Volatile Organic Compounds in Finnish Office Environments in 2010–2019 and Their Relevance to Adverse Health Effects
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of Data
2.2. Sampling and Analysing VOCs
2.3. Sampling and Analysing Formaldehyde
2.4. Statistical Methods
2.5. Health Risk Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Statistics of Entire Ten-Year Data
3.2. Differences between Indoor Environments
3.3. Trends
4. Discussion
4.1. Indoor Air Concentrations of VOCs and Formaldehyde Are Generally Low and Pose No Health Risks
4.2. Differences between VOC Patterns in Different Types of Indoor Environments Have No Practical Relevance
4.3. Interpretation of VOC Trends Involves Uncertainties
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Office | School | Kindergarten | Healthcare Office |
---|---|---|---|---|
2010 | 384 | 253 | 52 | 119 |
2011 | 416 | 310 | 68 | 182 |
2012 | 333 | 298 | 67 | 295 |
2013 | 385 | 309 | 69 | 190 |
2014 | 447 | 344 | 102 | 105 |
2015 | 313 | 163 | 42 | 99 |
2016 | 324 | 489 | 81 | 195 |
2017 | 379 | 548 | 87 | 139 |
2018 | 446 | 449 | 90 | 144 |
2019 | 445 | 420 | 69 | 139 |
Year | Office | School | Kindergarten | Healthcare Office |
---|---|---|---|---|
2010 | 19 | 14 | 5 | 6 |
2011 | 47 | 37 | 7 | 14 |
2012 | 72 | 37 | 5 | 26 |
2013 | 35 | 42 | 5 | 28 |
2014 | 58 | 95 | 6 | 7 |
2015 | 73 | 79 | 9 | 19 |
2016 | 38 | 182 | 10 | 10 |
2017 | 57 | 131 | 10 | 25 |
2018 | 77 | 208 | 5 | 39 |
2019 | 45 | 113 | 6 | 10 |
Group | Analyte | CAS | All Samples n = 9789 (From Offices, 3872; Schools, 3583; Kindergartens, 727; and Healthcare Offices, 1607 Samples) | Health-Based Reference Values | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency in Samples 2010–2019 (>LOQ) | Md (µg/m3) | P90 (µg/m3) | P95 (µg/m3) | P99 (µg/m3) | Max (µg/m3) | RW I/II (µg/m3) | EU-LCI (µg/m3) | |||
Alkanes LOQ = 0.3–0.5 µg/m3 | Heptane | 142-82-5 | 15% | <LOQ | 0.5 | 0.9 | 3.0 | 110 | – | 15,000 |
Nonane | 111-84-2 | 13% | <LOQ | 0.4 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 35 | – | – | |
Octane | 111-65-9 | 13% | <LOQ | 0.4 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 12 | – | – | |
2,2,4,6,6-Pentamethylheptane | 13475-82-6 | 11% | <LOQ | 0.4 | 1.0 | 6.0 | 260 | – | – | |
Aromatic hydrocarbons LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Benzene | 71-43-2 | 65% | 0.5 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 31 | – 1 | – |
Ethylbenzene | 100-41-4 | 23% | <LOQ | 0.7 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 380 | 200/2000 1 | 850 | |
1,2,4-Trimethyl-benzene | 95-63-6 | 15% | <LOQ | 0.5 | 0.8 | 2.0 | 62 | 400/4000 | 450 | |
Xylenes (p, m) | 108-38-3, 106-42-3 | 60% | 0.5 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 12 | 1110 | 100/800 2 | 500 1 | |
Xylene (o) | 95-47-6 | 27% | <LOQ | 0.8 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 370 | 100/800 2 | 500 3 | |
Toluene | 108-88-3 | 81% | 0.7 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 17 | 620 | 300/3000 2 | 2900 | |
Terpenes LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | 3-Carene | 498-15-7 | 32% | <LOQ | 2.0 | 3.0 | 10 | 620 | 200/2000 | 1500 |
Limonene | 138-86-3, 5989-27-5, 5989-54-8 | 25% | <LOQ | 1.0 | 3.0 | 14 | 1020 | 1000/10,000 | 5000 | |
α-Pinene | 80-56-8 | 64% | 0.7 | 4.0 | 8.0 | 24 | 250 | 200/2000 | 2500 | |
β-Pinene | 127-91-3 | 10% | <LOQ | <LOQ | 0.7 | 2.0 | 16 | 200/2000 | 1400 | |
Alcohols LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 except for 1,2-propanediol 0.8–1 µg/m3 | Benzyl alcohol | 100-51-6 | 19% | <LOQ | 0.9 | 2.0 | 13 | 170 | 400/4000 | 440 |
1-Butanol | 71-36-3 | 73% | 0.7 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 13 | 790 | 700/2000 | 3000 | |
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol | 104-76-7 | 64% | 0.6 | 3.0 | 7.0 | 21 | 230 | 100/1000 1 | 300 | |
2-Methyl-1-propanol | 78-83-1 | 21% | <LOQ | 0.8 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 180 | – | 11,000 | |
1,2-Propanediol | 57-55-6 | 56% | 0.8 | 7.0 | 13 | 45 | 720 | 60/600 | 2100 | |
Phenols LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Phenol | 108-95-2 | 20% | <LOQ | 0.8 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 40 | 20/200 | 70 |
Alcohol and phenol ethers LOQ = 0.5–1 µg/m3 | 2-(2-Butoxy ethoxy)ethanol | 112-34-5 | 17% | <LOQ | 2.0 | 3.0 | 11 | 97 | 400/2000 4 | 350 |
2-Butoxyethanol | 111-76-2 | 19% | <LOQ | 0.8 | 2.0 | 8.0 | 140 | 100/1000 | 1600 | |
2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy) ethanol | 111-90-0 | 21% | <LOQ | 2.0 | 4.0 | 25 | 730 | 700/2000 4 | 350 | |
2-Phenoxyethanol | 122-99-6 | 22% | <LOQ | 0.9 | 2.0 | 5.0 | 110 | 30/100 | 60 | |
1-Methoxy-2-propanol | 107-98-2 | 14% | <LOQ | 0.7 | 1.0 | 6.0 | 370 | 1000/10,000 | 7900 | |
Aldehydes LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Benzaldehyde | 100-52-7 | 78% | 1.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 76 | 20/200 4 | – |
Decanal | 112-31-2 | 62% | 0.7 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 19 | 100/2000 | 900 | |
Hexanal | 66-25-1 | 56% | 0.6 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 14 | 310 | 100/2000 | 900 | |
Heptanal | 111-71-7 | 17% | <LOQ | 0.6 | 0.9 | 2.0 | 20 | 100/2000 | 900 | |
Nonanal | 124-19-6 | 80% | 1.0 | 4.0 | 6.0 | 11 | 75 | 100/2000 | 900 | |
Octanal | 124-13-0 | 38% | <LOQ | 1.0 | 1.0 | 3.0 | 36 | 100/2000 | 900 | |
Pentanal | 110-62-3 | 32% | <LOQ | 1.0 | 2.0 | 4.0 | 96 | 100/2000 | 800 | |
Ketones LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Acetophenone | 98-86-2 | 23% | <LOQ | 0.7 | 0.9 | 2.0 | 25 | – | 490 |
Acids LOQ = 0.5–1 µg/m3 | Hexanoic acid | 142-62-1 | 39% | <LOQ | 5.0 | 7.0 | 14 | 330 | – | 2100 |
Pentanoic acid | 109-52-4 | 12% | <LOQ | 0.6 | 2.0 | 4.0 | 98 | – | 2100 | |
Propinoic acid | 79-09-4 | 19% | <LOQ | 2.0 | 3.0 | 8.0 | 110 | – | 1500 | |
Esters LOQ = 0.3–0.5 µg/m3 | n-Butyl acetate | 123-86-4 | 14% | <LOQ | 0.6 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 150 | – | 4800 |
2-(2-Butoxy ethoxy)ethyl acetate | 124-17-4 | 10% | <LOQ | 0.3 | 1.0 | 6.0 | 72 | – | 850 | |
Ethyl acetate | 141-78-6 | 14% | <LOQ | 0.7 | 2.0 | 8.0 | 450 | 600/6000 | – | |
Texanol | 25265-77-4 | 23% | <LOQ | 1.0 | 3.0 | 15 | 320 | – | 850 | |
TXIB | 6846-50-0 | 23% | <LOQ | 2.0 | 3.0 | 10 | 100 | – | 1300 | |
Si-compounds LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Decamethylcyclo-pentasiloxane | 541-02-6 | 72% | 1.0 | 6.0 | 11 | 33 | 680 | 100/1000 | pending |
TVOC | 100% | 30 | 90 | 137 | 290 | 4700 | – | – |
Analyte | CAS | All Samples n = 1711 (From Offices, 521; Schools, 938; Kindergartens, 68; and Healthcare Offices, 184 Samples) | Health-Based Reference Values | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency in Samples 2010–2019 (>LOQ) | Md (µg/m3) | P90 (µg/m3) | P95 (µg/m3) | P99 (µg/m3) | Max (µg/m3) | RW I/II (µg/m3) | EU-LCI (µg/m3) | ||
Formaldehyde LOQ = 1 µg/m3 | 50-00-0 | 94% | 3.8 | 12 | 18 | 46 | 88 | 100/- | 100 |
All Samples n = 9789 (From Offices, 3872; Schools, 3583; Kindergartens, 727; and Healthcare Offices, 1607 Samples) | Health-Based Reference Values | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Analyte | CAS | Frequency in Samples 2010–2019 (>LOQ) | P99 (µg/m3) | Max (µg/m3) | RW I/II (µg/m3) | EU-LCI (µg/m3) |
Carbon tetrachloride | 56-23-5 | 1.0% | <LOQ | 12 | – | pending |
Chloroform | 67-66-3 | 0.4% | <LOQ | 9 | – | – |
1,4-Dichlorobenzene | 106-46-7 | 0.03% | <LOQ | 0.7 | – | 150 |
Trichloroethene | 79-01-6 | 0.4% | <LOQ | 10 | – 5 | – |
Tetrachloroethene | 127-18-4 | 1.1% | 0.4 | 170 | 100/1000 | 80 |
Styrene | 100-42-5 | 5.7% | 1.0 | 18 | 30/300 | 250 |
Group | Analyte | CAS | Office n = 3872 | School n = 3583 | Kindergarten n = 727 | Healthcare Office n = 1607 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alkanes LOQ = 0.3–0.5 µg/m3 | Heptane | 142-82-5 | Frequency | 18% | 13% * | 11% * | 12% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 0.8 * | 0.7 * | 0.9 * | |||
Nonane | 111-84-2 | Frequency | 17% | 11% * | 6% * | 11% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 0.8 | 0.6 * | 0.5 * | 0.6 * | |||
Octane | 111-65-9 | Frequency | 17% | 10% * | 12% * | 10% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 0.7 | 0.5 * | 0.6 * | 0.5 * | |||
2,2,4,6,6-Pentamethylheptane | 13475-82-6 | Frequency | 10% | 10% | 10% | 16% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 * | |||
Aromatic hydrocarbons LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Benzene | 71-43-2 | Frequency | 68% | 63% * | 67% | 59% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.6 * | |||
Ethylbenzene | 100-41-4 | Frequency | 28% | 22% * | 18% * | 18% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.8 * | 1.0 | |||
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene | 95-63-6 | Frequency | 18% | 14% * | 9% * | 12% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.6 * | 0.9 * | |||
Xylenes (p, m) | 108-38-3, 106-42-3 | Frequency | 69% | 55% * | 47% * | 55% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 4.0 * | 2.0 * | 3.0 | |||
Xylene (o) | 95-47-6 | Frequency | 32% | 25% * | 18% * | 22% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 2.0 * | 0.9 * | 1.0 | |||
Toluene | 108-88-3 | Frequency | 87% | 77% * | 79% * | 79% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 5.0 | 4.0 * | 5.0 | 4.0 * | |||
Terpenes LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | 3-Carene | 498-15-7 | Frequency | 31% | 33% | 42% * | 28% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 4.0 * | 3.0 | 2.0 * | |||
Limonene | 138-86-3, 5989-27-5, 5989-54-8 | Frequency | 33% | 19% * | 24% * | 20% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.4 | 2.0 * | 3.0 * | 2.0 * | |||
α-Pinene | 80-56-8 | Frequency | 65% | 62% * | 76% * | 60% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 8.0 | 9.0 * | 7.0 * | 6.0 * | |||
β-Pinene | 127-91-3 | Frequency | 10% | 10% | 10% | 8% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 * | 0.5 * | |||
Alcohols LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 except for 1,2-propanediol 0.8–1 µg/m3 | Benzyl alcohol | 100-51-6 | Frequency | 19% | 20% | 18% | 15% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 3.0 * | 1.0 * | 1.0 * | |||
1-Butanol | 71-36-3 | Frequency | 77% | 71% * | 75% | 68% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 5.0 * | 5.6 * | 5.0 * | |||
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol | 104-76-7 | Frequency | 65% | 62% * | 67% | 68% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 7.0 | 6.0 * | 6.0 * | 8.0 * | |||
2-Methyl-1-propanol | 78-83-1 | Frequency | 24% | 20% * | 20% * | 18% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 * | 1.0 | |||
1,2-Propanediol | 57-55-6 | Frequency | 60% | 51% * | 63% | 53% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 13 | 12 * | 14 * | 13 | |||
Phenols LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Phenol | 108-95-2 | Frequency | 22% | 18% * | 17% * | 21% |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | |||
Alcohol and phenol ethers LOQ = 0.5–1 µg/m3 | 2-(2-Butoxy ethoxy)ethanol | 112-34-5 | Frequency | 18% | 18% | 16% | 14% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 4.0 * | 3.0 | 3.0 | |||
2-Butoxyethanol | 111-76-2 | Frequency | 20% | 19% | 19% | 12% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 * | |||
2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)ethanol | 111-90-0 | Frequency | 21% | 24% * | 23% | 10% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 7.0 * | 5.0 * | 1.0 * | |||
2-Phenoxyethanol | 122-99-6 | Frequency | 22% | 21% | 24% | 21% | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 2.0 * | 2.0 * | 2.0 * | |||
1-Methoxy-2-propanol | 107-98-2 | Frequency | 14% | 17% * | 15% | 9% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 2.0 * | 2.0 * | 1.0 | |||
Aldehydes LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Benzaldehyde | 100-52-7 | Frequency | 80% | 77% * | 78% | 77% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 * | |||
Decanal | 112-31-2 | Frequency | 60% | 61% | 71% * | 66% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 * | 4.0 * | |||
Hexanal | 66-25-1 | Frequency | 54% | 55% | 79% * | 50% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 5.0 | 6.0 * | 8.0 * | 4.0 * | |||
Heptanal | 111-71-7 | Frequency | 16% | 17% | 31% * | 13% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 0.8 | 0.9 * | 1.0 * | 0.7 * | |||
Nonanal | 124-19-6 | Frequency | 77% | 80% * | 93% * | 81% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 5.0 | 6.0 * | 11 * | 5.0 | |||
Octanal | 124-13-0 | Frequency | 39% | 36% * | 49% * | 34% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 * | 1.0 | |||
Pentanal | 110-62-3 | Frequency | 33% | 30% * | 44% * | 25% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 * | 1.0 * | |||
Ketones LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Acetophenone | 98-86-2 | Frequency | 21% | 25% * | 23% | 24% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 0.8 | 0.9 * | 0.8 * | 1.0 * | |||
Acids LOQ = 0.5–1 µg/m3 | Hexanoic acid | 142-62-1 | Frequency | 44% | 38% * | 43% | 31% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 8.0 | 7.0 * | 8.0 | 5.0 * | |||
Pentanoic acid | 109-52-4 | Frequency | 15% | 11% * | 13% | 8% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 1.0 * | 2.0 | 0.8 * | |||
Propinoic acid | 79-09-4 | Frequency | 23% | 18% * | 20% | 12% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 3.0 * | 4.0 | 2.0 * | |||
Esters LOQ = 0.3–0.5 µg/m3 | n-Butyl acetate | 123-86-4 | Frequency | 15% | 13% * | 20% * | 11% * |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 * | 0.9 * | |||
2-(2-Butoxy ethoxy)ethyl acetate | 124-17-4 | Frequency | 12% | 9% * | 11% | 8% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.8 * | |||
Ethyl acetate | 141-78-6 | Frequency | 16% | 13% * | 14% | 14% | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 1.0 * | 2.0 | 2.0 | |||
Texanol | 25265-77-4 | Frequency | 22% | 26% * | 24% | 17% * | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 5.0 * | 3.0 | 2.0 * | |||
TXIB | 6846-50-0 | Frequency | 21% | 20% | 57% * | 19% | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 2.0 * | 6.0 * | 3.0 | |||
Si-compounds LOQ = 0.5 µg/m3 | Decamethylcyclo-pentasiloxane | 541-02-6 | Frequency | 76% | 65% * | 70% * | 76% |
P95 (µg/m3) | 13 | 9.0 * | 12 * | 12 * | |||
TVOC | Frequency | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | ||
Md (µg/m3) | 30 | 20 * | 30 | 23 * | |||
P90 (µg/m3) | 90 | 90 | 100 * | 90 | |||
P95 (µg/m3) | 140 | 130 * | 136 * | 130 * |
Analyte | CAS | Office n = 521 | School n = 938 | Kindergarten n = 68 | Healthcare Office n = 184 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Formaldehyde LOQ = 1 µg/m3 | 50-00-0 | Frequency | 95% | 93% | 96% | 91% |
Md (µg/m3) | 5 | 3 * | 4 | 4 | ||
P90 (µg/m3) | 18 | 10 * | 14 * | 13 * | ||
P95 (µg/m3) | 25 | 14 * | 20 * | 17 * |
Group | Analyte CAS | Trend (freq.) Z | Trend (conc.) Z | Year | 2010 n = 807 | 2011 n = 971 | 2012 n = 975 | 2013 n = 977 | 2014 n = 995 | 2015 n = 620 | 2016 n = 1089 | 2017 n = 1153 | 2018 n = 1129 | 2019 n = 1073 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alkanes | Heptane 142-82-5 | | | Frequency | 20% | 20% | 22% | 16% | 12% | 13% | 12% | 9% | 11% | 13% |
−10 | −10 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.7 | ||
Nonane 111-84-2 | | | Frequency | 24% | 25% | 23% | 20% | 15% | 9% | 5% | 3% | 6% | 5% | |
−23 | −23 | P95 (µg/m3) | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.4 | <LOQ | 0.3 | <LOQ | ||
Octane 111-65-9 | | | Frequency | 24% | 32% | 24% | 15% | 14% | 5% | 4% | 3% | 5% | 4% | |
−26 | −26 | P95 (µg/m3) | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.4 | <LOQ | <LOQ | <LOQ | <LOQ | ||
2,2,4,6,6-Pentamethylhep-tane 13475-82-6 | | | Frequency | 13% | 21% | 20% | 19% | 9% | 12% | 8% | 5% | 6% | 5% | |
−16 | −16 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 4.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.6 | <LOQ | 0.4 | 0.4 | ||
Aromatic hydrocarbons | Benzene 71-43-2 | | | Frequency | 98% | 89% | 73% | 70% | 59% | 52% | 61% | 49% | 56% | 49% |
−32 | −33 | P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | ||
Ethylbenzene 100-41-4 | | | Frequency | 47% | 36% | 22% | 21% | 17% | 24% | 20% | 14% | 20% | 18% | |
−15 | −15 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.6 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 0.9 | 3.0 | 1.0 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 0.8 | ||
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 95-63-6 | | | Frequency | 31% | 23% | 13% | 15% | 9% | 14% | 17% | 9% | 11% | 12% | |
−11 | −11 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | ||
Xylenes (p, m) 106-42-3 108-38-3 | | | Frequency | 84% | 73% | 66% | 54% | 53% | 60% | 58% | 49% | 60% | 52% | |
−15 | −16 | P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 9.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | ||
Xylene (o) 95-47-6 | | | Frequency | 48% | 38% | 25% | 24% | 21% | 26% | 26% | 17% | 26% | 22% | |
−12 | −11 | P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | ||
Toluene 108-88-3 | | | Frequency | 98% | 90% | 89% | 83% | 77% | 76% | 78% | 71% | 82% | 75% | |
−12 | −19 | P95 (µg/m3) | 6.0 | 4.4 | 6.0 | 7.0 | 4.0 | 5.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 | ||
Terpenes | 3-Carene 498-15-7 | | | Frequency | 26% | 24% | 23% | 29% | 26% | 37% | 44% | 39% | 39% | 36% |
+13 | +12 | P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | ||
Limonene 138-86-3, 5989-27-5, 5989-54-8 | - | - | Frequency | 25% | 29% | 25% | 22% | 22% | 26% | 29% | 25% | 29% | 25% | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 5.0 | 6.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | ||||
α-Pinene 80-56-8 | | - | Frequency | 65% | 63% | 57% | 61% | 61% | 65% | 67% | 71% | 68% | 64% | |
+4 | P95 (µg/m3) | 7.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 10 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 9.0 | 6.0 | |||
β-Pinene 127-91-3 | | | Frequency | 7% | 5% | 7% | 11% | 8% | 12% | 14% | 11% | 13% | 12% | |
+8 | +8 | P95 (µg/m3) | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.7 | ||
Alcohols | Benzyl alcohol 100-51-6 | | | Frequency | 17% | 11% | 16% | 19% | 23% | 22% | 24% | 20% | 19% | 19% |
+5 | +4 | P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 4.0 | 2.3 | 1.0 | 2.0 | ||
1-Butanol 71-36-3 | | - | Frequency | 81% | 78% | 71% | 55% | 72% | 73% | 70% | 74% | 80% | 80% | |
+5 | P95 (µg/m3) | 5.0 | 5.0 | 4.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 6.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | |||
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol 104-76-7 | | | Frequency | 80% | 67% | 63% | 60% | 74% | 59% | 64% | 60% | 60% | 59% | |
−9 | −15 | P95 (µg/m3) | 5.0 | 9.0 | 9.0 | 6.0 | 4.0 | 5.0 | 4.0 | 7.0 | 4.0 | 13 | ||
2-Methyl-1-propanol 78-83-1 | | - | Frequency | 26% | 24% | 16% | 12% | 14% | 26% | 29% | 22% | 24% | 24% | |
+4 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.6 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | |||
1,2-Propanediol 57-55-6 | | - | Frequency | 50% | 50% | 55% | 55% | 59% | 64% | 52% | 52% | 57% | 66% | |
+6 | P95 (µg/m3) | 19 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 15 | 12 | 14 | 9.0 | 17 | 9.0 | |||
Phenols | Phenol 108-95-2 | | | Frequency | 18% | 11% | 11% | 10% | 12% | 11% | 34% | 27% | 26% | 30% |
+16 | +15 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 0.9 | 1.0 | ||
Alcohol and phenol ethers | 2-(2-Butoxy ethoxy)ethanol 112-34-5 | - | - | Frequency | 14% | 18% | 17% | 18% | 21% | 20% | 19% | 12% | 17% | 17% |
P95 (µg/m3) | 4.6 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.3 | 3.0 | 1.0 | ||||
2-Butoxyethanol 111-76-2 | | | Frequency | 8% | 12% | 13% | 14% | 16% | 27% | 26% | 29% | 23% | 17% | |
+13 | +12 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 9.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | ||
2-(2-Ethoxy ethoxy)ethanol 111-90-0 | | | Frequency | 16% | 22% | 24% | 27% | 25% | 23% | 20% | 13% | 17% | 17% | |
−5 | −6 | P95 (µg/m3) | 6.0 | 4.4 | 7.0 | 9.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | ||
2-Phenoxyethanol 122-99-6 | - | | Frequency | 13% | 22% | 26% | 29% | 22% | 27% | 25% | 17% | 19% | 18% | |
−5 | P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.9 | |||
1-Metoxy-2-propanol 107-98-2 | - | - | Frequency | 13% | 15% | 13% | 16% | 15% | 16% | 16% | 13% | 15% | 13% | |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.2 | 3.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | ||||
Aldehydes | Benzaldehyde 100-52-7 | | | Frequency | 67% | 58% | 65% | 76% | 77% | 86% | 87% | 87% | 85% | 90% |
+23 | −9 | P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | ||
Decanal 112-31-2 | | - | Frequency | 47% | 48% | 52% | 53% | 60% | 72% | 71% | 64% | 75% | 75% | |
+20 | P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 | |||
Hexanal 66-25-1 | | | Frequency | 49% | 61% | 50% | 54% | 52% | 43% | 55% | 54% | 66% | 68% | |
+8 | +7 | P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 5.0 | 6.2 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 5.0 | ||
Heptanal 111-71-7 | | | Frequency | 12% | 20% | 13% | 14% | 15% | 12% | 10% | 13% | 25% | 31% | |
+9 | +8 | P95 (µg/m3) | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | ||
Nonanal 124-19-6 | | - | Frequency | 60% | 70% | 70% | 73% | 75% | 87% | 90% | 89% | 90% | 88% | |
+23 | P95 (µg/m3) | 5.0 | 6.0 | 7.0 | 5.1 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | |||
Octanal 124-13-0 | | - | Frequency | 23% | 50% | 27% | 28% | 38% | 35% | 37% | 37% | 50% | 45% | |
+10 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | |||
Pentanal 110-62-3 | | | Frequency | 23% | 27% | 18% | 20% | 16% | 39% | 40% | 38% | 49% | 44% | |
+20 | +16 | P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | ||
Ketones | Acetophenone 98-86-2 | | | Frequency | 2% | 8% | 18% | 31% | 28% | 15% | 26% | 25% | 36% | 31% |
+20 | +18 | P95 (µg/m3) | <LOQ | 0.7 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.8 | ||
Acids | Hexanoic acid 142-62-1 | | | Frequency | 21% | 31% | 22% | 23% | 28% | 47% | 51% | 56% | 51% | 55% |
+27 | +19 | P95 (µg/m3) | 7.0 | 8.0 | 7.0 | 9.0 | 11 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 6.3 | 5.0 | 5.0 | ||
Pentanoic acid 109-52-4 | | | Frequency | 8% | 7% | 3% | 11% | 10% | 17% | 17% | 20% | 16% | 14% | |
+12 | +11 | P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 2.0 | <LOQ | 3.0 | 3.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | ||
Propionic acid 79-09-4 | | | Frequency | 10% | 12% | 6% | 12% | 6% | 20% | 21% | 22% | 28% | 46% | |
+24 | +22 | P95 (µg/m3) | 4.0 | 4.0 | 2.0 | 4.0 | 2.2 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | ||
Esters | n-Butyl acetate 123-86-4 | - | - | Frequency | 15% | 15% | 12% | 13% | 16% | 18% | 12% | 12% | 17% | 16% |
P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.9 | ||||
2-(2-Butoxy ethoxy)ethyl acetate 124-17-4 | | | Frequency | 7% | 10% | 12% | 10% | 13% | 12% | 13% | 9% | 6% | 6% | |
−4 | −5 | P95 (µg/m3) | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 2.0 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.5 | ||
Ethyl acetate 141-78-6 | | | Frequency | 12% | 15% | 15% | 9% | 8% | 16% | 13% | 14% | 18% | 23% | |
+6 | +6 | P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | ||
Texanol 25265-77-4 | | | Frequency | 11% | 17% | 19% | 22% | 28% | 28% | 25% | 27% | 31% | 20% | |
+9 | +8 | P95 (µg/m3) | 2.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 3.3 | 8.0 | 2.0 | ||
TXIB 6846-50-0 | | - | Frequency | 16% | 19% | 21% | 24% | 27% | 23% | 31% | 20% | 25% | 22% | |
+4 | P95 (µg/m3) | 3.0 | 4.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | |||
Si-compounds | Decamethylcyclo-pentasiloxane 541-02-6 | | | Frequency | 57% | 69% | 75% | 70% | 70% | 74% | 73% | 73% | 76% | 74% |
+7 | −5 | P95 (µg/m3) | 12 | 12 | 11 | 12 | 16 | 16 | 12 | 10 | 9.0 | 7.0 | ||
TVOC | - | | Frequency | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | |
−20 | Md (µg/m3) | 30 | 40 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 28 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | |||
P90 (µg/m3) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 90 | 100 | 130 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 70 | ||||
P95 (µg/m3) | 150 | 140 | 150 | 150 | 140 | 220 | 125 | 110 | 110 | 100 |
Analyte CAS | Trend (freq.) | Trend (conc.) | Year | 2010 n = 44 | 2011 n = 105 | 2012 n = 140 | 2013 n = 110 | 2014 n = 166 | 2015 n = 180 | 2016 n = 240 | 2017 n = 223 | 2018 n = 329 | 2019 n = 174 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Formaldehyde 50-00-0 | - | −6 | Frequency | 100% | 91% | 96% | 92% | 89% | 93% | 94% | 91% | 95% | 99% |
Md (µg/m3) | 9 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 3 | |||
P90 (µg/m3) | 25 | 26 | 15 | 14 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 12 | 9 | |||
P95 (µg/m3) | 43 | 37 | 19 | 23 | 20 | 15 | 14 | 17 | 16 | 19 |
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Wallenius, K.; Hovi, H.; Remes, J.; Mahiout, S.; Liukkonen, T. Volatile Organic Compounds in Finnish Office Environments in 2010–2019 and Their Relevance to Adverse Health Effects. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 4411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074411
Wallenius K, Hovi H, Remes J, Mahiout S, Liukkonen T. Volatile Organic Compounds in Finnish Office Environments in 2010–2019 and Their Relevance to Adverse Health Effects. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(7):4411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074411
Chicago/Turabian StyleWallenius, Kaisa, Hanna Hovi, Jouko Remes, Selma Mahiout, and Tuula Liukkonen. 2022. "Volatile Organic Compounds in Finnish Office Environments in 2010–2019 and Their Relevance to Adverse Health Effects" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 7: 4411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074411