Flavonoid Bioavailability and Attempts for Bioavailability Enhancement
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Flavonoids
Flavonoid class (Common compounds) | Common food sources and amounts (mg/100 g edible portion) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flavan-3-ols (i) (+)-Catechin, (ii) (−)-Epicatechin, (iii) Procyanidin B2 (dimer) an example; food values for all dimers present | Source | (i) [21] | (ii) [21] | (iii) [22] | ||
Apples (Red Delicious, with skin) 1 | 2.00 | 9.83 | 15.12 | |||
| | Apricots (raw) 1 | 3.67 | 4.74 | 1.33 | |
Peaches (raw) 1 | 4.92 | 2.34 | 12.24 | |||
Pears (raw) 1 | 0.27 | 3.76 | 2.73 | |||
Strawberries (raw) 1 | 6.65 | 1.56 | 5.26 | |||
(i) | (ii) | Black tea (brewed) 2 | 1.51 | 2.13 | 3.74 | |
| Blueberries (highbush, raw) 3 | 5.29 | 0.62 | 5.71 | ||
Cranberries (raw) 3 | 0.39 | 4.37 | 25.93 | |||
Cocoa (dry powder) 4 | 64.82 | 196.43 | 183.49 | |||
Grapes (black/red) 5 | 0.82 | 0.96 | 2.38 | |||
Red wine (table) 5 | 7.12 | 3.76 | 20.49 | |||
(iii) | ||||||
Flavonols (i) Kaempferol, (ii) Myricetin, (iii) Quercetin-3-O-glucoside an example of a glucoside, food values are for quercetin | Source [21] | (i) | (ii) | (iii) | ||
Blueberries (highbush) 3 | 1.66 | 1.26 | 7.67 | |||
Garlic 6 | 0.26 | 1.61 | 1.74 | |||
Onions 6 | 0.63 | 0.03 | 21.40 | |||
Kale 7 | 46.80 | 0.00 | 22.58 | |||
Broccoli 7 | 7.84 | 0.06 | 3.26 | |||
Spinach 8 | 15.75 | - | 5.75 | |||
Black tea (brewed) 2 | 1.31 | 0.45 | 1.99 | |||
| | Red wine 5 | 0.20 | 0.83 | 1.76 | |
Cherry tomatoes 9 | 0.10 | - | 2.76 | |||
Can be found ubiquitous in plant families. | ||||||
(i) | (ii) | |||||
| ||||||
(iii) | ||||||
Anthocyanins (i) Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, (ii) Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, (iii) Malvidin-3-O-glucoside, (iv) Pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside, Food values are for anthocyanidins (without the sugars) | Source [21] | (i) | (ii) | (iii) | (iv) | |
Apples 1 | 1.27 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||
Blueberries (lowbush) 3 | 17.92 | 34.00 | 54.00 | 2.65 | ||
Red wine 5 | 0.45 | 2.75 | 15.29 | - | ||
Strawberries 1 | 1.63 | 0.31 | 0.01 | 25.69 | ||
| | Usually in any pink to purple fruit or vegetable; except the Chenopodiaceae family (beets, quinoa, spinach, Swiss chard, etc.). | ||||
(i) | (ii) | |||||
| | |||||
(iii) | (iv) | |||||
Isoflavones (i) Daidzein, (ii) Genistein, (iii) Glycitein | Source [23] | (i) | (ii) | (iii) | ||
| | Tofu (regular, raw) 10 | 8.56 | 12.99 | 1.98 | |
Tempeh 10 | 22.66 | 36.15 | 3.82 | |||
Soybean (raw, mature seeds, USA) 10 | 61.33 | 86.33 | 13.33 | |||
(i) | (ii) | Peanuts (raw, all types) 10 | 0.02 | 0.24 | 0.26 | |
| Beans (common, raw) 10 | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.00 | ||
In the Fabaceae (legume) family especially the genus Glycine (soy), but also in small amounts in other plants. | ||||||
(iii) | ||||||
Flavanones (i) Eriodictyol, (ii) Hesperetin, (iii) Naringenin | Source [21] | (i) | (ii) | (iii) | ||
Grapefruit (juice, white) 11 | 0.65 | 2.35 | 18.23 | |||
| | Lemon (juice) 11 | 4.88 | 14.47 | 1.38 | |
Orange (juice) 11 | 0.17 | 20.39 | 3.27 | |||
Peppermint 13 | 30.92 | 9.52 | - | |||
(i) | (ii) | |||||
| ||||||
(iii) | ||||||
Flavones (i) Apigenin, (ii) Luteolin | Source [21] | (i) | (ii) | |||
Celery 13 | 2.85 | 1.05 | ||||
| | Celery seed (spice) 13 | 83.70 | 811.41 | ||
Parsley 13 | 215.46 | 1.09 | ||||
Green peppers 9 | 0.00 | 4.71 | ||||
Peppermint 12 | 8.71 | 11.33 | ||||
(i) | (ii) | Common in leafy plants particularly Apiaceae family. |
2.1. Flavan-3-ols
2.1.1. Monomeric Flavan-3-ols: Catechin and Epicatechin
2.1.2. Proanthocyanidins or Condensed Tannins
2.2. Flavonols
2.3. Anthocyanins
2.4. Isoflavones
2.5. Flavanones
2.6. Flavones
3. Bioavailability of Dietary Flavonoids
3.1. Metabolism and Bioavailability
3.2. Factors Affecting Bioavailability
3.2.1. Molecular Weight
3.2.2. Glycosylation
3.2.3. Metabolic Conversion
3.2.4. Interaction with Colonic Microflora
3.3. Efforts to Improve Bioavailability
3.3.1. Improving the Intestinal Absorption
Flavonoid class | Molecular Weight | Glycosylation | Metabolic conversion | Colonic microflora |
---|---|---|---|---|
General | Decreases bioavailability | Generally removed | Major factor in bioavailability; can take place in small intestine, liver and colon; usually to glucuronides but also sulphation and methylation [39]; facilitates urinary and biliary excretion [39]. | Influence availability; catabolize compounds to low molecular weight compounds that are readily absorbed [58]. |
Flavan-3-ols (monomeric) | Major bioactive forms: conjugates of epicatechin [41]; catechin: methyl, sulfate and glucuronic acid conjugates; epicatechin: mainly to sulfate conjugates, no glucuronidation [41]. | |||
Proanthocyanidins | Decreases bioavailability [40]. | Major bioactive forms: conjugates of epicatechin [41]; oligomeric procyanidins can absorb in small intestine [51]. | Influences polymeric proanthocyanidin degradation [50]. | |
Flavonols | Sugars and their position affects bioavailability [44]. | Potentially active metabolites: glucuronides [44]. | Facilitates glucuronidation [60]. | |
Anthocyanins | Anthocyanin derivatives (flavan-3-ol-anthocyanin dimer) can potentially be absorbed with less efficiency [47]. | Sometimes found with sugars intact in circulation [55]. | Major intestinal metabolites: glucuronide and sulfate conjugates of protocatechuic acid and phloroglucinaldehyde [46]; anthocyanin derivatives metabolically more resistant than parent compounds [47]. | |
Isoflavones | Aglycone more bioavailable; possible deglycosylation prior hepatic metabolism [48]. | Metabolize daidzein to equol [58]. | ||
Flavanones | Rapid absorption, low bioavailability [49]. | Extensive first-pass metabolism partly by intestinal bacteria degraded into phenolic compounds [49]. |
3.3.2. Changing the Site of Absorption
3.3.3. Improving the Metabolic Stability
3.3.4. Effect of the Food Matrix
4. Conclusions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Thilakarathna, S.H.; Rupasinghe, H.P.V. Flavonoid Bioavailability and Attempts for Bioavailability Enhancement. Nutrients 2013, 5, 3367-3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5093367
Thilakarathna SH, Rupasinghe HPV. Flavonoid Bioavailability and Attempts for Bioavailability Enhancement. Nutrients. 2013; 5(9):3367-3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5093367
Chicago/Turabian StyleThilakarathna, Surangi H., and H. P. Vasantha Rupasinghe. 2013. "Flavonoid Bioavailability and Attempts for Bioavailability Enhancement" Nutrients 5, no. 9: 3367-3387. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5093367