Electrification of Compact Off-Highway Vehicles—Overview of the Current State of the Art and Trends
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Off-Highway Vehicles’ Categories
3. Duty Cycles
4. Main Components and Architectures of Electric Vehicles
- tethered type: these need constant physical connection to an external electric source; this can be the power grid or an external electric generator.
- battery type: these work completely disconnected from any external power source, which is needed only to recharge the internal energy storage system when the vehicle is not in use.
- tethered-battery type: there is the possibility of using the vehicle even during charging.
4.1. Energy Storage Systems
4.2. Electric Motors
5. State of the Arts and Trends
6. Relevant Off-Highway Electric Vehicles
6.1. Tractor and Agricultural Machinery
6.2. Municipal and Property Maintenance
6.3. Transportation of Goods and Material Handling
6.4. Construction and Mining
7. Efficiency Enhancements
7.1. Hydraulics Systems and Actuators
7.2. Energy Recovery Systems
8. Hybrid Vehicles and Architectures
9. Conclusions
- In the off-highway machinery industry, the reduction of emission is not the only major driver for electrification. Indeed, the decrease of fuel consumption, the enhancement of productivity and, more generally, the clear convenience in terms of total cost of ownership are key points to successfully breaking into the market. Nonetheless, the political and technical choices of the authorities with respect to the environment and sustainability will be essential, with the presence of economic incentives and/or taxes being important variables to consider.
- The technical concept of mission and duty cycles has always been fundamental aspect of the off-highway industry, and these factors will be even more important for bringing effective, efficient and economically sustainable machinery to the market. Indeed, there are already work environments where battery or tethered electric vehicles represent the best technical and economical compromise, such as underground mining or indoor logistics. The continuous developments and the constant reduction in costs contributes to the introduction of new electric vehicles, even in highly complex work environments, like construction and agriculture.
- There are technical limits to a more widespread electrification within the off-highway machinery industry, and these mainly depend on power demands and minimum operational runtime. Less energy-demanding duty cycles in urban or indoor environments or high profitable businesses like vineyards facilitate the use of electric vehicles, especially in case of the compact ones. Conversely, bigger machinery with more intense duty cycles in more harsh environments is less suitable for battery electrification in the near future, mainly because the operational runtime achievable with the current technology cannot guarantee the minimum number of working hours, and the charging infrastructures are usually very difficult to implement in such contexts.
- Among the common trends, the most evident is the retrofitting of existing vehicles, where the electric motors and the battery pack replace the ICE and the fuel tank, with the rest of the machinery remaining almost unchanged (hydraulics, actuators, overall design, etc.). This strategy allows manufacturers to put functional vehicles on the market in the nearest future, but there is usually some distance to go before they are fully optimized. Indeed, there is generally great room for improvement, especially with respect to hydraulics.
- The application of new technologies regarding hydraulics, actuators and energy recovery systems can greatly boost the efficiency of off-highway vehicles, both electric and ICE-powered ones. On the other hand, the introduction of innovative technologies can greatly increase the upfront costs, frequently exceeding the acceptable cost-benefit ratio, as has already occurred in case of hybrid excavators.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
DC | Direct Current |
EM | Electric Motor |
EMA | Electro-Mechanical Actuator |
ICE | Internal Combustion Engine |
IM | Induction Motor |
IMC | Individual Metering Control |
NCA | Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide |
NEDC | New European Driving Cycle |
NMC | Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide |
OEM | Original Equipment Manufacturer |
PMSM | Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor |
PTO | Power Take-Off |
SOC | State of Charge |
SRM | Switched Reluctance Motor |
WLTP | World harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Procedure |
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Category | Vehicle |
---|---|
Tractors and agricultural. | Tractors, combine harvesters, field choppers, etc. |
Municipal and property maintenance. | Turf cutters, street sweeping machines, etc. |
Transportation of goods and material handling. | Forklift machines, material handlers, etc. |
Construction, forestry and mining. | Excavators, frontend loaders, backhoes, etc. |
Flywheel | Supercapacitor | Hydraulic Accumulator | Lead-Acid Battery | Ni-MH Battery | Lithium Battery | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Specific power (W/kg) | 400–1500 | 500–5000 | 2000–19,000 | 75–300 | 150–200 | 250–340 |
Specific energy (Wh/kg) | 10–30 | 2.5–5.5 | 2 | 30–50 | 60–120 | 75–200 |
Energy density (Wh/L) | 20–80 | 35 | 5 | 50–80 | 150–180 | 200–250 |
Cycles | 20,000 | 100,000 | 100,000 | 500–1500 | 2500 | 2000–10,000 |
Efficiency (%) | <96 | <95 | <90 | <80 | <90 | <95 |
Induction Motor (IM) | Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) | Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) | |
---|---|---|---|
Advantages | Very robust Low cost Easy to control | High torque density Very high efficiency Good thermal | Good torque density Very robust Low cost |
Disadvantages | Low efficiency Narrow speed range | High cost Magnets decay | Complex control Loud noise Big torque ripples |
Strategy | Comment | Vehicle | References |
---|---|---|---|
Reducing idle losses | |||
Variable displacement pump | Main valve causes 60% of losses | Excavator | [26] |
Variable displacement and variable speed pump | Efficiency gain up to 28.5% | Excavator | [106] |
Decentralized drive | Independent drive of ancillaries | Excavator | [105] |
Reducing hydraulic losses | |||
Individual Metering Control | Energy saving up to 44% | Excavator | [107] |
Direct-driven hydraulics | Overall efficiency up to 73% | Excavator | [96,97] |
Digital hydraulics | Fuel reduction up to 30% | Excavator | [108] |
Multi-chamber actuators | Fuel efficiency gain up to 50% | Excavator | [110] |
Replacement of the whole hydraulics | |||
Electro-mechanical actuators | Efficiency gain up to 83% | Forklift | [113] |
Strategy | Comment | Energy accumulator | Vehicle | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Potential energy | ||||
Third boom actuator | Energy saving ratio up to 25.5% | Hydraulic accumulator | Excavator | [121] |
Multi-chamber actuator | Reduction power consumption up to 50% | Hydraulic accumulator | Excavator | [122] |
IMC | Energy saving up to 44% | Hydraulic accumulator | Excavator | [107] |
Direct-driven hydraulics | Overall efficiency up to 73% | Battery | Excavator | [96,97] |
Kinetic energy | ||||
Regenerative braking | 31% fuel reduction | Super capacitator | Wheel loader | [115] |
ICE downsizing from 85 kW to 55.6 kW | Hydraulic accumulator | Tandem roller | [116] | |
Swing system | Regenerative efficiency up to 70% | Battery, capacitator | Excavator | [118] |
Manufacturer | Vehicle | Hybrid Architecture | Energy Accumulator | Energy Saving | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Komatsu | 20-ton excavator | Parallel hybrid | Super capacitor | 25–41% | [131] |
Hitachi | 20-ton excavator | Parallel hybrid | Super capacitor | 25% | [120] |
Kobelco | 20-ton excavator | Parallel hybrid | Lithium battery | 16% | [132] |
Hitachi | 18-ton wheel loader | Series hybrid | Super capacitor | 31% | [115] |
Rigitrac | 91 kW tractor | Series hybrid | \ | Unknown | [133] |
John Deere | 140 kW tractor | Series hybrid | \ | Unknown | [134] |
Huddig | 116 kW backhoe loader | Series hybrid | \ | Unknown | [135] |
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Beltrami, D.; Iora, P.; Tribioli, L.; Uberti, S. Electrification of Compact Off-Highway Vehicles—Overview of the Current State of the Art and Trends. Energies 2021, 14, 5565. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175565
Beltrami D, Iora P, Tribioli L, Uberti S. Electrification of Compact Off-Highway Vehicles—Overview of the Current State of the Art and Trends. Energies. 2021; 14(17):5565. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175565
Chicago/Turabian StyleBeltrami, Daniele, Paolo Iora, Laura Tribioli, and Stefano Uberti. 2021. "Electrification of Compact Off-Highway Vehicles—Overview of the Current State of the Art and Trends" Energies 14, no. 17: 5565. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14175565