Inhibition of Nematocyst Discharge from Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa)—Prevention Measures against Jellyfish Stings
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Evaluation of Nematocyst Discharge
Test 1—Solution Screening
2.2. Evaluation of Inhibitory Effect
2.2.1. Test 2—Nematocyst Discharge
2.2.2. Test 3—Venom Load
3. Discussion
Scyphozoan | Methodology/Metric | Compounds | Effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pelagia noctiluca | Tentacle Solution Assay/ Nematocyst discharge | Ammonia (10%), barium chloride (10%), bleach, scented ammonia, lemon juice | High discharge | Present study |
Sodium bicarbonate solutions (10%), sodium chloride (10%), papain (10%), acetic acid (5%), vinegar | Mild discharge | |||
Seawater, bromelain (10%), choline chloride (10%), copper gluconate (10%), gadolinium (III) chloride hexahydrate (10%), iodine (10%), lanthanum (III) chloride hexahydrate (10%), magnesium chloride (10%), magnesium sulfate (10%), distilled water, fresh water, physiological saline, urine, butylene glycol (50%) | Neutral (not inhibitory) | |||
Butylene glycol | Reducer (only some isolated nematocysts discharged) | |||
Hydroxyacetophenone (1.5%) in distilled water + butylene glycol (1:1), lidocaine (10%) and 3% Symsitive® in butylene glycol | Discharge inhibited | |||
Tentacle Skin Blood Agarose Assay/Venom activity (hemolytic effect) | Butylene glycol, lidocaine (10%), butylene glycol, hydroxyacetophenone (1.5%) in distilled water + butylene glycol (1:1) and 3% Symsitive® in butylene glycol | Decreased hemolysis | ||
Chemical-mechanical stimulation/Nematocyst discharge | Sodium bicarbonate (10%) | Discharge | [40] | |
Lidocaine (1%), ammonia (20%), ethanol (70%), acetic acid (5%) | Discharge inhibited | |||
Tentacle Solution Assay/ Nematocyst discharge | Vinegar | Mild discharge | [28] | |
Sea water | Neutral (not inhibitory) | |||
Tentacle Skin Blood Agarose Assay/Venom activity (hemolytic effect) | Seawater, vinegar | No decrease in hemolysis | ||
Cytotoxicity assays/Venom activity (cytolytic effect) | Ananas comosus, Carica papaya | Improved cell survival | [34] | |
Tentacle solution assay/Nematocyst discharge | Anions (I−, Cl−, F−), choline chloride, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, lithium chloride, cesium chloride, potassium iodine, sodium iodine, potassium sulfate, sodium sulfate, ammonium sulfate | Discharge | [45,50] | |
Calcium chloride, barium chloride, magnesium chloride | Discharge inhibited | |||
Case reports/Pain, redness and edema | Jellywash® | Prevention or improvement of pain, redness and edema | [23] | |
Cyanea capillata | Tentacle solution assay/Nematocyst discharge) | Vinegar | Partial discharge | [43] |
Urine, isopropanol | Moderate discharge | |||
Seawater | No discharge | |||
Tentacle Skin Blood Agarose Assay/Venom activity (hemolytic effect) | Seawater, urine | Increased hemolysis | ||
Vinegar, Sting No More® spray | Decreased hemolysis | |||
Randomized controlled trials/Pain and skin manifestations (color and structural changes and vesicles) | Safe Sea® (sunscreen with prophylaxis) | Reduction in the number of subjects with pain, discomfort and skin manifestations | [32] | |
Tentacle solution assay/Nematocyst discharge | Acetic acid (5%) | Discharge | [38] | |
Methylated spirits | No discharge | |||
Nemopilema nomurai | Tentacle Solution Assay/ Nematocyst discharge | Acetic acid (4%), isopropanol | High discharge | [36] |
Distilled water, ethanol (70%), ethanol (20%) | Low discharge | |||
Seawater, lidocaine (10%) | No discharge | |||
Nonrandomized controlled trials/Pain, redness and erythema | Seawater, lidocaine (10%) | Relief of pain and redness | ||
Acetic acid (4%), ethanol (70%), ethanol (20%), isopropanol | Increased pain and redness, erythema | |||
Cytotoxicity assays/Venom activity (cytolytic effect) | Tetracycline | Inhibition of the cytotoxic effect | [60] | |
Dermal toxicity test | Tetracycline and lanoline + tetracycline | Decreased the level of hemorrhage | ||
Chrysaora quinquecirrha | Tentacle Solution Assay/Nematocyst discharge | Ethanol (70%), ammonia (20%), bromelain (10%) | High discharge | [37] |
Lidocaine (4%) | Discharge inhibited | |||
Acetic acid (5%) | Mild discharge | |||
Seawater, urea (10%) | No discharge | |||
Nonrandomized controlled trials/Pain, redness and erythema | Seawater, deionizer water, bromelain (10%) | No change in pain intensity | ||
Lidocaine (5%) | Noticeable alleviation of pain | |||
Lidocaine (10%) | Further reduction in pain | |||
Lidocaine (15%) | Maximum reduction in pain | |||
Ammonia (20%), acetic acid (5%), ethanol (70%) | Exacerbation of pain | |||
Tentacle Solution Assay/Nematocyst discharge | Sodium hypochlorite, acetone, vinegar (acetic acid 5%), ammonia, magnesium chloride | High discharge | [39] | |
Papain, baking soda slurry, Stingose® (20% aluminum sulfate in detergent) | Discharge inhibited | |||
Chrysaora fuscescens | Randomized controlled trials/Pain, discomfort, erythema and edema | Safe Sea® (sunscreen with prophylaxis) | Prevention and reduction in pain and erythema | [33] |
Chrysaora chinensis | Tentacle Solution Assay/ Nematocyst discharge | Seawater, sodium bicarbonate, papain, lidocaine | No discharge | [46] |
Acetic acid, isopropylalcohol | High discharge | |||
Randomized controlled trials/Pain, erythema | Papain | Decreased pain and erythema | ||
Sodium bicarbonate | Decreased erythema |
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Jellyfish Cultures
4.2. Compounds
4.3. Screening of Solutions
Test 1: Nematocyst Discharge—Tentacle Solution Assay (TSA)
- 0: no discharge was observed;
- +: low discharge of nematocysts;
- ++: medium discharge of nematocysts;
- +++: high discharge of nematocysts.
- Activator effect solution: nematocysts were activated after incubation with the solution;
- Neutral effect solution: nematocysts were not activated after incubation with the solution.
4.4. Evaluation of Inhibitor Effect
4.4.1. Test 2: Nematocyst Discharge—Tentacle Solution Assay (TSA)
- 0: no discharge was observed;
- +: low discharge of nematocysts;
- ++: medium discharge of nematocysts;
- +++: high discharge of nematocysts.
- Neutral effect: nematocysts were not activated after the first incubation with the solution but did produce discharge with the consecutive chemical stimulation of 5% acetic acid solution;
- Reducer effect: nematocysts were not activated after the first incubation with the solution but isolated nematocyst discharge was observed with the subsequent chemical stimulation of 5% acetic acid solution in some areas;
- Inhibitor effect: nematocysts were not activated after the first incubation with the solution, nor after the consecutive chemical stimulation of 5% acetic acid solution.
4.4.2. Test 3: Venom Load—Tentacle Skin Blood Agarose Assay (TSBAA)
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Daly, M.; Brugler, M.R.; Cartwright, P.; Collins, A.G.; Dawson, M.N.; Fautin, D.G.; France, S.C.; Mcfadden, C.S.; Opresko, D.M.; Rodriguez, E.; et al. The phylum Cnidaria: A review of phylogenetic patterns and diversity 300 years after Linnaeus. In Linnaeus Tercentenary: Progress in Invertebrate Taxonomy; Zhang, Z.-Q.S., Shear, W.A., Eds.; Magnolia Press: Auckland, New Zealand, 2007; pp. 127–182. [Google Scholar]
- Jouiaei, M.; Yanagihara, A.; Madio, B.; Nevalainen, T.; Alewood, P.; Fry, B. Ancient venom systems: A review on cnidaria toxins. Toxins 2015, 7, 2251–2271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mariscal, R. Nematocysts. In Coelenterate Biology: Reviews and New Perspectives; Muscatine, L., Lenhoff, H.M., Eds.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1974; pp. 129–166. [Google Scholar]
- Watson, G.M.; Wood, R.L. Colloquium on Terminology. In The Biology of Nematocysts; Hessinger, D.A., Lenhoff, H.M., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 1988; pp. 21–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Özbek, S.; Balasubramanian, P.G.; Holstein, T.W. Cnidocyst structure and the biomechanics of discharge. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1038–1045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Östman, C.; Hydman, J. Nematocyst analysis of Cyanea capillata and Cyanea lamarckii (Scyphozoa, Cnidaria). Sci. Mar. 1996, 61, 313–344. [Google Scholar]
- Fautin, D.A. Structural diversity, systematics, and evolution of cnidae. Toxicon 2009, 54, 1054–1064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Weill, R. Contribution à l’étude Des Cnidaires et de Leurs Nématocystes I, II. In Travaux de la Station Zoologique de Wimereux, 10 and 11; Laboratoire D’évolution Des Êtres Organisés: Paris, France, 1934; pp. 1–701. [Google Scholar]
- Remigante, A.; Costa, R.; Morabito, R.; La Spada, G.; Marino, A.; Dossena, S. Impact of scyphozoan venoms on human health and current first aid options for stings. Toxins 2018, 10, 133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De Donno, A.; Idolo, A.; Bagordo, F.; Grassi, T.; Leomanni, A.; Serio, F.; Guido, M.; Canitano, M.; Zampardi, S.; Boero, F.; et al. Impact of stinging jellyfish proliferations along South Italian coasts: Human health hazards, treatment and social costs. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 2488–2503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Boulware, D.R. A randomized, controlled field trial for the prevention of jellyfish stings with a topical sting inhibitor. J. Travel Med. 2006, 13, 166–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Currie, B.J.; Jacups, S.P. Prospective study of Chironex fleckeri and other box jellyfish stings in the “top end” of Australia’s Northern territory. M. J. Aust. 2005, 183, 631–636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cunha, S.A.; Dinis-Oliveira, R.J. Raising awareness on the clinical and forensic aspects of jellyfish stings: A worldwide increasing threat. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 8430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Montgomery, L.; Seys, J.; Mees, J. To Pee, or Not to Pee: A Review on envenomation and treatment in European jellyfish species. Mar. Drugs 2016, 14, 127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Marambio, M.; Canepa, A.; Lòpez, L.; Gauci, A.A.; Gueroun, S.K.M.; Zampardi, S.; Boero, F.; Yahia, O.K.-D.; Yahia, M.N.D.; Fuentes, V.; et al. Unfolding jellyfish bloom dynamics along the Mediterranean basin by transnational citizen science initiatives. Diversity 2021, 13, 274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marambio, M.; Ballesteros, A.; López-Castillo, L.; Fuentes, V.; Gili, J.M. Guía de Identificación de Medusas y Otros Organismos Gelatinosos. Available online: https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/245294 (accessed on 3 May 2022).
- Friedel, N.; Scolnik, D.; Adir, D.; Glatstein, M. Severe anaphylactic reaction to Mediterranean jellyfish (Ropilhema nomadica) envenomation: Case Report. Toxicol. Rep. 2016, 3, 427–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Donno, A.; Idolo, A.; Bagordo, F. Epidemiology of jellyfish stings reported to summer health centres in the Salento peninsula (Italy). Contact Derm. 2009, 60, 330–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mariottini, G.L.; Pane, L. Mediterranean jellyfish venoms: A review on scyphomedusae. Mar. Drugs 2010, 8, 1122–1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rusell, F.S., II. Pelagic Svyphozoa with a Supplement to the First Volume on Hydromedusae. In The Medusae of the British Isles; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1970; p. 284. [Google Scholar]
- Mariottini, G.L.; Elisabetta, G.; Luigi, P. The mauve stinger Pelagia noctiluca (Forsskål, 1775). Distribution, ecology, toxicity and epidemiology of stings. A review. Mar. Drugs 2008, 6, 496–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canepa, A.; Fuentes, V.; Sabatés, A.; Piraino, S.; Boero, F.; Gili, J.-M. Pelagia noctiluca in the Mediterranean Sea. In Jellyfish Blooms; Pitt, K., Lucas, C., Eds.; Sprinter: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2014; pp. 237–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hall, A.; Mathieu, L.; Blomet, J. Pelagia noctiluca jellyfish: Can lesions and symptoms be prevented or ameliorated? J. Mar. Biol. Aquac. 2018, 4, 53–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mghili, B.; Analla, M.; Aksissou, M. Epidemiology of the cnidarian Pelagia noctiluca stings on moroccan Mediterranean beaches. Trop. Doct. 2020, 50, 322–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ballesteros, A.; Östman, C.; Santín, A.; Marambio, M.; Narda, M.; Gili, J.-M. Cnidome and morphological features of Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) throughout the different life cycle stages. Front. Mar. Sci. 2021, 8, 1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Del Pozo, L.J.; Knöpfel, N.; Martín-Santiago, A.; Escudero-Góngora, M.M.; Saus, C.; Izquierdo-Herce, N.; Bauzà-Alonso, A. Dermoscopic findings of jellyfish stings caused by Pelagia noctiluca. Actas Dermo-Sifiliogr 2016, 107, 509–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pang, K.A.; Schwartz, M.S. Guillain-Barré syndrome following jellyfish stings (Pelagia noctiluca). J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 1993, 56, 1133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ballesteros, A.; Marambio, M.; Fuentes, V.; Narda, M.; Santín, A.; Gili, J.M. Differing effects of vinegar on Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) and Carybdea marsupialis (Cnidaria: Cubozoa) stings—Implications for first aid protocols. Toxins 2021, 13, 509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ballesteros, A.; Salazar, J.; Marambio, M.; Tena, J.; García-March, J.R.; López, D.; Tellez, C.; Trullas, C.; Jourdan, E.; Granger, C.; et al. Trial assay for safe first-aid protocol for the stinging sea anemone Anemonia viridis (Cnidaria: Anthozoa) and a severe toxic reaction. Toxins 2022, 14, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yanagihara, A.; Wilcox, C.; King, R.; Hurwitz, K.; Castelfranco, A. Experimental assays to assess the efficacy of vinegar and other topical first-Aid approaches on cubozoan (Alatina alata) tentacle firing and venom toxicity. Toxins 2016, 8, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Killi, N.; Mariottini, G.L. Cnidarian jellyfish: Ecological aspects, nematocyst isolation, and treatment methods of sting. In Marine Organisms as Model Systems in Biology and Medicine; Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation; Kloc, M., Kubiak, J., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 477–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tønseth, K.A.; Andersen, T.S.; Pripp, A.H.; Karlsen, E.H. Prophylactic Treatment of jellyfish stings—A randomised trial. Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen 2012, 132, 1446–1449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kimball, A.B.; Arambula, K.Z.; Stauffer, A.R.; Levy, V.; Davis, V.W.; Liu, M.; Rehmus, W.E.; Lotan, A.; Auerbach, P.S. Efficacy of a jellyfish sting inhibitor in preventing jellyfish stings in normal volunteers. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2004, 15, 102–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morabito, R.; Cornara, L.; la Spada, G.; Marino, A.; Mariottini, G.L.; Remigante, A.; Burlando, B. Inhibitory effect of plant extracts on the cytotoxicity of eurytele nematocysts from Pelagia noctiluca. J. Biol. Res. 2020, 93, 96–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kingsford, M.J.; Becken, S.; Bordehore, C.; Fuentes, V.L.; Pitt, K.A.; Yangihara, A.A. Empowering stakeholders to manage stinging jellyfish: A perspective. Coast. Manag. 2018, 46, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pyo, M.J.; Lee, H.; Bae, S.K.; Heo, Y.; Choudhary, I.; Yoon, W.D.; Kang, C.; Kim, E. modulation of jellyfish nematocyst discharges and management of human skin stings in Nemopilema nomurai and Carybdea mora. Toxicon 2016, 109, 26–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birsa, L.M.; Verity, P.G.; Lee, R.F. Evaluation of the effects of various chemicals on discharge of and pain caused by jellyfish nematocysts. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2010, 151, 426–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fenner, P.; Fitzpatrick, P. Experiments with the nematocysts of Cyanea capillata. Med. J. Aust. 1986, 145, 3–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burnett, J.W.; Rubinstein, H.; Calton, G.J. First aid for jellyfish envenomation. South. Med. J. 1983, 76, 870–872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morabito, R.; Marino, A.; Dossena, S.; La Spada, G. Nematocyst discharge in Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) oral arms can be affected by lidocaine, ethanol, ammonia and acetic acid. Toxicon 2014, 83, 52–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Las Distintas Picaduras y Cómo Aliviarlas—Afterbite. Available online: https://www.afterbite.es/consejo/consejo-2/ (accessed on 9 June 2022).
- Wilcox, C.; Headlam, J.; Doyle, T.; Yanagihara, A. Assessing the efficacy of first-aid measures in Physalia sp. envenomation, using solution- and blood agarose-based models. Toxins 2017, 9, 149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doyle, T.; Headlam, J.; Wilcox, C.; MacLoughlin, E.; Yanagihara, A. Evaluation of Cyanea capillata sting management protocols using ex vivo and in vitro envenomation models. Toxins 2017, 9, 215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Colin, S.P.; Costello, J.H. Functional characteristics of nematocysts found on the scyphomedusa Cyanea capillata. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 2007, 351, 114–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salleo, A.; la Spada, G.; Felzea, G.; Denaro, M.G. Discharging effect of anions and inhibitory effect of divalent cations on isolated nematocysts of Pelagia noctiluca. Mol. Physiol. 1984, 5, 25–33. [Google Scholar]
- De Clerck, M.P.; Bailey, Y.; Craig, D.; Lin, M.; Auerbach, L.J.; Linney, O.; Morrison, D.E.; Patry, W.; Auerbach, P.S. Efficacy of topical treatments for Chrysaora chinensis species: A human model in comparison with an in vitro model. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2016, 27, 25–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruiz-Frau, A. Impacts of jellyfish presence on tourists’ holiday destination choices and their willingness to pay for mitigation measures. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Govern Illes Balears. Available online: https://www.caib.es/sites/112/es/con_las_medusas_seguros-11487/ (accessed on 13 May 2022).
- Marambio, M.; López-Castillo, L.; Fuentes, V.; Gili, J.-M. Guía de Identificación y Tratamiento de Picaduras de Medusas y Otros Organismos Gelatinosos de la Costa Mediterránea Española. Available online: https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/170777 (accessed on 29 June 2022).
- Salleo, A.; la Spada, G.; Felzea, G.; Denaro, M. Discharging effectiveness of lyotropic anions on nematocysts of Pelagia noctiluca. Mol. Physiol. 1984, 6, 19–25. [Google Scholar]
- Salleo, A.; La Spada, G.; Barbera, R. Gadolinium is a powerful blocker of the nematocytes of Pelagia noctiluca. J. Exp. Biol. 1994, 187, 201–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nogué, S.; Gili, J.M. Toxicidad Por Picadura de Medusas. Jano 2006, 1816, 45–46. [Google Scholar]
- Lakkis, N.A.; Maalouf, G.J.; Mahmassani, D.M. Jellyfish stings: A practical approach. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2015, 26, 422–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marino, A.; Crupi, R.; Musci, G.; la Spada, G. morphological integrity and toxicological properties of Pelagia noctiluca (Scyphozoa) nematocysts. Chemand. Ecol. 2006, 22, S127–S131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cosmetic Ingredient. Available online: https://www.thgeyer-ingredients.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Ingredients/de/Formulare/Symrise_CI_sales_program_2020_102020.pdf (accessed on 3 May 2022).
- Sting No More. Available online: http://stingnomore.com/ (accessed on 3 May 2022).
- Mickle, A.D.; Shepherd, A.J.; Mohapatra, D.P. Nociceptive TRP channels: Sensory detectors and transducers in multiple pain pathologies. Pharmaceuticals 2016, 9, 72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sulzberger, M.; Worthmann, A.-C.; Holtzmann, U.; Buck, B.; Jung, K.A.; Schoelermann, A.M.; Rippke, F.; Stäb, F.; Wenck, H.; Neufang, G.; et al. Effective treatment for sensitive skin: 4-t-butylcyclohexanol and licochalcone A. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2016, 30, 9–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Srour, J.; Bengel, J.; Linden, T.; Jovanovic, Z.; Roggenkamp, D.; Reinholz, M.; Rothenberger, C.; Neufang, G.; Wollenberg, A. efficacy of a skin care cream with TRPV1 Inhibitor 4-t-Butylcyclohexanol in the topical therapy of perioral dermatitis. J. Cosmet. Dermatol. 2020, 19, 1409–1414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, C.; Jin, Y.B.; Kwak, J.; Jung, H.; Yoon, W.D.; Yoon, T.J.; Kim, J.S.; Kim, E. Protective effect of tetracycline against dermal toxicity induced by jellyfish venom. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e57658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ballesteros, A.; Páez, D.; Santín, A.; García, A.; Martín, Y.; Alonso, E.; Jourdan, E.; Gili, J.-M. Successful culture of Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) over time: A continuous supply of the holoplanktonic jellyfish for research and industrial applications. Front. Mar. Sci. 2022, 9, 745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schindelin, J.; Arganda-Carreras, I.; Frise, E.; Kaynig, V.; Longair, M.; Pietzsch, T.; Preibisch, S.; Rueden, C.; Saalfeld, S.; Schmid, B.; et al. Fiji: An open-source platform for biological-image analysis. Nat. Methods 2012, 9, 676–682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. 2017. Available online: https://www.R-project.org/ (accessed on 1 June 2022).
- Wickham, H. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2016; ISBN 978-3-319-24277-4. Available online: https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org/ (accessed on 1 June 2022).
Compounds | Test 1: Incubation | ||
---|---|---|---|
n | Discharge 1 | Effect 2 | |
Seawater (control) | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Ammonia in distilled water | 8 | +++ | Activator |
10% Barium chloride in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Activator |
Bleach | 3 | +++ | Activator |
Lemon juice | 3 | +++ | Activator |
Scented ammonia | 3 | +++ | Activator |
10% Sodium bicarbonate in seawater | 3 | ++ | Activator |
10% Sodium bicarbonate in distilled water | 3 | ++ | Activator |
10% Sodium chloride in distilled water | 3 | ++ | Activator |
10% Papain in distilled water | 3 | ++ | Activator |
5% Acetic acid in distilled water | 3 | ++ | Activator |
Carbonated cola | 3 | ++ | Activator |
Vinegar | 3 | ++ | Activator |
10% Bromelain in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Choline chloride in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Copper gluconate in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Gadolinium (III) chloride hexahydrate in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Iodine in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Iodine in seawater | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Lanthanum (III) chloride hexahydrate in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Magnesium chloride hexahydrate in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Magnesium sulfate in distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
Distilled water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
Fresh water | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
Physiological saline | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
Urine | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
10% Lidocaine in ethanol | 3 | 0 | Neutral |
Butylene glycol | 6 | 0 | Neutral |
Butylene glycol + distilled water (1:1) | 7 | 0 | Neutral |
1.5% Hydroxyacetophenone in distilled water + butylene glycol (1:1) | 6 | 0 | Neutral |
3% Symsitive® in butylene glycol | 8 | 0 | Neutral |
Compounds | Test 2: Discharge | ||
---|---|---|---|
n | Discharge 1 | Effect 2 | |
Seawater (control) | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Bromelain in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Choline chloride in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Copper gluconate in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Gadolinium (III) chloride hexahydrate in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Iodine in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Iodine in seawater | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Lanthanum (III) chloride hexahydrate in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Magnesium chloride in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
10% Magnesium sulfate in distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
Distilled water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
Fresh water | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
Physiological saline | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
Urine | 3 | +++ | Neutral |
Butylene glycol + distilled water (1:1) | 6 | +++ | Neutral |
Butylene glycol | 6 | + | Reducer |
1.5% Hydroxyacetophenone in distilled water + butylene glycol (1:1) | 6 | 0 | Inhibitor |
3% Symsitive® in butylene glycol | 8 | 0 | Inhibitor |
10% Lidocaine in ethanol | 3 | 0 | Inhibitor |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ballesteros, A.; Trullas, C.; Jourdan, E.; Gili, J.-M. Inhibition of Nematocyst Discharge from Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa)—Prevention Measures against Jellyfish Stings. Mar. Drugs 2022, 20, 571. https://doi.org/10.3390/md20090571
Ballesteros A, Trullas C, Jourdan E, Gili J-M. Inhibition of Nematocyst Discharge from Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa)—Prevention Measures against Jellyfish Stings. Marine Drugs. 2022; 20(9):571. https://doi.org/10.3390/md20090571
Chicago/Turabian StyleBallesteros, Ainara, Carles Trullas, Eric Jourdan, and Josep-Maria Gili. 2022. "Inhibition of Nematocyst Discharge from Pelagia noctiluca (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa)—Prevention Measures against Jellyfish Stings" Marine Drugs 20, no. 9: 571. https://doi.org/10.3390/md20090571