Processing Strategies for Extraction and Concentration of Bitter Acids and Polyphenols from Brewing By-Products: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. General Aspects of Brewing By-Products Generation
2.1. Brewer’s Spent Grains as a Source of New Products
2.2. Hot Trub and Spent Hops as a Source of New Products
2.3. Brewer’s Spent Yeast as a Source of New Products
3. Characteristics of Bitter Acids and Xanthohumol
3.1. Bitter Acids
3.2. Polyphenols
4. Trends for the Extracting Polyphenols and Bitter Acids from Brewing By-Products
4.1. High-Intensity Ultrasound Technology
4.2. Microwave Technology
4.3. High-Pressure Fluid Technologies
4.4. Ohmic Heating Technology
4.5. Pulsed Electric Field Technology
4.6. Deep Eutectic Solvents
4.7. Comparison between Emerging Technologies and Alternative Solvents
5. Methods of Isolation and Concentration of Bitter Acids and Polyphenols Obtained by Beer By-Products
5.1. Adsorption Process
5.2. Membrane Technologies
6. Industrial Aspects: Value of the Extracted Compounds, Process Scale-Up and Economic Evaluation and Patents
7. Perspectives for Further Studies and Final Considerations
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Recovered Molecule | Product | Technique | Ref |
---|---|---|---|
Proteins | Proteins concentrate | Alkaline extraction associated with temperature variation (from 27 to 100 °C) and precipitation at the isoelectric point | [20] |
Xylo-oligosaccharides | - | Hydrolysis via hydrothermal treatment followed by fractionation using anion-exchange chromatography and size exclusion chromatography | [21] |
Lignin | - | pH adjustment to lignin precipitation | [22] |
Ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid | - | Alkaline hydrolysis | [26] |
Fiber | Snack product | Extruded chickpea-based using brewer’s spent grains as replacement maize flour | [27] |
- | Baked snacks | Snacks formulation using brewer’s spent grains as replacement wheat flour | [28] |
Proteins/hemicellulose | Proteins and arabinoxylans | Sequential extraction of proteins and arabinoxylans using an alkaline solution and ethanol | [29] |
Xylan | - | Alkaline extraction followed by ultrafiltration and diafiltration | [30] |
Hemicellulose | - | hydrolysis via flow-through subcritical water reactor | [23] |
Proteins/fibers | Proteins and fiber concentrate | Fractionation process via the combination of wet milling with chemical and enzymatic incubation | [31] |
Arabinoxylans | Films | Arabinoxylans extraction via precipitation in pH adjustment followed by microwave treatment. The film was produced by the casting method. | [25] |
Ferulic acid | - | Extraction via dilute acid hydrolysis followed by alkaline hydrolysis | [32] |
Proteins/fibers | Proteins and fiber concentrate | Fraction process via wet milling with enzymatic incubation | [33] |
Proteins | Fishmeal | Extruded | [34] |
Fiber/proteins | Pork sausages | Brewer’s spent grains flour as the replacement of a small part of pig meat | [35] |
Fiber/proteins | Hybrid sausages | Brewer’s spent grains flour as the replacement for broccoli and insect flour | [36] |
Fiber/proteins | Dry Pasta | Extrusion | [37] |
Xylose/arabinose/Amino acids | - | Hydrolysis via flow-through subcritical water reactor | [24] |
By-Products | Molecule Recovered | Products | Techniques | Phytochemical Yields | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
spent hops | Desmethylxanthohumol/xanthohumol | - | Extraction by polarity using apolar solvents | Xanthohumol (0.04%) Desmethylxanthohumol (0.00056%) | [42] |
spent hops | Essential oil | - | Extraction via hydro-distillation | β-Myrcene (241 μg/g) Limonene (7.83 μg/g) Linalool (8.08 μg/g) Geraniol (3.08 μg/g) 2-undecanone (1.36 μg/g) β-caryophyllene (11.2 μg/g) α-humulene (19.1 μg/g) | [43] |
spent hops | Bitter acids | - | Extraction by polarity using apolar solvents | Spent hops before isomerization: Isocohumulone (65.59 μg/g) Isohumulone (134.97 μg/g) Isoadhumulone (21.09 μg/g) Cohumulone (175.91 μg/g) N+adhumulone (580.70 μg/g) Colupulone (57.42 μg/g) Adlupulone (15.65 μg/g) Spent hops after isomerization: Isocohumulone (129.76 μg/g) Isohumulone (399.78 μg/g) Isoadhumulone (51.9 μg/g) Cohumulone (44.39 μg/g) N+adhumulone (58.73 μg/g) Colupulone (21.41 μg/g) Adlupulone (10.68 μg/g) | [44] |
spent hops | Xanthohumol/isoxanthohumol/6-prenylnaringenin/8-prenylnaringenin | Encapsulated in green gelatin capsules | Extract was produced via the enzymatic approach | 8-Prenylnaringenin (0.42 g/100 g dw) 6-Prenylnaringenin (2.18 g/100 g dw) Isoxanthohumol (1.35 g/100 g dw) Xanthohumol (35.78 g/100 g dw) | [45] |
spent hops | Xanthohumol/Isoxanthohumol | - | Extraction via Supercritical carbon dioxide | - | [46] |
spent hops | Proteins/Xanthohumol | - | Extraction using deep eutectic solvents | Xanthohumol (from 0.52 to 1.92 mg/g SH) Protein content (40 and 64%) | [47] |
spent hops | Xanthohumol | - | Extraction via deep eutectic solvents | Xanthohumol (2.30 mg/g SH) | [48] |
spent hops | Xanthohumol | - | Extraction by polarity using apolar solvents was followed by the bioconversion method (via enzymes) to 8-prenylnaringenin | Xanthohumol (from 0.36 to 2.14 %m) | [49] |
spent hops | Polyphenols | - | Extraction by polarity using water and ethanol | α-Acids (0.011%m) Total polyphenols (10.45 g/L) Humulinones (0.031%m) | [50] |
hot trub | Essential oils | - | Extraction via hydro-distillation | Myrcene (24.2 %) a-Humulene (16.2%) b-Caryophyllene (6.6%) 2-Undecanone (4.7%) Humulene oxide II (4.0%) 2-Methylbutyl isobutyrate (3.6%) d-Cadinene (3.3%) Linalool (1.9%) Limonene (1.2%) | [51] |
hot trub | Proteins | Ice cream | Proteins flour of hot trub was added in the ice cream formulation as proteins enrichment | - | [52] |
hot trub | Phenolic compounds | - | Extraction by polarity using water, methanol, and acetone | TPC (24.84 μmol GAE/g w.s.) | [53] |
hot trub | Phenolic compounds | - | Extraction by polarity using water and hydroethanolic solution (70% v/v) | TPC (from 7.40 to 15.98 μmol GAE/g) | [54] |
hot trub | Proteins | Proteins isolated | Alkaline extraction and precipitation at the isoelectric point | Protein content (94.56 %dw) TPC (35.36 mg GAE/g) Flavonoids (4.06 mg QE/g) | [55] |
hot trub | Proteins | Pasta | Proteins flour of debittered hot trub for pasta production | Protein content (45.72%) | [56] |
hot trub | Bitter acids | - | Extraction by polarity using hydroethanolic solution (30% v/v) and pH 7 that was followed by membrane filtration | N+-adlupulone (6.4 mg/g) Colupulone (6.3 mg/g) Iso-α-acids (28.23 IBU) N+-adhumulone (2.3 mg/g) Cohumulone (2.1 mg/g) | [57] |
Recovered Molecule | Product | Technique | Ref |
---|---|---|---|
- | Meat substitute | Brewer’s spent yeast hydrolysate was used as an ingredient in the formulation of meat products | [61] |
Nucleotide | Flavor enhancer | Mechanic disruption treatment and chemical hydrolysis of RNA | [62] |
β-glucan/mannoproteins | Mayonnaise stabilizing | Proteolysis treatment | [63] |
- | Substrate for production of proteolytic enzymes | Brewer’s spent yeast was used to support bacterial growth | [64] |
β-glucan/proteins/proteolytic enzymes | Fortification of bread formulation | Chemical autolysis and mechanic disruption treatment | [65] |
Phenolic compounds | - | Extraction by polarity using the hydroethanolic solution | [66] |
Maillard conjugates | Wall material for encapsulated products | Enzymatic hydrolysis and heat treatment | [67] |
Proteins/peptides | Emulsifying material and carrier agent for encapsulated products | Enzymatic hydrolysis was followed by ultrafiltration in concentration mode | [68] |
Peptides | - | Enzymatic hydrolysis was followed by sequential membranes filtration | [69] |
- | Emulsifying material and carrier agent for encapsulated products | The incorporation of carotenoids in brewer’s spent yeast via ultra-turrax and ultrasonic methods was followed by atomization in spray dried | [70] |
- | Wall material for encapsulated products | Encapsulation of curcumin into brewer’s spent yeast using a pH-driven method and then lyophilized | [71] |
Technology/Equipment | By-Product | Conditions Optimized | Results ¹ | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ultrasound/1.2-cm probe system | brewer’s spent grains | F (n-i), NP (49.5 W), T (25 °C), S/F (20), t (30 min), solvent (water) | TPC (0.66 mg GAE/g) | [103] |
Ultrasound/13-mm probe system | brewer’s spent grains | F (20 kHz), NP (750 W), pulse mode (5 sec on and 5 sec off), T (47 °C), S/F (21.7), t (30 min), solvent (20% ethanol aqueous solution) | TPC (3.55 mg GAE/g) p-hydroxybenzoic acid (10 µg/g) Ferulic acid (9.5 µg/g) Sinapic acid (13.5 µg/g) | [104] |
Ultrasound/bath system | brewer’s spent grains | F (37 kHz), NP (n-i), T (80 °C), S/F (20), t (50 min), solvent (65 ethanol: 35 water) | TPC (0.1 mg GAE/g) Ferulic acid (about 1.5 ± 0.2 mg/L), Vanillic acid (0.8 ± 0.2 mg/L) p-coumaric acid (0.12 ± 0.03 mg/L) | [105] |
Ultrasound/bath system | hot trub | F (n-i), NP (n-i), T (n-i), S/F (4.46), t (60 min), solvent (ethanol) | TPC (8.93 mg GAE/g) TFC (1.31 mg QE/g) | [106] |
Ultrasound and microwave/probe system and open-system microwave oven | brewer’s spent grains | Ultrasound F (20 kHz), NP (45 W) Microwave F (2.45 GHz), NP (800 W) General information T (80 °C), S/F (30), solvent (72% ethanol aqueous solution), t (2 h) | Ultrasound TPC (4.11 mg GAE/g) Microwave TPC (3.91 mg GAE/g) | [107] |
Microwave/domestic device | brewer’s spent grains | Microwave pre-treatment F (2.45 GHz), NP (600 W and 800 W), t (30 min), sample mass (0.5 g) Magnetic stirring in an oil bath extraction 2 × [S/F (30), solvent (70 ethanol: 30 water, v/v), T (80 °C), t (60 min)] | Light barley: TPC (12.5 mg GAE/g) 4-Vinylguaiacol (2 µg/mL) Ferulic acid (34 µg/mL) p-Coumaric acid (7 µg/mL) Red barley: TPC (13.23 mg GAE/g) 4-Vinylguaiacol (0.7 µg/mL) Ferulic acid (14.83 µg/mL) p-Coumaric acid (9.1 µg/mL) | [108] |
Microwave/system equipped 16-carrousel containers under magnetic stirring at 200 rpm | brewer’s spent grains | F (n-i), NP (n-i), S/F (20), T (100 °C), t (15 min), solvent (0.75% NaOH aqueous solution) | TPC (13.7 mg GAE/g) TFC (2.6 mg QE/g) | [109] |
Microwave/multiwave reactor with rotor-type equipment | brewer’s spent grains | F (50 Hz), NP (n-i), S/F (10), t (13.3 min), T (100 °C), solvent [37.46% (v/v) water in the DES (1 choline chloride: 2 glycerol)] | TPC (2.89 mg GAE/g) 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (14.4%) Vanillic acid (7%) Vanillin (9.4%) Syringic acid (8.2%) Syringaldehyde (14%) Coumaric acid (20.6%) Ferulic acid (26.4%) | [110] |
High-pressure and ultrasound/pressurized liquid extractor and probe system | brewer’s spent grains | Preheated conditions (1500 psi for 6 min), T (155 °C), t (17 min), P (n-i), solvent (35 ethanol: 65 water), S/F (11.33), Cycles (5) | TPC (17.2 mg GAE/g) | [111] |
High-pressure/pressurized liquid extractor | rewer’s spent grains | Preheated conditions (30 min at increasing pressure), P (5 MPa), T (185 °C), t (240 min), solvent (subcritical water), S/F (80) | TPC (33 mg GAE/g) | [112] |
High-pressure and ultrasound/pressurized liquid extractor and probe system | malt rootlets | High-pressure Preheated conditions (1500 psi for 6 min), P (5 MPa), T (164 °C), t (15 min), solvent (ethanol:water mixture 33:67), S/F (n-i) Ultrasound F (n-i), NP (130 W), Amplitude (30%), S/F (50), T (room temperature), t (5 min) | High-pressure TPC (14.8 mg GAE/g) Ultrasound TPC (3.1 mg GAE/g) | [113] |
High-pressure/supercritical CO2 | brewer’s spent grains | P (40 MPa), T (80 °C), solvent (sCO2) | TPC (0.94 mg GAE/g) TF (0.219 mg QE/g) | [114] |
Ohmic heating | brewer’s spent grains | V (45 V to 75 V), distance between electrodes (8 cm), T (35 °C), t (30 min) solvents (ethanol: water mixture 60:40 v/v) | TPC (11.57 mg GAE/g) 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (125 μg/g) Vanillin (27.8 μg/g) Catechin (116 μg/g) Vanillic acid (23 μg/g) Ferulic acid (35.8 μg/g) | [115] |
Pulsed electric field (pretreatment) | brewer’s spent grains | Pretreatment conditions: E (2.5 kV/cm), F (50 kHz), t (14.5 s), S/F (1), solvent (water) | Free polyphenols (101 µg/g) Flavan-3-ols (10.1 µg/g) Flavonoids (60 µg/g) Phenolic acid derivates (55 µg/g) | [116] |
Technology | Energy | Temperature | Extraction Time | S/F | Solvent |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ultrasound | F (20–37 kHz), Po (49.5–800 W) | 25–80 °C | 30–120 min | 4.46–20 | Water, ethanol, ethanol-water mixtures [103] |
Microwave | F (50 Hz–2.45–GHz), Po (600–800 W) | 80–100 °C | 13.3–120 min | 10–30 | Ethanol–water mixtures, NaOH aqueous solution, solutions with DES [108] |
High-pressure | P (5 MPa) | 155–185 °C | 15–240 min | 11.3–80 | Water, ethanol–water mixtures [111] |
Ohmic heating | V (45–75 V) | 80 °C | 30 min | n-i | Ethanol–water mixture [115] |
Pulsed electric field | E (2.5 kV/cm), F (50 kHz) | n-i | 14.5 s (pre-treatment) | 1 | Water |
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Silva, K.F.C.e.; Strieder, M.M.; Pinto, M.B.C.; Rostagno, M.A.; Hubinger, M.D. Processing Strategies for Extraction and Concentration of Bitter Acids and Polyphenols from Brewing By-Products: A Comprehensive Review. Processes 2023, 11, 921. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030921
Silva KFCe, Strieder MM, Pinto MBC, Rostagno MA, Hubinger MD. Processing Strategies for Extraction and Concentration of Bitter Acids and Polyphenols from Brewing By-Products: A Comprehensive Review. Processes. 2023; 11(3):921. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030921
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilva, Klycia Fidélis Cerqueira e, Monique Martins Strieder, Mariana Barreto Carvalhal Pinto, Maurício Ariel Rostagno, and Miriam Dupas Hubinger. 2023. "Processing Strategies for Extraction and Concentration of Bitter Acids and Polyphenols from Brewing By-Products: A Comprehensive Review" Processes 11, no. 3: 921. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11030921