Vascular Calcification—New Insights into Its Mechanism
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Classification of Vascular Calcification, Depending on Site and Etiology
2.1. Valvular Calcification
2.2. Calciphylaxsis
3. Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Phenotypic Differentiation in High-Phosphate Environments
4. Main Factors Causing Vascular Calcification
4.1. Extracellular Vesicles
4.2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress
4.3. Autophagy Inhibition
4.4. Apoptosis
4.5. Osteoporosis
4.6. Lipoprotein(a)
4.7. Osteogenic Markers in VC and Osteoporosis
4.7.1. Inducers of VC
Cathepsin K
Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF23)-Klotho
Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP)2
Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)
Runx2
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase (PDK)4
4.7.2. Inhibitor of VC
Osteoprotegerin (OPG)
Osteopontin (OPN)
Matrix Gla Protein (MGP)
Fetuin-A (Fet-A)
Pyrophosphate (PPi)
BMP7
5. Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Defective Mitophagy, in Vascular Calcification
6. Inflammation and Immune Dysregulation in the Pathogenesis of Vascular Calcification
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
5NT | 5′-ectonucleotidase |
ALP | alkaline phosphatase |
AMPK | AMP-activated protein kinase |
BMD | bone mineral density |
BMP | bone morphogenic protein |
BNIP3 | BCL2-Interacting protein 3 |
CKD CPP | chronic kidney disease calciprotein particle |
CVD | cardiovascular disease |
Drp1 | dynamin related protein 1 |
ECM EMT | extracellular matrix epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition |
ENPP1 | ecto-nucleotid pyrophosphatases/phosphodiesterase 1 |
ENT1 | nucleotide transporter 1 |
ER | endoplasmic reticulum |
Fet-A | fetuin-A |
FGF23 | fibroblast growth factor 23 |
HIF-1α | hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha |
Mfn | mitofusin |
MGP | matrix gla protein |
MSX2 | Msh Homeobox 2 |
mPTP | mitochondrial permeability transition pore |
mTOR | mammalian target of rapamycin |
NF-κB | nuclear factor-kappa B |
Nrf2 | nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 |
OC | osteocalcin |
O-GlcNAcylation | O-linked N-acetylglucosamine |
Opa1 | optic dominant atrophy 1 |
OPG | osteoprotegerin |
OPN | osteopontin |
PDC | pyruvate dehydrogenase complex |
PDK | pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase |
PTH | parathyroid hormone |
PDGF | platelet-derived growth factor |
Pi | inorganic phosphate |
PPi | pyrophosphate |
PDK | pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase |
RANK | receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B |
RANKL | RANK ligand |
Runx2 | runt-related transcription factor 2 |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
SGK1 | serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 |
SMA | α-smooth-muscle actin |
SMCs | smooth muscle cells |
SMPD3 | sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 3 |
TNAP | tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase |
TNF-α | tumor necrosis factor alpha |
TRPC3 | transient receptor potential canonical 3 |
VC | vascular calcification |
VSMC | vascular smooth muscle cell |
UPR | unfolded protein response |
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Lee, S.J.; Lee, I.-K.; Jeon, J.-H. Vascular Calcification—New Insights into Its Mechanism. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 2685. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082685
Lee SJ, Lee I-K, Jeon J-H. Vascular Calcification—New Insights into Its Mechanism. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(8):2685. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082685
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Sun Joo, In-Kyu Lee, and Jae-Han Jeon. 2020. "Vascular Calcification—New Insights into Its Mechanism" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 8: 2685. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082685