From Pomegranate Byproducts Waste to Worth: A Review of Extraction Techniques and Potential Applications for Their Revalorization
Abstract
:1. Background—Food Losses and Food Waste
2. Nutritional Composition of Pomegranate Byproducts
3. Scientific Literature Review
4. Pomegranate Peel Phenolic Compounds Extraction Techniques
4.1. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
4.1.1. Fundamentals
- i
- Contact with the solution: an ultrasonic probe is submerged directly into the solution (minimum energy losses), while in a US bath, the vessel container is immersed.
- ii
- Intensity of US: it is higher in the US probe than in the bath.
- iii
- Maximum power achieved: in a US probe, it is the nominal power, while in a US bath, the nominal power is the minimum that can be increased due to the modulators.
4.1.2. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction from Pomegranate Peel
Byproduct Characteristics | F (kHz) | Power Related Parameters | Solvent | Solid:Liquid Ratio | t (min) | T (°C) | Other Information | Extract Characterization | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Freeze-drying Powders < 254 µm cv information NA | NA | 500–1050 W | EtOH (40–80%) | 1:10/1:50 | 10–50 | NA | NA | Pn | [25] |
Vacuum oven (45 °C, 36 h) Powders < 500 µm Bhagwa cv | NA | 350 W (Pulsed mode: A 10–100%) | EtOH (50%) | 0.1:10/0.3:10 0.5:10/0.6:10 0.8:10/1:10 | NA | NA | Duyt cycle: 10–90% | TPC, TFC, AOX (DPPH and ABTS), TAC | [26] |
Cabinet hot drier (40 °C) Powders < 635 µm cv information NA | 20 | 2.4 to 59.2 W/cm2 (continuous) 59.2 W/cm2 (pulsed) | NA | 1:50 | 2–90 | 25 | Area probe: 1.267 cm2 Pulse duration/Interval: 2/1, 3/1, 4/1, 5/1, 6/1, 7/1, 9/1, 12/1, 2/5, 3/5,4/5, 5/5, 6/5, 7/5, 9/5, 12/5, 2/15, 3/15, 4/15, 5/15, 6/15, 7/15, 9/15, 12/15 Number of pulse repetition: 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 270, 360, 540, 720 | TPC, AOX (DPPH) | [27] |
Drier (40 °C, 48 h) cv and particle size information NA | 20 | 130 W (Pulsed mode: A 20 and 60% NP) | MetOH, EtOH, EtAc, MeOH (50%) | 1:10/1:50 | 4–60 | 25–45 | Ti–Al–V sonoprobe (13 mm) Pulse duration/pulse interval ratio 5/15 and 2/1 | Ph | [28] |
Vacuum oven (40 °C) Powder 125–150 μm cv information NA | 30 | 50 W (A 30–70% NP) | EtOH (80%) | 1:40/1:120 | 5–50 | NA | Duty cycle (60–100%) Probe diameter 3 mm Length 80 mm | Pn | [32] |
Air oven (40 °C, 18 h) Powders 3 mm cv information NA | 30.8 | 0–100 W/L | EtOH (0–100%) | 1:40 | 0–240 | 20–60 | NA | TPC, AOX (DPPH) | [29] |
Microwave vacuum oven (45 °C, 36 h) Powders < 508 µm Kabuli cv | 20 | 700 W (A 40–80%) | Ac (30–90%) | 1:10/1:30 | 10–20 | 45 | Probe half-inch diameter Pulse-on and pulse-off time of 10 s. | Tn | [33] |
Air oven (60 °C, 48 h) Powder 600–800 μm cv information NA | 40 | NA | EtOH (24–75%) | 1:3/1:16 | 4–55 | 26–93 | NA | EA | [30] |
Fresh peel (more information NA) Small-grinded pieces (fine peel paste, 4 °C) cv information NA | 20 | 400–1600 W/L | NA | 2:10 | 5–50 | 30–70 | Pulsed mode: ‘on’ time (5 s) Pulse interval ‘off’ time (3 s) Probe: 3 cm submergence of sonicator | TPC | [34] |
Dried (more information NA) Powders < 0.5 mm cv information NA | 40 | 500 W (A 50–80%) | MetOH, (30–70%) | 1:15 | 5–15 | 40 | Probe: 6 mm diameter, dipped up to 2 cm Duty cycle: 0.2–0.8 | TPC, TFC, AOX (DPPH and FRAP) | [35] |
Laminar airflow drying oven (50 °C, 24 h) Powder particle size and cv information NA | 24 | NA | NA | 1:10 | 5–20 | 50 | Titanium probe: 14-mm diameter | TPC, EA, ChlA, GA | [36] |
Hot air oven (40 °C, 48 h) Fine powder (more information NA) cv information NA | 45 | 360 W (A 40–100%) | NA | 0.1:1/1:10 | 5–45 | 40–80 | pH 3.5 to 6.0 | TPC | [37] |
Technique information NA Powder 140–425 μm Sishe Kape- Ferdos cv | 20 | 400 W (A 20, 60 and 100%) | NA | 1:4 | 5–15 | NA | NA | TPC | [38] |
Forced air oven (70 °C, 48 h) Powder particle size distribution: 25.4–0.105 mm (56%); 0.105–0.075 mm (17.9%); 0.075–0.037 mm (14.5%); <0.037 mm (11.6%) Brazilian Molar cv | 37–80 | 180 W (continuous, pulse, and sweep modes) | EtOH (70%) | 1:25 | 20 | 40–70 | NA | Pn, EA, TPC | [39] |
Drier (40 °C, 48 h) Powder < 0.2 mm cv information NA | 20 | 130 W (Pulsed mode; 20–60%) | Sunflower oil Soy oil | 1:10/3:10 | NA | 10–60 | Ti-Al-V sonoprobe (13 mm) | TCC | [31] |
Air-drier (7 days, 20 °C) Powder < 180 μm Malas cv | 24 | 53, 79, and 105 W/cm2 (pulse mode) | EtOH (70%) | 1:10 | 2–10 | NA | Area probe: 1.53 cm2 Duty cycle: 50%, 70%, and 90% | Pn, HbA | [40] |
Traditional heating oven (40 °C, 48 h). Microwave drying (T < 100 °C, <5 min). Powder < 150 μm. Wonderful and Akko cv | 26 | 200 W (pulsed mode; A 50%) | EtOH (70%) | 1:40 | 10 | 45 | Duty cycle: 80% | EA, Pn | [41] |
Hot air oven (50 °C, 48 h) Fine powder (more information NA) cv information NA | NA | NA | Ac, MetOH, EtOH (50–75%) | 1:20 | NA | 45 | NA | TPC, TFC | [42] |
Air dried Room Temperature Particle size 0.3 mm cv information NA | 20 | 400 W A 70% | EtOH (70%) | 1:30 | 30 | 40 | Probe tip 2 cm 22.5% duty cycle | TPC, TFC, AOX (DPPH and FRAP) | [42] |
Ventilated oven (42 °C, 3–4 days) Particle size 0.5 mm cv information NA | NA | NA | H2O; EtOH (70%); EtOH (100%); Ac (70%); Ac (100%); | NA | 23 | 45 | NA | TPC, EA, Pn, Individual Fvs | [43] |
Convective oven 60 °C 22 h Particle size 420 μm Mollar de Elche cv | 20 | 750 W | H2O | 4:40 | NA | NA | Probe diameter 13 mm titanium | TPC, AOX (DPPH and ABTS) | [44] |
Blanching (80 °C 3 m) + Tray drier 40 °C Particle size < 1 mm Wonderful cv | 40 | 700 W | EtOH (70%) | 1:15 | 60 | 40 °C | Ultrasound bath | TPC, TFC, TAC, Vit C, AOX (DPPH, FRAP and ABTS) | [45] |
Tray drier 40 °C Particle size < 0.25 mm Bhagwa cv | 20 | 20–40% A | EtOH (70%) | 1:20 | 10–20 | 40–60 | 3 mm of probe diameter | Pn, EA, GA | [46] |
Oven drier (more information NA) Particle size: size distribution using sieves: 0.85, 0.425, 0.25 and 0.18 mm cv information NA | 35 | 140 W | EtOH (30–50–70%) | 0.2:10 | 10–30 | 30–60 | Ultrasound bath | TPC, AOX (FRAP and DPPH) | [47] |
Oven drier (45 °C 48 h) Particle size and cv information NA | 40 | NA | NA | 1:10 | 0–60 | 35–45 | Enzymatic pre-treatment | AOX (DPPH), TPC | [48] |
Hot air in cabinet drier (40 °C) Particle size < 0.420 mm Wonderful cv | 20 | Continuous intensity: 2.4, 4.7, 7.1, 18.9, 23.7, 30.8, 37.9, 45.0, 52.1, and 59.2 W/cm2 | H2O | 1:50 | 2–90 min | 25 | Probe with area of 1.267 cm (continuous) | AOX (DPPH) | [27] |
Hot air in cabinet drier (40 °C) Particle size < 0.420 mm Wonderful cv | 20 | Pulsed mode: 2.4, 4.7, 7.1, 18.9, 23.7, 30.8, 37.9, 45.0, 52.1, and 59.2 W/cm2 | H2O | 1:50 | 25 | Probe with area of 1.267 cm Pulsed duration/interval: 2/1, 3/1, 4/1, 5/1, 6/1, 7/1, 9/1, 12/1, 2/5, 3/5, 4/5, 5/5, 6/5, 7/5, 9/5, 12/5, 2/15, 3/15, 4/15, 5/15, 6/15, 7/15, 9/15, 12/15 Number pulse repetition: 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 270, 360, 540, 720 | AOX (DPPH) | [27] | |
Air-dried at 25 °C Particle size 0.75–2 mm cv information NA | NA | NA | EtOH (10–30–50–70–90%) | 1:10; 1:20; 1:30; 1:40; 1:50 | 5–65 | 25–80 | Pn, EA, GA, TPC | [49] | |
Forced air oven 70 °C 48 h Large particle size: 0.297–1.410 mm, mean: 1.05 mm Small particle size: 0.177–1 mm, mean: 0.68 mm Wonderful cv | 19 | 0–800 W at the generator, or 0–38.5 W at the tip of the probe | H2O; EtOH (30–50–70%) | NA | 10 | 50–100 | 13 mm diameter probe Number of Cycles: 5 Assisted by pressurized liquid | Pn, EA, P | [50] |
4.2. Microwave-Assisted Extraction
4.2.1. Fundamentals
4.2.2. Microwave-Assisted Extraction from Pomegranate Peel
4.3. Enzymatic-Assisted Extraction
4.3.1. Fundamentals
- i.
- Solute concentration
- ii.
- Enzyme concentration: when the enzyme concentration increases, the reaction rate will increase until a point when there is no positive or negative effect of the continued increase in enzyme concentration.
- iii.
- Temperature: the optimum temperature for maximum enzyme activity depends on the type of enzyme since most of them are proteins which are denaturized and inactivated by heat.
- iv.
- pH: enzymes have a characteristic pH value for their optimum activity, being acidophilic (optimal pH values are <7) and alkalophilic enzymes (pH > 7). At pH values greater or lower than the optimal, the enzymatic activity—and therefore the reaction rate—decreases. Furthermore, the optimal value of enzyme concentration, temperature, and pH depends on the conditions of the medium/matrix in which it is found.
- v.
- The presence of inhibitors: molecules that temporarily or permanently interact with enzymes to reduce their activity and/or reaction rate. The inhibition can be classified as:
- a.
- Competitive: the inhibitor structure is like the substrate. The key bioactive compound and the complex substrate-enzyme is not formed.
- b.
- Acompetitive: the inhibitor structure is attached to the complex-enzyme.
- c.
- Non-competitive: the inhibitor attached to the active center of the enzyme and enzyme is misshapen.
- d.
- Mixed.
4.3.2. Enzyme-Assisted Extraction from Pomegranate Peel
Byproduct Characteristics | Combined with | P (MPa) | Enzymes | Inactivation Enzymes | Solid/Liquid Ratio | t (min) | T (°C) | Extract Characterization | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Drier (40 °C) cv and particle size information NA | High pressure | 300 | 4% (vol) of pectinase 4% (vol) of cellulase | Water bath 90 °C 5 min Later ice bath | 1.6:100 | 15 | NA | TPC Individual Ph | [66] |
Dried Room Temperature Particle size < 0.178 mm cv information NA | Supercritical carbon dioxide | NA | Pectinase, protease, and cellulase (25:25:50) | Water bath 90 °C 5 min Later ice bath | 2.8–3.9% of enzymes in the solvent | 60–120 | 35–60 | TPC | [67] |
Drier (45 °C 48 h) cv and particle size information NA | Ultrasounds (Bath 40 kHz) | NA | Viscozyme® concentration 0–2 mL/100 mL solvent | NA | 1:10 | 0–60 | 30–50 | TPC, TFC, AOX (DPPH) | [48] |
Dried (more information NA) cv and particle size information NA | Microwave (300, 400 and 600 W) | NA | Viscozyme® concentration 0.6% (v/w) pH 4.5 and 40 °C | NA | 1:20, 1:30, 1:40 g/mL EtOH 30% acidified | 90–150 | NA | AOX (FRAP and CUPRAC), TPC | [65] |
5. Pomegranate Peel Byproducts Incorporation Techniques
5.1. Powders/Flours
5.2. Liquid Extracts
5.3. Encapsulation
6. Potential Applications in the Food Industry
6.1. Fresh Whole F&V
6.2. Minimally Processed, or Fresh-Cut F&V
6.3. F&V Based Beverages
Matrix | Pomegranate Peel Byproduct | Extraction | Incorporation Method | Benefit | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fresh whole F&V (pre- and postharvest) | Tomato | Drier (50–60 °C, 72 h) Fine powder (more information NA) cv information NA | Ratio 3:10 EtOH 48 h + evaporator (65 °C) + re-dissolved in sterile distilled water (0.05%, 0.5%, 1% and 5% w/v) | Preharvest. Tomato plants were sprayed in the leaves (bacteria inoculation) with the aqueous extract + 24 h drying | Antibacterial activity at least 15 days Replacing, reducing, or even alternating treatments involving copper compounds | [108] |
Sage herb | Air dried (more information NA) Grinder (more information NA) cv information NA | 1:10 solid–liquid ratio in water or EtOH 80% 24 h + evaporator + water dilution | Preharvest. Added in the soil (2, 4, and 6 g per plot) | Higher dry mass and essential oils Inhibition of free radical scavenging | [109] | |
Olive | Oven drier (40 °C) Powder home grinder (more information NA) Wonderful cv | 120 g/L EtOH solvent (50 and 80%) + 1% Citric acid | Postharvest. Treatment of 1 × 1-mm injuries and inoculated (C. acutatum) by 10 µL of pomegranate peel extract (12, 1.2, or 0.12 g/L) | Reduction of fungal and bacterial population | [110] | |
Potato tubers | Air drier (28 °C, 10–15 days) Fine powder (more information NA) Baladi cv | 1:10 solid–liquid (MetOH) 48 h 28 °C + evaporator + oven 50 °C 48 h | Postharvest. Wound (3 × 3 mm φ and deep) + inoculation (F. sambucinum) (24 h) + dipping (1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 mg/mL water) + air dried (2 h at 28 °C). | Antifungal activity on the mycelial growth and spore germination | [111] | |
Strawberry | Drying and particle size information NA Dente di caballo cv | US 40 °C 80% A 3 min (3 on, 8 off) Ratio 1:10 (H2O 25%, propanol 25%, ethanol 25% and methanol 25%) + evaporator + Freeze-drier + re-dissolved in water | Postharvest. Immersion (30 s in a 2 L solution of pomegranate peel extract) + air-drying (1 h) | Extension of shelf life Substitution of synthetic pesticides | [112] | |
Sweet cherry | Oven drier (40 °C) Particle size NA Mollar de Elche cv | EtOH solvent (50 and 80%) + 1% Citric acid +evaporator + Water dilution | Postharvest. Dipping (2 min) in the pomegranate extract (12, 2.4 or 1.2 g/L) + air drying (2 h, 28 °C) + storage at 1 °C | Inhibition of all fungal spore germination | [113] | |
Fresh whole F&V (pre- and postharvest) | Sweet cherry | Oven drier (40 °C) Fine powder < 470 µm cv information NA | 1:8 solid–liquid ratio (Water 28 °C 24 h) | Postharvest. Immersion in pomegranate peel extracts (3 min 20 °C) + room temperature drying | Pomegranate peel extracts and calcium sulphate coatings, alone or in combination, decreased weight loss, decay, respiration rate, and increased acidity, firmness, ascorbic acid, DPPH, TPC, and TAC | [114] |
Apple | Oven drier (40 °C) Particle size NA Mollar de Elche cv | EtOH solvent (50 and 80%) + 1% citric acid + evaporator + water dilution | Postharvest. Wounds treated with 10 μL of pomegranate peel extract (12, 1.2 or 0.12 g/L) + inoculation (10 μL P. expansum) | Inhibition of fungal spore germination and decay of artificial inoculations | [113] | |
Mango | Freeze drying (−45 °C, 94 h) Particle size and cv information NA | MetOH 45 °C 30 min + Bath US + evaporator + water dilution | Postharvest. Chitosan (2%) in 0.5% citric acid solution + Pullulan (2%) in water (50:50 ratios). During stiring: 1% glycerol + 5% of pomegranate peel extract (0.02 g/mL). Dipping for 2 min | Increase of firmness, TPC and AOX. Prolonged the shelf life | [115] | |
Apricot | Drier (60 °C, 48 h) Particle size < 0.251 mm cv information NA | 80% EtOH 25 °C + evaporator | Postharvest. Chitosan coating solution (1% chitosan in glacial acetic 1% + 0.8% glycerol + Tween 80 + 0.50, 0.75, and 1% pomegranate peel extract) | Reduction of % decay and weight loss. Maintenance of DPPH radical scavenging activity, ascorbic acid content, titratable acidity and firmness. | [116] | |
Figs | Air dried few days (more information NA) Pulverized (more information NA) cv information NA | Alcoholic buffer (EtOH 50%) | Postharvest. Alginic acid: agar (70:30) + 0.25 and 0.5% pomegranate peel extract Dipping in the coating solution + coating gelation | Prolonged the shelf life | [117] | |
Dates | Drier (48 °C, 52 h) Ground peels (more information NA)cv information NA | EtOH 70% + evaporator + Water dilution | Postharvest. 1% Chitosan, 1% nanochitosan or 1% pomegranate peel extract in 1% glacial acetic | Growth inhibition of any fungal spore after 48 h of coating. | [118] | |
Citrus | Hot air drier (50 °C, 48 h) Particle size 0.250 mm cv information NA | 2.5:10 Solid–liquid ratio (Ac, EtOH, MetOH, H2O, DMSO) + shaking (6 h) + re-extracted with water evaporation | Postharvest. Immersion of wounded lemons (2 × 1 mm long and wide tip) in pomegranate peel extract (pre-infection and post-infection with P. digitatum) + air drying | Prevention and control of P. digitatum | [119] | |
Fresh whole F&V (pre- and postharvest) | Grapefruit | Oven drier (40 °C) Particle size information NA Mollar de Elche cv | EtOH solvent (50 and 80%) + 1% citric acid evaporator + water dilution | Postharvest. Wounds treated with 10 μL of pomegranate peel extract (12, 1.2 or 0.12 g/L) + inoculation 10 μL P. digitatum and P. italicum | Inhibition of all fungal spore germination and decay of artificial inoculations | [120] |
Lemon | Oven drier (40 °C) Particle size information NA Mollar de Elche cv | EtOH solvent (50 and 80%) + 1% citric acid + evaporator + water dilution | Postharvest. Wounds treated with 10 μL of pomegranate peel extract (12, 1.2 or 0.12 g/L) + inoculation 10 μL P. digitatum and P. italicum | Inhibition of all fungal spore germination and decay of artificial inoculations | [113,120] | |
Mandarin | Drier (70 °C, 48 h) Ground peels (more information NA) Shirine Shahvar cv | 0.25:10 solid–liquid ratio (60% EtOH + 0.1% citric acid) | Postharvest. Wounded (1 × 2 mm φ and depth) + dipping 1 min in pomegranate peel extract concentrations (25, 50, 75, 100%) + inoculation (P. italicum and P. digitatum) + drying | Reduction of % infected wound and lesion φ (75% or/and 100% extract). Increase of TPC, TFC, and PAL activity (75% or/and 100% extract) | [121] | |
Orange | Drier (35 °C, 2 days) Particle size NA Gabsi cv | 1:10, 0.6:10, 0.3:10 solid–liquid ratio (MetOH or Water) + evaporated + drying (40 °C or freeze-drying) + re-dissolved in water | Postharvest. Chitosan coating solution (1% chitosan in glacial acetic 1% + 0.5% Locust bean gum + 20% glycerol + 7, 18, and 36% dry waster/MetOH pomegranate peel extract). Wounded oranges (4 times: 3 × 3 mm φ × deep) + Inoculation (20 μL of a P. digitatum) + drying + dipping in different coating solutions (2 min) | Controlled growth of Penicillium digitatum Reduction of postharvest decay | [122] | |
Orange | Oven drier (40 °C) Particle size NA Mollar de Elche cv | EtOH solvent (50 and 80%) + 1% citric acid + evaporator + water dilution | Postharvest. Wounded oranges (3 times 2 × 2 mm φ and deep) + 20 μL pomegranate peel extract (12 g/L) + Inoculation (20 μL of a P. digitatum) + 1% citric acid + drying | Enhanced defense pathways (antibiotic biosynthesis) | [123] | |
Fresh whole F&V (pre- and postharvest) | Guava | Drier (60 °C, 72 h) Particle size 0.420 mm Bhagwa cv | 1:10 solid–liquid ratio (80% EtOH) + evaporation | Postharvest. Chitosan (1% chitosan in glacial acetic 1% + 0.75% glycerol) and alginate solution (2% alginate + 10% glycerol + 2% calcium chloride) with 1% pomegranate peel extract | Preserved quality for 20 d under refrigeration | [124] |
Capsicum | Drier (60 °C, 72 h) Particle size 0.420 mm Bhagwa cv | 1:10 solid–liquid ratio (80% EtOH) + evaporation | Postharvest. Chitosan (1% chitosan in glacial acetic 1% + 0.75% glycerol) and alginate solution (2% alginate + 10% glycerol + 2% calcium chloride) with 1% pomegranate peel extract | Inhibition of microbial growth. Preserved sensory quality. Extension of shelf life up to 25 d at 10 °C | [125] | |
Pear | Drier (60 °C, 72 h) Particle size 0.420 mm Bhagwa cv | 1:10 solid–liquid ratio (80% EtOH) + evaporation | Postharvest. Chitosan (1% chitosan in glacial acetic 1% + 0.75% glycerol) and alginate solution (2% alginate + 10% glycerol + 2% calcium chloride) with 2% pomegranate peel extract | Lowered the cell wall degrading enzymes activity (firmness preservation) | [126] | |
Fresh-cut/Minimally processed F&V | Fruit salad: nectarine and pineapple in cubes covered with fructose syrup | Oven drier (38 °C, 48 h) Particle size 500 mm Wonderful cv | Powder | 2.5–5% (w/v) of pomegranate peel powder at the container bottom | Inhibition of mesophilic bacteria, total psychrotrophic microorganisms, yeasts, and lactic acid bacteria No negative effect on sensory characteristics | [127] |
Fresh-cut pear, apple and melon (plugs) | Oven drier (40 °C) Particle size NA Mollar de Elche cv | EtOH solvent (50 and 80%) + 1% citric acid + evaporator + water dilution | Inoculated plugs were dipped (10 min, 150 rpm) + dried (25 °C 30 min) | Reduction of Listeria monocytogenes | [128] | |
Fresh-cut Golden apple wedges: thickness 30-mm and 30 g | Drying and particle size information NA Dente di cavallo cv | Pulsed UAE (10 min, <50 °C, 1:40, 26 kHz, 200 W, 40% A, 50% duty cycle) + encapsulation with pectin from citrus peel by spray drying | Enrichment with microencapsulates reconstituted in water 1:1 | Reduction of enzymatic browning. Color preservation | [129] | |
Beverages | Carrot juice | Oven drier (40 °C) Grounded in a colloid mill (more information NA) cv information NA | High pressure-assisted extraction | 5 mg pomegranate peel extract per mL of carrot juice | Improvement of microbiological safety and AOX during storage. Color preservation | [130,131] |
Beverages | Apple juice | Oven drier (55 °C, 12 h) Particle size and cv information NA | Maceration extraction (1:50, 80% EtOH 1 h shaking) | Different% of pomegranate peel extract (0–2%) | Enhancing sensory quality and AOX. Low toxicity with 1% of pomegranate peel extract | [132] |
Kiwi juice | Information NA | Commercial pomegranate extract (PureBulk, Roseburg) | Extract incorporation (180 μg/mL kiwi juice) + US bath (40 kHz, 180 W, 20 °C, 10–30 min) | US and pomegranate extract combined treatment: higher reductions on yeast and molds | [133] | |
Red wine | Green decoction: Boiled in water 60 min (1:40) Freeze-drying of the extract Wonderful cv | Powder | Purification to obtain the tannins. 8 analyzed tannins (1 g L−1 wine solution) | Increase of protein stability Increase of color stability Reduction of sulfites | [134] | |
Symbiotic drink powder | Hot oven (40 °C, 48 h) Particle size Kitchen-miller (more information NA) cv information NA | Ethanolic extract (80%; 1:15) + evaporator + Freeze-drier | Formulation: beetroot peel extract powder (3%), pomegranate peel extract powder (1%), grape pomace extract powder (1.5%), quince seed gum (0.5%), stevia (4%), mint (0.1%) and water (89.9%). Pasteurization: 72 °C, 90 s | Maintenance of L. casei viability of the recommended level of 10−7 CFU/g | [135] |
7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Byproduct Characteristics | Power (W) | Pressure | Solvent | Solid/Liquid Ratio | T (min) | T (°C) | Other Information | Extract Characterization | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Milled frozen (more information NA) Wonderful cv | 2000, 4000, 6000 | Vacuum 355 mbar | NA | 1:10; 1:25; 1:40 | 10, 50, 90 | 40, 50, 60 | Industrial-type MAC-75 multimode MW extractor | TPC, AOX (DPPH) | [57] |
Drier (40 °C, 48 h) Particle size ~0.1 mm cv information NA | 100, 173, 350, 527, 600 | 75 bar | H2O EtOH (50–70%) MetOH (50–70%) | 1:10; 1:17.3; 1:35; 1:52.7; 1:60 | 0.5–15 | NA | Multiwave closed MW system | TPC, AOX (DPPH), Pn, EA | [58] |
Air-dried (4–5 days) Particle size 0.75–2 mm cv information NA | 470–800 | NA | EtOH (50%) | 1:10 | 20 | 41–72 | Home-made setup consisting of MW oven | TPC, GA, EA, Pn, HMF | [59] |
Technology | Carriers | Target Compound/Activity | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Spray-drying | Maltrodextrin | F-TPC, UPLC-TPC, Pn, EA, P, GA | [78,79] |
Maltrodextrin + others: Tween 80 (99:1); Skimmed milk powder (50:50); Whey protein isolate (50:50); Gum arabic (50:50) | NA (Yield/Stability) | [28,80] | |
Skimmed milk power | NA (Yield/Stability) | [28,80] | |
Orange juice byproduct | F-TPC, DPPH | [81,82] | |
Maltodextrin/Pectin | TPC, Pn, EA | [83] | |
Whey protein | Pn, EA, P, GA | [79] | |
Arabic gum | Pn, EA | [84] | |
Chitosan | Pn, EA | [84,85] | |
Pectin | Pn, EA | [84] | |
Modified starch | Pn, TPC, HTC, DPPH | [86] | |
Alginate | NA (Yield/Stability) | [85] | |
Freeze-drying | Soy phosphatidylcholine liposomes | Pn, EA, rutin, epifallocatechin, TPC | [87] |
Maltodextrin (5 and 10%) and b-cyclodextrin (5 and 10%). | F-TPC, FRAP | [38] | |
Prunus armeniaca gum exudates | FRAP, DPPH | [88] | |
Chitosan | FRAP, DPPH | [88] | |
Maltrodextrin | TPC, TFC, Pn, EA, FRAP, DPPH | [89] | |
Maltodextrin and calcium alginate | ANCs, FRAP, DPPH | [90] | |
Maltodextrin and soy lecitin | NA (Yield/Stability) | [91] | |
Double emulsion | Water1 in Oil in Water2: Water1 (ethanolic solutions) in Oil (castor, soybean, sunflower, medium chain triglyceride and orange) in Water2 (aqueous solution with Tween80) | NA (Yield/Stability) | [92] |
Ion gelation | Chitosan gel (1%):gelatin 2:1 | F-TPC, DPPH | [93] |
Spirulina | TPC, DPPH | [72] | |
Microalgae | EA | [94] | |
Chitosan + others: Dialdehyde guar gum Gelatin-based materials | F-TPC, DPPH | [95] |
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Cano-Lamadrid, M.; Martínez-Zamora, L.; Castillejo, N.; Artés-Hernández, F. From Pomegranate Byproducts Waste to Worth: A Review of Extraction Techniques and Potential Applications for Their Revalorization. Foods 2022, 11, 2596. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172596
Cano-Lamadrid M, Martínez-Zamora L, Castillejo N, Artés-Hernández F. From Pomegranate Byproducts Waste to Worth: A Review of Extraction Techniques and Potential Applications for Their Revalorization. Foods. 2022; 11(17):2596. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172596
Chicago/Turabian StyleCano-Lamadrid, Marina, Lorena Martínez-Zamora, Noelia Castillejo, and Francisco Artés-Hernández. 2022. "From Pomegranate Byproducts Waste to Worth: A Review of Extraction Techniques and Potential Applications for Their Revalorization" Foods 11, no. 17: 2596. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172596