Psychological Distress of International Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic in China: Multidimensional Effects of External Environment, Individuals’ Behavior, and Their Values
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Data Collection and Quality Control
2.2. Participants
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Dependent Variable
2.3.2. Independent Variable
Explanatory Variables
Control Variables
2.4. Data Analysis Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Regression Results
3.3. Robustness Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Limitations
7. Policy Implications
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Frequency | Percentages | Mean Distress | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | p > 0.05 | |||
male | 177 | 61.25 | 13.70 | |
female | 112 | 38.75 | 14.41 | |
Age group | p > 0.05 | |||
less than 23 years old | 105 | 36.33 | 14.52 | |
23–30 years old | 160 | 55.36 | 13.81 | |
31–36 years old | 21 | 7.27 | 12.90 | |
37 years old and above | 3 | 1.04 | 11.33 | |
Lockdown | p > 0.05 | |||
yes | 274 | 94.81 | 13.91 | |
no | 15 | 5.19 | 15.13 | |
Network smoothness | p < 0.05 | |||
very smooth | 22 | 7.61 | 12.23 | |
smooth | 76 | 26.30 | 12.01 | |
general | 83 | 28.72 | 14.12 | |
occasionally stuck | 48 | 16.61 | 16.71 | |
always stuck | 15 | 5.19 | 17.00 | |
Adaptation to online class | p < 0.05 | |||
fully adapted | 34 | 11.76 | 10.71 | |
more adapted | 71 | 24.57 | 12.49 | |
about average | 88 | 30.45 | 14.41 | |
not quite adapted | 46 | 15.92 | 17.22 | |
not adapted | 5 | 1.73 | 20 | |
Economic pressure | p < 0.05 | |||
no, opposite | 6 | 2.46 | 12.83 | |
not at all | 139 | 56.97 | 12.58 | |
yes, a little bit | 99 | 40.57 | 16.01 | |
Mean | Std Dev | |||
Length | 27.7 | 30.90 | ||
Distress score (sum) | 13.97 | 6.38 | ||
Support from their own country | 1.36 | 0.54 | ||
Support from other countries | 1.19 | 0.60 | ||
Support from Chinese classmates and friends | 1.00 | 0.70 | ||
Support from the university and faculties | 1.31 | 0.58 | ||
Time to start social distancing | 1.84 | 1.02 | ||
Values | 4.70 | 1.42 |
Distress | Length | Support from Their Own | Support from Other Countries | Support from Chinese Classmates and Friends | Support from the University and Faculties | Network Smoothness | Adaptation to Online Classes | Economic Pressure | Values | Time to Start Social Distancing | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Distress | 1 | ||||||||||
Length | 0.0307 | 1 | |||||||||
Support from their own country | −0.0980 | 0.1192 | 1 | ||||||||
Support from other countries | −0.0781 | −0.0150 | 0.3485 *** | 1 | |||||||
Support from Chinese classmates and friends | −0.0328 | 0.0789 | 0.2025 *** | 0.4758 *** | 1 | ||||||
Support from the university and faculties | −0.1615 * | 0.1039 | 0.3339 *** | 0.4405 *** | 0.4021 *** | 1 | |||||
Network smoothness | 0.1061 * | −0.088 | −0.0851 | −0.0541 | −0.0407 | 0.0284 | 1 | ||||
Adaptation to online classes | 0.1309 ** | −0.0924 | −0.0946 | −0.046 | −0.0641 | 0.0284 | 0.8907 ** | 1 | |||
Economic pressure | 0.2461 ** | −0.0948 | −0.0751 | 0.003 | −0.0370 | −0.0995 | 0.1843 ** | 0.1428 ** | 1 | ||
Values | 0.2657 ** | 0.1191 | 0.0164 | 0.0097 | 0.0559 | −0.0901 | −0.1152 | −0.1256 | 0.1533 ** | 1 | |
Time to start social distancing | 0.0829 | 0.0882 | −0.0329 | −0.0401 | 0.0682 | 0.0261 | 0.0384 | 0.0597 | 0.0595 | 0.1502 ** | 1 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex (Male = 0) | 0.610 | 0.730 | 0.509 | 1.198 |
(0.784) | (0.781) | (0.762) | (0.786) | |
Age group (less than 23 = 0) | ||||
23–30 years old | −0.660 | −0.844 | −0.694 | 0.268 |
(0.811) | (0.807) | (0.787) | (0.804) | |
31–36 years old | −1.406 | −1.089 | −0.135 | 0.437 |
(1.556) | (1.548) | (1.526) | (1.549) | |
Above 37 years old | −3.115 | −2.276 | −1.855 | 3.708 |
(3.756) | (3.732) | (3.636) | (5.923) | |
Length of stay in China | 0.005 | 0.009 | 0.003 | 0.005 |
(0.012) | (0.012) | (0.012) | (0.013) | |
Lockdown (No = 0) | 0.833 | 0.976 | 0.762 | −0.900 |
(1.727) | (1.714) | (1.670) | (1.773) | |
Time to start social distancing | 0.476 | 0.469 | 0.278 | 0.407 |
(0.378) | (0.376) | (0.370) | (0.383) | |
Support from their own | −0.661 | −0.761 | −0.497 | |
(0.764) | (0.744) | (0.769) | ||
Support from other countries | −0.037 | −0.156 | −0.284 | |
(0.780) | (0.760) | (0.752) | ||
Support from Chinese classmates and friends | 0.391 | 0.214 | 0.245 | |
(0.637) | (0.621) | (0.655) | ||
Support from the university and faculties | −1.841 * | −1.410 | −2.001 * | |
(0.761) | (0.748) | (0.795) | ||
Values | 1.076 *** | 0.826 ** | ||
(0.268) | (0.281) | |||
Poor smoothness of internet | 0.767 * | |||
(0.389) | ||||
Adaptation to online classes | −1.657 *** | |||
(0.405) | ||||
Economic pressure | 1.774 * | |||
(0.729) | ||||
13.18 *** | 16.05 *** | 11.34 *** | 1.251 | |
Constant | (1.036) | (1.523) | (1.889) | (2.729) |
N | 289 | 289 | 289 | 244 |
R2 | 0.011 | 0.046 | 0.082 | 0.259 |
Variable | Factor 1 | Factor 2 | Factor 3 | Uniqueness |
---|---|---|---|---|
feel so sad that nothing could cheer you up | 0.8148 | −0.1920 | −0.0525 | 0.2965 |
feel nervous | 0.7835 | −0.3185 | 0.0145 | 0.2845 |
feel so restless that you could not sit still | 0.8282 | −0.1188 | 0.0628 | 0.2961 |
feel hopeless | 0.7173 | 0.2746 | 0.0359 | 0.4088 |
feel that everything was an effort | 0.809 | 0.1249 | −0.0523 | 0.3273 |
feel worthless | 0.7946 | 0.2597 | −0.0051 | 0.3012 |
Model 5 | Model 6 | Model 7 | Model 8 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex (Male = 0) | 0.078 | 0.096 | 0.063 | 0.165 |
(0.117) | (0.117) | (0.114) | (0.117) | |
Age group (less than 23 = 0) | ||||
23–30 years old | −0.092 | −0.119 | −0.097 | 0.044 |
(0.121) | (0.121) | (0.118) | (0.120) | |
31–36 years old | −0.221 | −0.173 | −0.032 | 0.054 |
(0.233) | (0.231) | (0.228) | (0.231) | |
Above 37 years old | −0.460 | −0.333 | −0.271 | 0.545 |
(0.562) | (0.558) | (0.544) | (0.884) | |
Length of stay in China | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
(0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | |
Lockdown (No = 0) | 0.125 | 0.147 | 0.116 | −0.135 |
(0.258) | (0.256) | (0.250) | (0.265) | |
Time to start social distancing | 0.069 | 0.069 | 0.040 | 0.061 |
(0.057) | (0.056) | (0.055) | (0.057) | |
Support from their own | −0.106 | −0.121 | −0.0797 | |
(0.114) | (0.111) | (0.115) | ||
Support from other countries | −0.007 | −0.024 | −0.043 | |
(0.117) | (0.114) | (0.112) | ||
Support from Chinese classmates and friends | 0.056 | 0.029 | 0.032 | |
(0.0951) | (0.093) | (0.098) | ||
Support from the university and faculties | −0.275 * | −0.211 | −0.300 * | |
(0.114) | (0.112) | (0.119) | ||
Values | 0.158 *** | 0.121 ** | ||
(0.040) | (0.042) | |||
Poor smoothness of internet | 0.116 * | |||
(0.058) | ||||
Adaptation to online classes | −0.249 *** | |||
(0.060) | ||||
Economic pressure | 0.279 * | |||
(0.109) | ||||
Constant | −0.115 | 0.327 | −0.366 | −1.918 *** |
(0.155) | (0.228) | (0.283) | (0.407) | |
N | 289 | 289 | 289 | 244 |
R2 | 0.017 | 0.049 | 0.104 | 0.268 |
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Xu, T. Psychological Distress of International Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic in China: Multidimensional Effects of External Environment, Individuals’ Behavior, and Their Values. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9758. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189758
Xu T. Psychological Distress of International Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic in China: Multidimensional Effects of External Environment, Individuals’ Behavior, and Their Values. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(18):9758. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189758
Chicago/Turabian StyleXu, Tao. 2021. "Psychological Distress of International Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic in China: Multidimensional Effects of External Environment, Individuals’ Behavior, and Their Values" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18: 9758. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189758