2583.30 ± 0.7288.00 ± 0.00–m–o
Heptadecane83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2584.72 ± 0.8086.68 ± 0.70–mno1.29 ± 0.85 no
2-Hexadecanone 383.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2584.58 ± 1.0186.18 ± 0.28–mno1.89 ± 0.34 mno
Octadecane83.05 ± 0.8387.75 ± 0.2584.33 ± 1.2685.88 ± 0.81–mn2.26 ± 0.98 lmn
1 “–” indicates no antifungal activity. 2 Data are the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). In the same column, data with different lowercase letters are significantly different according to Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05). 3 Compound was dissolved with acetone. 4 Compound was dissolved with methanol.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Li, X.; Wang, X.; Shi, X.; Wang, B.; Li, M.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, S. Antifungal Effect of Volatile Organic Compounds from Bacillus velezensis CT32 against Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum. Processes 2020, 8, 1674. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121674

AMA Style

Li X, Wang X, Shi X, Wang B, Li M, Wang Q, Zhang S. Antifungal Effect of Volatile Organic Compounds from Bacillus velezensis CT32 against Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum. Processes. 2020; 8(12):1674. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121674

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Xinxin, Xiuhong Wang, Xiangyuan Shi, Baoping Wang, Meiping Li, Qi Wang, and Shengwan Zhang. 2020. "Antifungal Effect of Volatile Organic Compounds from Bacillus velezensis CT32 against Verticillium dahliae and Fusarium oxysporum" Processes 8, no. 12: 1674. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121674

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop