The Spatial–Temporal Emission of Air Pollutants from Biomass Burning during Haze Episodes in Northern Thailand
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Conceptual Framework
2.2. Study Area
2.3. Google Earth Engine Platform (GEE)
2.4. Data Collection
2.5. Estimation of Burned Area
2.5.1. Random Forest (RF)
2.5.2. Burned Reference Data
2.5.3. Accuracy Assessment
2.6. Estimation of Air Emission from Biomass Burning
2.6.1. Forest Fire
2.6.2. Agriculture Residues
Type | Pollutants | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PM1 | PM2.5 | PM10 | NOX | SO2 | CO | BC | OC | |
Forest | 0.74 a | 3.4 a | 7.95 a | 2.55 b | 0.40 b | 93 b | 0.52 b | 4.71 b |
Total Rice | 0.48 a | 2.13 a | 5.5 a | 0.21 c | 1.53 c | 25.80 c | 0.58 f | 3.5 f |
Corn | 0.86 a | 4.71 a | 7.69 a | 0.07 c | 1.50 c | 29.79 c | 0.75 f | 3.71 f |
Sugarcane | 0.59 a | 2.04 a | 8.07 a | 1.5 g | 0.53 g | 40.1 g | 0.73 g | 1.25 g |
Bagasse | 1.06 a | 5 a | 9.2 a | 3.3 h | 0.76 h | 8.14 h | - | - |
Parameters | Crops | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Total Rice | Corn | Sugarcane | Forest | |
Burn Efficiency Ratio (nj) | 0.95 a | 0.92 a | 0.95 a | 0.79 b |
Biomass Density (g/m2) (B) | - | - | - | 3.76 × 105 a |
Biomass Load (BL) (t/ha) | 7.62 c | 5.26 d | 9.40 e | - |
Combustion Completeness (CC) | 0.34 c | 0.85 d | 0.64 e | - |
2.6.3. Agro-Industries
3. Results
3.1. The Spatial Distribution of Burned Area in Northern, Thailand
3.2. The Accuracy Assessment of Burned Area
3.3. Total Emissions from Open Biomass Burning
3.4. Total Emissions from Agro-Industries (Sugar Factory)
3.5. Correlation between Emission Inventory, AOD, and Air Monitoring Pollutant
3.5.1. Particulate Matter
3.5.2. NOX and SO2
4. Discussion
4.1. The Assessment of Burned Areas by Using the GEE Platform
4.2. The Emissions from Open Biomass Burning
4.3. The Emissions from Indoor Biomass Burning
4.4. Uncertainty
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
Abbreviations | Full Name |
AOD | Aerosol Optical Depth |
API | Application Programming Interface |
B | Biomass Density |
BC | Black Carbon |
BL | Biomass Load |
CART | Classification and Regression Trees algorithm |
CC | Combustion Completeness |
CO | Carbon Monoxide |
DT | Decision Tree Algorithm |
EF | Emission Factor |
EI | Emission Inventory |
GEE | Google Earth Engine |
GIS | Geographic Information System |
GISTDA | Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency |
ML | Machine Learning |
NB | Naive Bayes |
NIR | Near-Infrared |
NMVOCs | Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compound |
NOX | Nitrogen Oxides |
OA | Overall Accuracy |
OC | Organic Carbon |
OCSB | Office of the Cane and Sugar Board’s |
PM | Particulate Matter |
PM0.1 | Ultrafine Particulate Matter |
PM10-2.5 | Coarse Particulate Matter |
PM2.5 | Fine Particulate Matter |
RF | Random Forest Algorithm |
SO2 | Sulfur Dioxide |
SVM | Support Vector Machine |
SWIR | Shortwave Infrared |
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) Value | ) |
---|---|
0 | No agreement |
0.10–0.20 | Slight agreement |
0.21–0.40 | Fair agreement |
0.41–0.60 | Moderate agreement |
0.61–0.80 | Substantial agreement |
0.81–0.99 | Near-perfect agreement |
1 | Perfect agreement |
Year | Month | The Burnt Area from Assessment (km2) | Total | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forest | Rice | Corn | Sugarcane | |||
2019 | January | 9688.5 | 3719.8 | 1173.1 | 1169.9 | 15,751.3 |
February | 16,233.3 | 2106.1 | 1022.4 | 920.9 | 20,282.7 | |
March | 20,955.3 | 1993.6 | 929.6 | 623.3 | 24,501.8 | |
April | 22,876.9 | 2611.7 | 1495.4 | 945.6 | 27,929.6 | |
Total | 69,753.9 | 10,431.2 | 4620.5 | 3659.7 | 88,465.3 | |
2020 | January | 7484.9 | 3600.4 | 874.7 | 1111.3 | 13,071.4 |
February | 18,089.7 | 2836.6 | 937.6 | 1120.8 | 22,984.7 | |
March | 21,295.0 | 2460.7 | 890.8 | 643.5 | 25,289.9 | |
April | 21,296.8 | 2694.4 | 1034.0 | 961.2 | 25,986.4 | |
Total | 68,166.4 | 11,592.1 | 3737.1 | 3836.8 | 87,332.4 | |
2021 | January | 3434.7 | 2819.5 | 742.2 | 705.6 | 7701.9 |
February | 6233.3 | 1829.4 | 1103.4 | 792.6 | 9958.8 | |
March | 20,955.3 | 1605.2 | 788.4 | 725.4 | 24,074.2 | |
April | 22,876.9 | 1328.6 | 631.4 | 462.2 | 25,299.1 | |
Total | 63,500.2 | 7582.8 | 3265.4 | 2685.8 | 77,034.1 |
Confusion Matrix | Predicted | Performance Metrics | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Not Burned (TN) | Burned (FP) | Accuracy | Precision | Recall | F1 Score | |
Actual | ||||||
Not burned | 167 | 6 | 95.14% | 91.89% | 91.89% | 87.48% |
burned | 6 | 68 | 95.14% | 96.53% | 96.53% | 96.53% |
Overall accuracy (%) | 95.14% | |||||
Kappa coefficient | 0.8842 |
Year | Type | Type of Pollutants (tons/year) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PM1 | PM2.5 | PM10 | NOX | SO2 | BC | OC | ||
2019 | Forest fire | 15,332.6 | 70,447.0 | 164,721.7 | 52,835.3 | 8287.9 | 10,774.3 | 97,589.8 |
Total rice | 1297.2 | 5756.4 | 14,863.8 | 567.5 | 4134.8 | 1567.5 | 9458.8 | |
Corn | 1776.6 | 9730.0 | 15,886.1 | 144.6 | 3098.7 | 1549.4 | 7664.2 | |
Sugarcane | 1299.0 | 4491.4 | 17,701.4 | 3302.5 | 1166.9 | 1607.2 | 2752.1 | |
All Type | 19,705.4 | 90,424.7 | 213,173.0 | 56,849.9 | 16,688.3 | 15,498.3 | 117,464.9 | |
2020 | Forest fire | 14,983.6 | 68,843.7 | 160,972.8 | 51,632.8 | 8099.3 | 10,529.0 | 95,368.8 |
Total rice | 1441.6 | 6397.0 | 16,518.0 | 630.7 | 4595.0 | 1741.9 | 10,511.5 | |
Corn | 1436.9 | 7869.6 | 12,848.7 | 116.9 | 2506.3 | 1253.1 | 6198.8 | |
Sugarcane | 1361.9 | 4708.8 | 18,558.1 | 3462.3 | 1223.4 | 1685.0 | 2885.3 | |
All Type | 19,224.0 | 87,819.1 | 208,897.7 | 55,842.8 | 16,423.9 | 15,209.1 | 114,964.3 | |
2021 | Forest fire | 9796.3 | 45,010.2 | 105,244.3 | 33,757.6 | 5295.3 | 6883.9 | 62,352.3 |
Total rice | 943.0 | 4184.5 | 10,805.0 | 412.6 | 3005.8 | 1139.4 | 6875.9 | |
Corn | 1255.6 | 6876.4 | 11,227.0 | 102.2 | 2189.9 | 1095.0 | 5416.4 | |
Sugarcane | 953.3 | 3296.2 | 12,990.9 | 2423.7 | 856.4 | 1179.5 | 2019.7 | |
All Type | 12,948.2 | 59,367.2 | 140,267.2 | 36,696.0 | 11,347.4 | 10,297.8 | 76,664.4 | |
All | 51,877.5 | 237,611.0 | 562,337.8 | 149,388.7 | 44,459.6 | 41,005.2 | 309,093.6 |
Province | Emission of Pollutants (tons/year) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2019 | 2020 | 2021 | |||||||
SO2 | NOX | PM2.5 | SO2 | NOX | PM2.5 | SO2 | NOX | PM2.5 | |
Nakhon Sawan (2) | 27.1 | 117.7 | 178.3 | 12.6 | 54.9 | 83.1 | 18.5 | 80.4 | 121.8 |
Uttaradit (1) | 7.5 | 32.6 | 49.4 | 6.1 | 26.5 | 40.1 | 4.8 | 20.8 | 31.5 |
Phetchabun (2) | 24.2 | 105.2 | 159.3 | 12.1 | 52.6 | 79.6 | 14.1 | 61.2 | 92.7 |
Kamphaeng Phet (3) | 328.0 | 1424.0 | 2157.6 | 208.9 | 907.0 | 1374.2 | 192.9 | 837.5 | 1269.0 |
Sukhothai (1) | 77.3 | 335.5 | 508.3 | 50.2 | 217.9 | 330.2 | 39.9 | 173.1 | 262.3 |
Phitsanulok (1) | 12.0 | 52.0 | 78.8 | 7.1 | 30.9 | 46.8 | 5.9 | 25.7 | 39.0 |
Uthai Thani (2) | 71.9 | 312.1 | 472.9 | 34.7 | 150.8 | 228.6 | 34.8 | 150.9 | 228.7 |
Total | 547.9 | 2379.1 | 3604.8 | 331.8 | 1440.5 | 2182.6 | 310.8 | 1349.7 | 2045.0 |
Variables | AOD | Open Biomass Burning Emissions | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forest Fire | Corn Waste | Rice Waste | Sugarcane Waste | Total Biomass Emission | ||
AOD | −1 | |||||
Forest fire | 0.906 | −1 | ||||
Corn waste | −0.320 | −0.689 | −1 | |||
Rice waste | −0.212 | −0.088 | −0.246 | −1 | ||
Sugarcane waste | 0.039 | −0.385 | 0.934 | −0.322 | −1 | |
Total biomass emissions | 0.994 | 0.941 | −0.410 | −0.140 | −0.057 | −1 |
Variables | AOD | Open Biomass Burning Emissions | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forest Fire | Corn Waste | Rice Waste | Sugarcane Waste | Total Biomass Emission | ||
AOD | −1 | |||||
Forest fire | 0.886 | −1 | ||||
Corn waste | −0.841 | −0.662 | −1 | |||
Rice waste | −0.904 | −0.624 | 0.927 | −1 | ||
Sugarcane waste | −0.868 | −0.547 | 0.747 | 0.941 | −1 | |
Total biomass emissions | 0.811 | 0.986 | −0.531 | −0.495 | −0.440 | −1 |
Variables | AOD | Open Biomass Burning Emissions | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forest Fire | Corn Waste | Rice Waste | Sugarcane Waste | Total Biomass Emission | ||
AOD | −1 | |||||
Forest fire | 0.857 | −1 | ||||
Corn waste | 0.240 | 0.705 | −1 | |||
Rice waste | −0.472 | 0.048 | 0.729 | −1 | ||
Sugarcane waste | 0.270 | 0.653 | 0.821 | 0.639 | −1 | |
Total biomass emissions | 0.756 | 0.985 | 0.816 | 0.216 | 0.734 | −1 |
Variables | Sentinel-5p | Open Biomass Burning Emissions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SO2 | NO2 | Forest Fire | Corn Waste | Rice Waste | Sugarcane Waste | Factories | Total | |
SO2 (Sentinel-5p) | −1 | |||||||
NO2 (Sentinel-5p) | −0.816 | −1 | ||||||
Forest fire | −0.206 | 0.582 | −1 | |||||
Corn waste | −0.507 | 0.028 | −0.737 | −1 | ||||
Rice waste | 0.057 | −0.455 | −0.050 | 0.059 | −1 | |||
Sugarcane waste | −0.160 | −0.041 | −0.807 | 0.793 | −0.463 | −1 | ||
Factories | 0.545 | −0.281 | 0.616 | −0.896 | 0.386 | −0.914 | −1 | |
Total | 0.489 | −0.526 | 0.304 | −0.562 | 0.778 | −0.808 | 0.870 | −1 |
Variables | Sentinel-5p | Open Biomass Burning Emissions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SO2 | NO2 | Forest Fire | Corn Waste | Rice Waste | Sugarcane Waste | Factories | Total | |
SO2 (Sentinel-5p) | −1 | |||||||
NO2 (Sentinel-5p) | −0.236 | −1 | ||||||
Forest fire | 0.115 | 0.099 | −1 | |||||
Corn waste | 0.426 | 0.641 | −0.331 | −1 | ||||
Rice waste | −0.088 | −0.937 | 0.000 | −0.858 | −1 | |||
Sugarcane waste | 0.597 | 0.636 | 0.109 | 0.896 | −0.851 | −1 | ||
Factories | 0.069 | −0.947 | −0.391 | −0.566 | 0.899 | −0.707 | −1 | |
Total | 0.354 | −0.910 | −0.454 | −0.308 | 0.752 | −0.444 | 0.947 | −1 |
Variables | Sentinel-5p | Open Biomass Burning Emissions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SO2 | NO2 | Forest Fire | Corn Waste | Rice Waste | Sugarcane Waste | Factories | Total | |
SO2 (Sentinel-5p) | −1 | |||||||
NO2 (Sentinel-5p) | −0.769 | −1 | ||||||
Forest fire | 0.531 | 0.077 | −1 | |||||
Corn waste | −0.149 | −0.200 | −0.774 | −1 | ||||
Rice waste | −0.299 | −0.325 | −0.967 | 0.811 | −1 | |||
Sugarcane waste | −0.702 | 0.750 | −0.359 | 0.484 | 0.174 | −1 | ||
Factories | 0.474 | −0.290 | 0.667 | −0.877 | −0.589 | −0.846 | −1 | |
Total | 0.345 | −0.120 | 0.698 | −0.944 | −0.662 | −0.742 | 0.985 | −1 |
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Share and Cite
Paluang, P.; Thavorntam, W.; Phairuang, W. The Spatial–Temporal Emission of Air Pollutants from Biomass Burning during Haze Episodes in Northern Thailand. Fire 2024, 7, 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7040122
Paluang P, Thavorntam W, Phairuang W. The Spatial–Temporal Emission of Air Pollutants from Biomass Burning during Haze Episodes in Northern Thailand. Fire. 2024; 7(4):122. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7040122
Chicago/Turabian StylePaluang, Phakphum, Watinee Thavorntam, and Worradorn Phairuang. 2024. "The Spatial–Temporal Emission of Air Pollutants from Biomass Burning during Haze Episodes in Northern Thailand" Fire 7, no. 4: 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7040122