The Seed of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Nutritional Quality and Potential Functionality for Human Health and Nutrition
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biochemistry, Genetic, Taxonomy and Legal Status of C. sativa L.
2.1. The Cannabinoids Synthesis in C. sativa L.
2.2. Chemical Phenotype and Taxonomy of C. sativa L.
- Chemotype I is characterized by a low CBD/THC ratio (0.00–0.05), due to high THC content (>0.3% of dry weight of the reproductive part of the female plant at flowering). This chemical phenotype is also known as “drug type”, “THC-predominant”, or C. sativa L. subsp. Indica and the varieties belonging to this chemotype are those commonly grown for narcotic/recreational purposes.
- Chemotype II has both the two main cannabinoids, CBD and THC, in a content ratio (CBD/THC) close to the unity (0.5–3.0), usually with a slight prevalence of CBD. This chemical phenotype is also named “intermediate type” or “THC-intermediate”, and the varieties belonging to this chemotype are mainly grown for medicinal use.
- Chemotype III is characterized by high CBD/THC ratio (15–25) due to high CBD amount and low THC content, not over than 0.3% of dry weight of the reproductive part of the female plant at flowering. This chemical phenotype is also known as “non-drug type”, “fibre-type”, “THC-predominant”, or C. sativa L. subsp. Sativa, and the varieties belonging to this chemotype are cultivated for industrial purposes, namely, for fibre, seeds, and their derivatives.
2.3. Legislation of C. sativa L.
3. C. sativa L. Seed
3.1. Hempseed Nutritional Features
3.1.1. Hempseed Fat
Fatty Acid Composition
The Unsaponifiable Matter
3.1.2. Hempseed Proteins
3.1.3. Hempseed Carbohydrate and Dietary Fibre
3.1.4. Hempseed Minerals
3.1.5. Hempseed Antinutritional Compounds
- the highest content group including different soy (Glycine max) cvs with a TIs content ranging from 43 to 84 U/mg of the sample;
- the medium content group corresponding to common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) varieties containing from 17 to 51 U/mg of the sample; and
- the lowest content group including lentil (Lens culinaris) and fava bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cvs containing from 3 to 10 U/mg of the sample.
3.2. Hempseed Functional Features
3.2.1. Hempseed Phenolic Compounds
Composition Studies
Biological Effects
3.2.2. Hempseed Bioactive Peptides
4. Hempseed Dietary Supplementation
4.1. Animal Studies
4.2. Human Studies
5. Hempseed Foods
5.1. Hempseed Products as Livestock Supplement
5.2. Hempseed Products as Ingredient for Enriched/Fortified Foods
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No | Registered Varieties | Origin | No | Registered Varieties | Origin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Adzelvieši | Latvia | 33 | Ivory | Nederland |
2 | Armanca | Romania | 34 | KC Bonusz | Hungary |
3 | Asso | Italy | 35 | KC Dora | Hungary |
4 | Austa SK | Latvia | 36 | KC Virtus | Hungary |
5 | Balaton | Hungary | 37 | KC Zuzana | Hungary |
6 | Beniko | Switzerland | 38 | KCA Borana | Hungary |
Czech Republic | |||||
Nederland | |||||
Poland | |||||
7 | Bialobrzeskie | Czech Republic Polan | 39 | Kompoliti | Hungary |
8 | Cannakomp | Hungary | 40 | Kompoliti Hibrid TC | Hungary |
9 | Carma | Italy | 41 | Lipko | Hungary |
10 | Carmaleonte | Italy | 42 | Lovrin 110 | Romania |
11 | Chamaeleon | Nederland | 43 | Marcello | Nederland |
12 | Codimono | Italy | 44 | Markant | Nederland |
13 | Dacia Secuieni | Romania | 45 | Monoica | Switzerland |
Hungary | |||||
14 | Delta-405 | Spanish | 46 | Orion 33 | France |
15 | Delta-Ilosa | Spanish | 47 | Rajan | Poland |
16 | Dioica 88 | France | 48 | Ratza | Romania |
17 | Earlina 8 FC | France | 49 | Santhica 23 | France |
18 | Eletta Campana | Italy | 50 | Santhica 27 | France |
19 | Epsilon 68 | France | 51 | Santhica 70 | France |
20 | Fedora 17 | Switzerland | 52 | Secuieni Jubileu | Romania |
France | |||||
21 | Felina 32 | France | 53 | Silvana | Romania |
22 | Fibrante | Italy | 54 | Succesiv | Romania |
23 | Fibrol | Hungary | 55 | Teodora | Romania |
24 | Fibror 79 | France | 56 | Tiborszallasi | HungaryItaly |
25 | Finola | Finland | 57 | Tisza | Hungary |
26 | Futura 75 | France | 58 | Tygra | Poland |
27 | Futura 83 | France | 59 | Uniko B | Hungary |
28 | Fèrimon | Deutschland France | 60 | Uso-31 | Nederland |
29 | Glecia | Italy | 61 | Villanova | Italy |
30 | Gilana | Italy | 62 | Wielkopolskie | Poland |
31 | Glyana | Poland | 63 | Wojko | Poland |
32 | Henola | Poland | 64 | Zenit | Romania |
Moisture | Fat | Proteins | CHO | Total DF | Insoluble DF | Soluble DF | Ash | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.1–7.2 | 26.9–30.6 | 23.8–28.0 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 5.1–5.8 | [34] |
4.1–4.3 | 32.8–35.9 | 24.3–28.1 | 32.5–37.5 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 4.9–6.1 | [44] |
6.7 ± 0.5 | 34.6 ± 1.2 | 25.6 ± 0.6 | 34.4 ± 1.5 | 33.8 ± 1.9 | 30.9 ± 1.5 | 2.9 ± 0.4 | 5.4 ± 0.3 | [45] |
4.0–9.2 | 25.4–33.0 | 21.3–27.5 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 3.7–5.9 | [46] |
6.5 | 35.5 | 24.8 | 27.6 | 27.6 | 22.2 | 5.4 | 5.6 | [47] |
8.4 ± 0.02 | 33.3 ± 0.1 | 22.5 ± 0.2 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 5.9 ± 0.03 | [48] |
7.3 ± 0.1 | 24.5 ± 2.0 | 24.8 ± 1.1 | 38.1 ± 2.5 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 5.3 ± 0.6 | [49] |
PA | SA | OA | LA | GLA | ALA | SDA | ∑ SFA | ∑ MUFA | ∑ PUFA | n-6/n-3 | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
6.7–7.0 | 2.1–2.8 | 9.4–13.0 | 55.6–56.6 | 2.6–4.5 | 14.7–17.3 | n.a. | 9.6–10.3 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | [34] |
6.0–7.3 | 2.3–3.5 | 9.2–15.7 | 55.0–58.2 | 0.6–4.5 | 12.6–19.6 | 0.2–1.5 | 9.4–11.7 | 9.7–16.1 | 72.2–80.7 | 2.8–4.5 | [39] |
7.1–9.1 | 2.1–2.8 | 10.3–17.9 | 51.6–54.2 | 1.9–5.0 | 10.5–15.3 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 3.9–5.5 | [3] |
6.1–7.8 | 2.3–4.0 | 12.2–18.8 | 53.9–59.0 | 3.5–6.2 | 12.3–18.9 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 72.0–78.6 | 3.2–5.0 | [44] |
5.0 | 2.0 | 9.0 | 56.0 | 4.0 | 22.0 | 2 | n.a. | n.a. | 84.0 | 2.5 | [47] |
7.0 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.4 | 12.7 ± 1.3 | 56.2 ± 3.5 | 2.9 ± 0.4 | 15.0 ± 1.1 | n.a. | 10.9 ± 0.5 | 13.1 ± 1.3 | 75.1 ± 3.7 | 4.0 | [49] |
5.6 ± 0.5 | 3.9 ± 0.4 | 16.2 ± 6.2 | 54.7 ± 4.1 | n.a. | 16.2 ± 4.0 | 0.5 ± 0.01 | 10.9 ± 0.7 | 17.5 ± 6.3 | 72 ± 4.3 | 3.2 | [50] |
Type of Analyzed Sample | Total Tocopherols | α-Tocopherol | β-Tocopherol | γ-Tocopherol | δ-Tocopherol | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg/100 g seed | ||||||
Whole seed | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 21.21–294.9 | 62.0–115.7 | [34] |
Oil | 14.33–34.04 | 0.70–3.05 | 0.06–0.30 | 15.42–29.40 | 0.51–2.49 | [41] |
Whole seed | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | 4.6–11.3 | 0.6–1.3 | [3] |
Whole seed | 90 | 5 | n.a. | 85 | n.a. | [47] |
Whole seed | n.a. | 0.35 ± 0.09 | n.a. | 0.55 ± 0.13 | n.a. | [49] |
mg/100 g oil | ||||||
Whole seed | 61–135 | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | [39] |
Oil | 56.28–58.22 | 23.4–24.62 | 31.6–32.20 1 | 1.28–1.40 | [48] | |
Oil | n.a. | 2.78 ± 0.01 | n.a. | 56.41 ± 0.02 | n.a. | [52] |
Oil | 80.28 ± 4.50 | 3.22 ± 0.65 | 0.81 ± 0.16 | 73.38 ± 2.86 | 2.87 ± 0.83 | [57] |
Oil | n.a. | 2.56 ± 0.06 | 0.60 ± 0.005 | 59.79 ± 1.21 | 3.97 ± 0.15 | [58] |
Oil | 79.7 | 3.4 | 0.6 | 73.3 | 2.5 | [59] |
Oil | 97.13 | 4.32 ± 0.65 | n.a. | 89.26 ± 1.92 | 3.55 ± 0.25 | [60] |
Oil | 92.97 | 4.71 ± 0.54 | n.a. | 84.11 ± 1.74 | 4.15 ± 0.44 | [61] |
Type of Analysed Sample | Total Phytosterols | β-Sitosterol | Stigmasterol | Campesterol | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg/100 g seed | |||||
Whole seed | n.a. | 53.61 ± 3.15 | 2.47 ± 0.25 | 11.54 ± 1.03 | [49] |
Whole seed | 124 ± 12 | 79.7 ± 0.1 | 3.4 ± 0.9 | 7.3 ± 0.6 | [50] |
mg/100 g oil | |||||
Oil | 279.37 ± 12.43 | 190.5 ± 5.93 | 10.02 ± 0.75 | 50.57 ± 3.20 | [57] |
Ala | Arg | Asp | Cys | Glu | Gly | His * | Ile * | Leu * | Lys * | Met * | Phe * | Pro | Ser | Thr * | Trp * | Tyr | Val * | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.28 | 3.10 | 2.78 | 0.41 | 4.57 | 1.14 | 0.71 | 0.98 | 1.72 | 1.03 | 0.58 | 1.17 | 1.15 | 1.27 | 0.88 | 0.20 | 0.86 | 1.28 | [47] |
1.23 | 2.76 | 2.13 | 0.31 | 4.58 | 1.24 | 0.64 | 0.62 | 1.53 | 1.28 | 0.50 | 1.02 | 1.14 | 1.27 | 0.85 | n.a. | 0.73 | 0.68 | [48] |
0.94 | 2.69 | 2.33 | 0.36 | 3.83 | 1.02 | 0.58 | 0.86 | 1.47 | 0.84 | 0.56 | 1.01 | 0.89 | 1.12 | 0.79 | n.a. | 0.78 | 1.13 | [45] |
0.96 | 2.28 | 2.39 | 0.41 | 3.74 | 1.06 | 0.55 | 0.80 | 1.49 | 0.86 | 0.56 | 1.03 | 0.90 | 1.19 | 1.01 | 0.23 | 0.68 | 1.14 | [46] |
P 1 | K 1 | Mg 1 | Ca 1 | Na 1 | Fe 2 | Mn 2 | Zn 2 | Cu 2 | Cd 2 | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1160 | 859 | 483 | 145 | 12 | 14 | 7 | 7 | 2 | n.a. | [47] |
890 | n.a. | 240 | 90 | n.a. | 7 | 6 | 6 | n.a. | n.a. | [48] |
n.a. | 252 | 268 | 94 | 6.8 | 10 | 4 | 5 | 0.5 | n.a. | [49] |
n.a. | 463–2821 | 237–694 | 144–955 | n.a. | 113–240 | 6–11 | 4–9 | n.a. | 0.1–0.4 | [43] |
1014–910 | 727–866 | 430–482 | 94–121 | 22–27 | 11–13 | 12–15 | 10–11 | 0.8–0.9 | n.a. | [44] |
1170 | 921 | 496 | 127 | n.a. | 4 | 11 | 7 | 1.9 | 0.0015 | [45] |
Phytic Acid 1 | Condensed Tannins 2 | Trypsin Inhibitors 3 | Cyanogenic Glycosides 4 | Sapoins 2 | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
4.5–7.6 * | n.a. | 10.8–27.8 * | n.a. | n.a. | [39] |
6.2–7.7 * | 214.0–456.0 * | 10.8–27.7 * | 50.0–170.0 * | 47.0–70.0 * | [73] |
5.3 ± 0.4 * | 105.0 ± 4.0 ** | n.a. | n.a. | n.a. | [74] |
6.1–7.4 * | 135.0–214.0 * | 18.2–28.4 * | 60.0–240.0 * | 5.9–8.1 * | [75] |
Type of Sample | TPC | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Whole hempseed | 13.68–51.60 | [34] |
Whole hempseed | 3.82–7.80 | [3] |
Whole hempseed | 0.77 ± 0.04 | [49] |
Cold-pressed oil | 1.88 ± 0.003 | [52] |
Whole hempseed | 0.96 ± 0.35 | [74] |
Cold-pressed oil | 2.68 ± 0.09 | [95] |
Cold-pressed oil | 0.44 ± 0.001 | [96] |
Whole hempseed | 0.92 ± 0.04 | [98] |
Whole hempseed | 2.33 ± 0.07 | [99] |
Compound | Biological Effect | Ref. |
---|---|---|
N-trans-caffeolyltyramine | Strong in vitro scavenging DPPH radical and ORAC antioxidant activity; LDL protection against in vitro oxidation; In vitro AChE and arginase inhibitory activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action; In vitro prevention of H2O2-induced cell death. | [100] [103] [104] [107] [111] |
N-trans-feryoryltyramine | In vitro scavenging DPPH radical activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [103] [111] |
N-trans-caffeolyoctopamine | In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [111] |
N-trans-cumaroyltyramine | In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [111] |
Cannabisin A | In vitro scavenging DPPH radical activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [103] [111] |
Cannabisin B | Strong in vitro scavenging DPPH radical and ORAC antioxidant activity; LDL protection against in vitro oxidation; In vitro arginase inhibitory activity. | [100] [104] [111] |
Cannabisin C | In vitro scavenging DPPH radical activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [103] [111] |
Cannabisin D | In vitro scavenging DPPH radical activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [103] [111] |
Cannabisin E | In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action | [111] |
Cannabisin F | In vitro scavenging DPPH radical and ORAC antioxidant activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action; In vitro inhibition of the NFκB inflammatory pathway, activation of Nfr-2 antioxidant pathway and upregulation of SIRT1. | [104] [110] [111] |
Cannabisin M | In vitro scavenging DPPH radical activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [103] [111] |
Isocannabisin N | In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action | [111] |
Grossamide | In vitro inhibition of the NFκB inflammatory pathway. In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action; | [109] [111] |
3,3′-demethyl-grossamide | In vitro scavenging DPPH radical activity; In vitro AChE inhibitory activity; In vivo anti-neuroinflammatory action. | [103] [111] |
3,3′-demethylheliotropamide | In vitro AChE and arginase inhibitory activity. | [103] |
Sativamides A | In vitro reduction of ER stress-induced cell death. | [106] |
Sativamides B | In vitro reduction of ER stress-induced cell death. | [106] |
4-((E)-p-coumaroylamino)butan-1-ol | In vitro inhibition of TNF-α release. | [105] |
Cumaroylaminobutanol glucopyranoside | In vitro inhibition of TNF-α release; In vitro inhibition of the NFκB inflammatory pathway and activation of Nfr-2 antioxidant pathway. | [105] [108] |
Supplement Type | Purpose | Experimental Design | Results | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hempseed meal hydrolysate (HMH) | Evaluation of the antioxidant ability of an HMH-containing diet to attenuate the plasma levels of some oxidative stress markers in growing and adult SHRs rats. | 8-week old SHRs (n = 8) fed control or 1% HMH-containing diets ad libitum for 8 weeks (for analysing the preventive effect). 20-week old SHRs (n = 4) fed control or HPH-containing diets ad libitum for 4 weeks (for analysing the treatment effect). | Dietary intervention with a specific HMH on young and adults SHRs exerted an antioxidant action by: • The increase of the SOD and CAT activities in both growing and adult SHRs; • The significant decrease of the TPx plasma level in both growing and adult SHRs and NTRs. | [117] |
Hempseed | Investigation of the aspects of dietary hempseed against hyperlipidemia-associated CV risks. | 1 month of 10% hempseed supplemented high fat-diet on Wistar rats. | The 10% hempseed dietary treatment had an anti-hyperlipidaemic effect by inducing: • The serum level decreases of the cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides; • The increase of the HDL serum level; • A significant reduction in the aorta thickness; • Less intima damage foam cells formation and smooth muscle cell proliferation; • The remarkable decrease in the lipid deposition, plaque size, and lesion surface area distribution; • The decrease of the pro-inflammatory PGEs expression; • The increase of the anti-inflammatory PGDs expression. | [131] |
Hempseed | Evaluation of the effect of hempseed feeding on lipid and protein profiles. | 20-days of hempseed supplementation (free access) on Wistar rats. | Short-term hempseed dietary intake can have hepatoprotective properties and beneficial effect on the prevention of CVD by favouring: • The decrease of the mean fasting serum LDL level; • The increase of the mean fasting serum HDL and total protein levels. | [132] |
Hempseed water extract (HWE) | Evaluation of the anti-atherosclerotic activity of hempseed water extract in ApoE KO mice. | 14-days of intragastric inoculation of 300 µL of hempseed water extract or distilled water (control) to six-week-old, male ApoE KO (n = 7). | Dietary HWE ingestion exerted an anti-atherosclerotic effect through: • The reduction of the atherosclerotic plaque formation in the aortic sinuses; • The reduction of the serum GOT concentration, demonstrating less liver damage after the treatment; • The decrease of total serum cholesterol and LDL, and the increase of serum HDL; • The significant decrease of TNF-α serum level. | [133] |
Hempseed Meal (HSM) | Investigation of the protective effects of the dietary intake of HSM and its LA and ALA components on AD and CVD Drosophila melanogaster models. | GMR-Aβ42 Drosophila melanogaster line (AD model) reared in cornmeal-soybean standard media with the LA, ALA, and GLA amounts present in the HSM (for the effect on AD phenotype). Wild-type Drosophila melanogaster larvae reared in HSM media with 35.1 μg/mL of cholesterol (for the CV effect). | Thanks to their LA and ALA contents, HSM dietary uptake may exert beneficial effects on AD and CVD through: • The suppression of suppressed Aβ42 cytotoxicity in the GMR-Aβ42 flies’ line reared on HSM mean (beneficial effect on AD); • The reduction of dietary cholesterol uptake observed in the wild-type flies reared on the cholesterol media (beneficial effect on CVD). | [134] |
Hempseed | Investigation of the ability of dietary hempseed to reduce platelet aggregation under hypercholesterolemia. | Male New Zealand rabbits fed 125 g/day of control diet supplemented with 10% of hempseed and 0.5% of cholesterol for 8 weeks. | Hempseed supplementation to a hypercholesterolemic diet is able to normalize the platelet aggregation by increasing the GLA plasma level. | [135] |
Hempseed | Investigation of the dietary hempseed ability to inhibit atherosclerosis and the associated vascular contractile dysfunction in a cholesterol-induced rabbit model. | Male albino New Zealand rabbits fed 125 g/day of control diet supplemented with 10% of hempseed and 0.5% of cholesterol (to induce atherosclerotic plaque formation) for 8 weeks. | Dietary hempseed supplementation did not generate protection against atherosclerotic plaque formation in hypercholesterolemic diet, but it provided mildly beneficial effects against contractile dysfunction associated with atherosclerotic vessels. | [136] |
Hempseed | Investigation of the ability of hempseed dietary intake on the prevention of ovarian hormone deficiency-induced hypercholesterolemia in ovariectomized rats and on the complications of estrogen deficiency such as depression, anxiety, and bone loss problems. | Bilateral ovariectomized six-month-old female Wistar rats (n = 5) fed 1%, 2%, or 10% hempseed supplemented diets or a control diet (standard commercial diet) for 3 weeks. | Until 10% of hempseed dietary supplementation improved the post-ovariectomized complications in rats since it: • Prevented the accrual of blood calcium, preventing the bone loss; • Prevented the body weight gain induced by ovariectomy; • Conserved the TGs and TC plasma levels as those of the non-ovariectomized rats, preventing dyslipidaemia; • Resulted in an antidepressant activity. | [137] |
Hempseed meal hydrolysate (HMH) | Evaluation of the effect of HMH-containing diet on the prevention and treatment of hypertension in growing SHRs and in SHRs with established hypertension. | 8-week old SHRs (n = 8) fed control or 1% HMH-containing diets ad libitum for 8 weeks (for the preventive effect). 20-week old SHRs (n = 4) fed control (without HPH) or HPH-containing diets, ad libitum for 4 weeks (for analysing the treatment effect). | Dietary intervention with a specific HMH on young and adult SHRs exerted a preventive and therapeutic effects since it led to: • The attenuation of the normal increases of SBP in young growing SHRs; • The significant reduction of SBP in adult SHRs; • The significant reduction of the plasma ACE and renin activities in both young and adult SHRs. | [138] |
Hempseed and bitter vegetable (HB) | Evaluation of the beneficial effect of the HB diet on chronic diseases and on the slowing of the aging process. | 15-month-old C57BL/6 female mice (n = 10) fed low CHO, low SFA, and high PUFA content-HB diets containing hempseed and bitter vegetable (Sonchus oleraceus) (2:1) or control (western diet), ad libitum until only 20% of the mice in one group survived. | The HB diet is capable of promoting health and longevity since it: • Significantly increased the mice lifespan; • Improved the spatial learning and memory, and the locomotory activity; • Exerted beneficial effects on hepatic steatosis, hepatotoxicity, and plasma lipid profiles including the normalization of the size, weight, and colour of the liver and the reduction of hepatic lipid accumulation and of the ALT, AST, and TG levels. • Provided protective effects against the aging-related abnormalities in spleen morphology and inflammation; • Increased the antioxidant defences and decreased the oxidative stress; • Decreased the systemic inflammation by lowering the plasma level of the inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, MCP-1 and IL-6), and by increasing the plasma level of anti-inflammatory IL-10; • Improved the gut microbiota profile leading to a significant decrease in the gut levels of E. coli and a significant increase in the gut levels of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillum species after 11 weeks of dietary intervention; • Increased the sensitivity to insulin; • Increased the hepatic expression of genes associated with longevity (i.e., AMPK, Sirt1, Nrf-1, and FOXO3). | [140] |
Hempseed oil and Evening primrose oil (HSO/EPO) | Evaluation of the MS’ therapeutic effect of co-supplementation with HSO/EPO. | 14 days of HSO/EPO oral administration on adult female C57BL/6 (n = 6) EAE mice (MS model) | The HSO/EPO dietary treatment can exert a beneficial effect on MS treatment since it is able to: • Act as an immunomodulator, down-regulating the mRNA expression of mTORC1 (which promotes Th1 and Th2 cells differentiation) and of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN- in lymph node; • Exert an anti-inflammatory action through increasing the mRNA expression of mTORC2 (which promotes Th2 cells differentiation) and of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 in lymph nodes; • Reduce the infiltration of the inflammatory cells in brain; • Promote the re-myelination of neurons’ myelin sheath. | [140,141] |
Supplement Type | Purpose | Experimental Design | Results | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cold-pressed hempseed oil | Evaluation of the effect of dietary hempseed oil and olive oil on plasma lipid profiles, TEWL, skin quality, and dermal medication usage in patients with atopic dermatitis. | Controlled, randomized single-blind crossover study, based on two intervention periods of 8-weeks last, separated by a 4-weeks washout period. Patients (n = 20) with a diagnosis of atopic dermatitis were randomly divided into two groups. Every patient of each group orally consumed 30 mL/day of olive or hempseed oils. • Inclusion criteria: BMI < 30 Kg/m2; 25–60 years old. • Exclusion criteria: assumption of lipid-lowering, anti-hypertensive or asthma medications, nutrient supplements, steroid-containing skin creams, oral cyclosporine, and use of solarium during the study and in the previous month. | A relatively short period of hempseed oil dietary consumption significantly improved skin quality and the atopic symptomology of the patients without any negative side effects or adverse reactions. The dietary treatment significantly increased the plasma level of LA, ALA, and GLA; significantly decreased the TEWL values and patients’ skin dryness, itchiness, and dermal medication usage. | [143] |
Cold-pressed under nitrogen atmosphere hempseed oil | Evaluation and comparison of the effects of dietary hempseed oil and flaxseed oil on the profile of serum lipids, fasting serum total and lipoprotein lipid concentrations, plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, and hemostatic factors in healthy volunteers. | Controlled, randomized single-blind crossover study, based on two intervention periods of 4-weeks last, separated by a 4-weeks washout period. Male (n = 8) and female (n = 6) healthy volunteers were randomly divided into two groups. Every volunteer of each group orally consumed 30 mL/day of flax or hempseed oils. • Inclusion criteria: BMI < 30 Kg/m2; 25–60 years old; fasting serum concentration of TG < 3.5 mmol/L; fasting serum concentration of TC 5.0–7.5 mmol/L; fasting plasma glucose < 6.0 mmol/L. • Exclusion criteria: assumption of lipid-lowering, anti-hypertensive medications and nutrient supplements during the study and in the previous month. | In healthy subjects, 4-weeks daily of orally ingestion of hempseed oil: • Reduced the total plasma TGs concentration; • Significantly decreased the TC/HDL-C ratio, lowering the risk of coronary heart diseases; • Significantly changed the FA composition of serum TG and CE, increasing the LA, ALA, and GLA amounts and decreasing the OA content, whereas the AA and DHA amount did not differ; • Did not modify the plasma glucose, insulin, and hemostatic factor like fibrinogen, FVIIa, and PAI-1. | [144] |
Hempseed oil capsule | Evaluation and comparison of the effects of the hempseed, flaxseed, and fish dietary oils on cardiovascular parameters (lipid profile, LDL oxidation, inflammatory markers and platelet aggregation) in healthy volunteers. | Double-blinded, placebo controlled clinical trial. Male (n = 34) and female (n = 54) healthy volunteers were randomly divided into 4 groups (placebo, fish oil, flaxseed oil, and hempseed oil). The volunteers of each group were orally daily supplemented with 2 capsules each containing 1 g of the relative treatment for 12 weeks. • Inclusion criteria: fasting TC levels <5.2 mM; non-smokers; consumption of fish not more than once a week and not more than 29.6 mL/day of alcohol consumption. • Exclusion criteria: usage of aspirin; ibuprofen; and/or other non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory medications as well as thyroid, anticoagulant, or lipid-lowering medication and the presence of menopause or chronic illness. | 2 × 1g hempseed oil capsule daily supplementation, administrated for 12 weeks did not significantly affect the ALA and LA plasma levels; TC, TG, LDL, and HDL amounts, or inflammatory (CRP, and TNF-α) and platelet aggregation analyzed markers (collagen and thrombin-induced platelet aggregation). | [145] |
Hempseed oil soft capsule | Evaluation of the role of hempseed oil in the modulation of hyperlipidaemia and CVD risk in children and adolescents. | Randomized, controlled, two-arm parallel-group study. Children and adolescents (n = 36) with diagnosis of primary hyperlipidemia were randomly divided into two groups. Each subject of the test group was dietary supplemented with one hempseed oil soft capsule containing 3 g of oil for 8 weeks. The other group was used as control (without control). • Inclusion criteria: assessment of primary hyperlipidaemia; 6–16 years old. • Exclusion criteria: diagnosis of secondary hyperlipidaemia, and/or renal, endocrine, lipid, neurologic, onco-hematologic disorders requiring drug treatment; BMI > 85th percentile; smokers. | The 8-weeks daily intake of 3 g of hempseed oil: • Did not affect the levels of TC, LDL-C, HDL-C and TGs; • Did not change the values of body weight, BMI, and blood pressure; • Significantly modified the RBC FAs composition increasing the total n-3 PUFAs, n-3 LCPUFAs, and n-6 LCPUFAs, and decreasing the n-6/n-3 PUFAs ratio as well as the SFAs and MUFAs. | [146] |
Hempseed oil and evening primrose oil (HSO/EPO, 9:1) co-supplementation | Evaluation of the therapeutic and protective effect of the Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO or of the HSO/EPO dietary co-supplementation on MS patients. | Double blind, randomized trial. Female (n = 42) and male (n = 23) patients with diagnosis of RMSS were randomly divided into three groups. Each group (A, B, and C) was subjected to a Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with 18–21 g of HSO/EPO (9:1) (group A) or to 18–21 g olive oil supplementation (group B), or to 18–21 g of HSE/EPO (9:1) co-supplementation (group C) for 6 months. • Inclusion criteria: diagnosis of RRMS (EDSS < 6); 14–55 years old. • Exclusion criteria: diagnosis of secondary or primary progressive MS; pregnancy; corticosteroid treatment; and diagnosis of other chronic neurological and inflammatory diseases such as cancer, rheumatic diseases, and heart diseases. | 6 months of Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO or of HSO/EPO co-supplementation significantly improved the MS clinical condition and inflammatory status of the patients, without any adverse effects. • Both treatments significantly improved the degree of Th2/Th1 ratio and the value of EDSS and of relapse rate; • Both treatments significantly increased the level of anti-inflammatory IL-4 cytokine; • Only the Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO significantly decreased the level of pro-inflammatory IFN-γ and IL-17 cytokines; • The co-supplementation of HSO/EPO led to a decreasing (but not statistically significant) trend in the level of IFN-γ and IL-17 cytokines. | [147] |
Hempseed oil and evening primrose oil (HSO/EPO, 9:1) co-supplementation | Evaluation of the Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO in patients with RRMS on the type and level of produced cytokines. | Females (n = 16) and males (n = 7) patients with diagnosis of RRMS were subjected to a Hot-natured dietary regimen co-supplemented with 18–21 g of HSE/EPO (9:1), for 6 months. • Inclusion criteria: diagnosis of RRMS (EDSS < 6); 14–55 years old. • Exclusion criteria: diagnosis of secondary or primary progressive MS; pregnancy; corticosteroid treatment; and diagnosis of other chronic neurological and inflammatory diseases such as cancer, rheumatic diseases, and heart diseases. | 6 months of Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO had a beneficial effect in RRMS patients by decreasing the Th1 cells and by promoting the Th2 cell responses. This dietary treatment led to: • A significant improvement of EDSS; • A significant decrease of the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ and IL-17); •A significant increase of the production of anti-inflammatory IL-4. | [148] |
Hempseed oil and evening primrose oil (HSO/EPO, 9:1) co-supplementation | Investigation of the effect of the Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO or of the solely HSO/EPO dietary co-supplementation on MS patient’s liver dysfunction. | Double blind, randomized trial. Female (n = 42) and male (n = 23) patients with diagnosis of RMSS were randomly divided into three groups. Each group (A, B, and C) was subjected to a Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with 18–21 g of HSO/EPO (9:1) (group A) or to 18–21 g olive oil supplementation (group B), or to 18-21 g of HSE/EPO (9:1) co-supplementation (group C) for 6 months. • Inclusion criteria: diagnosis of RRMS (EDSS < 6); 14–55 years old. • Exclusion criteria: diagnosis of secondary or primary progressive MS; pregnancy; corticosteroid treatment; and diagnosis of other chronic neurological and inflammatory diseases such as cancer, rheumatic diseases, and heart diseases. | 6 months of Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO or of HSO/EPO co-supplementation significantly improved the MS patients’ liver dysfunction, without any adverse effects. • Both treatments significantly improved the EDSS value; • Both treatments significantly decrease the AST enzyme serum level; • Only the Hot-natured diet co-supplemented with HSO/EPO significantly decreased the ALT and GGT enzyme serum levels. | [149] |
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Farinon, B.; Molinari, R.; Costantini, L.; Merendino, N. The Seed of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Nutritional Quality and Potential Functionality for Human Health and Nutrition. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1935. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071935
Farinon B, Molinari R, Costantini L, Merendino N. The Seed of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Nutritional Quality and Potential Functionality for Human Health and Nutrition. Nutrients. 2020; 12(7):1935. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071935
Chicago/Turabian StyleFarinon, Barbara, Romina Molinari, Lara Costantini, and Nicolò Merendino. 2020. "The Seed of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Nutritional Quality and Potential Functionality for Human Health and Nutrition" Nutrients 12, no. 7: 1935. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071935