Towards Deep Decarbonisation of Energy-Intensive Industries: A Review of Current Status, Technologies and Policies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Overview of Industrial Decarbonisation Worldwide
1.3. The Issues Considered
2. Materials and Methods
3. Characteristics of the Swedish Energy System and Basic Industries
3.1. Energy Portfolio
3.2. Emissions Profile: History, Present and Future Outlook
3.3. Swedish Energy-Intensive Industries (EIIs)
4. Industrial Decarbonisation
4.1. Technological Options
4.2. Decarbonising The Iron and Steel Industry
4.2.1. Current State
4.2.2. Decarbonisation Pathways
4.3. Decarbonising the Mining Industry
4.3.1. Current State
4.3.2. Decarbonisation Pathways
4.4. Decarbonising the Cement Industry
4.4.1. Current State
4.4.2. Decarbonisation Pathways
4.5. Decarbonising the Pulp and Paper Industry
4.5.1. Current State
4.5.2. Decarbonisation Pathways
4.6. Decarbonising the Refinery Sector
4.6.1. Current State
4.6.2. Decarbonisation Pathways
4.7. A Way Forward for Swedish EIIs
5. Drivers of Industrial Decarbonisation
5.1. Proactive Measures to Address the Climate and Energy Challenges
5.2. Policy Support
5.2.1. Relevant Policies at International, European and National Level
- Regulations reducing emissions of industrial gases
- Energy efficiency directive (EED)
- Renewable energy directive (RED)
- Funding for demonstration of innovative low-carbon technology and investment instruments that can provide capital to energy-intensive industries.
5.2.2. Carbon Pricing
5.2.3. Energy Efficiency Measures
5.2.4. RD&D and Technology Support
5.3. Cooperation
5.4. Technological Capabilities
5.5. Public Awareness about the Environment
6. Opportunities and Barriers
6.1. Opportunities
6.2. Barriers
- Technical
- Economic
- Market
- Institutional
7. Concluding Remarks and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Technology | Description | Example | CO2 Intensity or Reduction Potential | Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 1 | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reference Steelmaking Technology | |||||
Blast Furnace | The blast furnace (BF) is fed with iron ore, limestone and coke to produce liquid iron. The liquid iron is then converted into steel in a basic oxygen furnace (BOF). The BF partly re-uses the BF gas as fuel, but send most of the gas for use in other processes. Biochars have the potential to replace metallurgical coke, but only up to 10%. | 1.5–2.2 t CO2/t steel | Commercial (TRL 9) | [52,53,54] | |
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) | Steel scrap is heated and melted by heat of electric arcs. More than 40% of energy comes from chemical sources by fossil fuels: natural and coal. The fossil fuels could potentially be replaced by biofuels. | 0.6 t CO2/t steel | Commercial (TRL 9) | [55,56] | |
Alternative Low-Carbon Technologies | |||||
Top-gas recycling blast furnace (without CCUS) | The BF gas is conditioned and recycled in the process, thus re-introducing carbon monoxide and hydrogen (H2) in the process, which acts as reducing agents. | ULCOS-BF, IGAR | up to 25%; with CCUS can be up to 60% | TRL 7 | [54,57,58] |
Smelting reduction (without CCUS) | Ores are partly reduced in the pre-reduction unit by using off gas from the smelting unit. Thereafter, final reduction and melting takes place in the smelting unit. The raw iron is then processed in a BOF to produce steel. Unlike the BF, smelting furnaces operations allows for full utilisation of biomass substitutes. | HIsarna | up to 35%, with CCUS can be up to 80% | Commercial (TRL 9) | [58,59,60] |
Direct reduction using electrical arc furnaces | In the process, the reducing agents (natural gas) reacts with the iron ore without melting the iron. The product is a solid iron product called as sponge iron which must be melted afterwards for alloying purposes. | Midrex, HYL | 40–60% | Commercial (TRL 9) | [54,60,61] |
Hydrogen direct reduction | Instead of natural gas, this process utilises H2 as the reducing agent. The produced sponge iron is then heated and melted in EAF. | HYBRIT, GrINHy, H2Future, SuSteel, SALCOS | Up to 95% | TRL 5–7 | [62,63,64] |
Electrowinning | The electrolysis process transform iron ore into steel plate. With this technology, carbon is replaced by electricity. The BF would be an electric plant, with oxygen being the only gas emitted. | SIDERWIN, ULCOWIN | Up to 95% | TRL 5–6 | [9,64,65] |
Carbon capture utilisation and storage | CO2 is captured either before or after combustion. The concept of partial capture is being explored to reduce the cost for CO2 capture in the industrial sector. The CO2 can also be used as a feedstock for chemical or material production. | Carbon2Chem, Steelanol | Typical capture rate: 90% | TRL 6–9 | [54] |
Technology | Brief Description | CO2 Intensity or Reduction Potential | Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 1 | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cement Manufacturing Process | ||||
Dry kilns | The raw materials are ground and dried to raw meal, and then fed to the precalciner kiln. This process is more thermally efficient than the conventional wet process. | 0.85 t CO2/t clinker | Commercial (TRL 9) | [75,79] |
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) | ||||
Chemical absorption | CO2 is captured after being generated in the cement kiln via chemical absorption. | Typical capture rate > 90% | TRL 7 | [75,80,81,82] |
Oxy-fuel technology | Using pure oxygen instead of air to provide a high CO2 concentration exhaust gas stream for further capture. | Typical capture rate Full oxy-fuel > 90% Partial oxy-fuel~65% | TRL 7 | [59,78,82,83] |
Calcium looping | Flue gas containing CO2 is reacted with CaO-based sorbent to form CaCO3. The CaCO3 is passed to the calciner to produce CaO that is passed back to the carbonator while leaving a pure CO2 stream behind. | Typical capture rate > 90% | TRL 7 | [59,80,81,82] |
Electrification + CCS | Electrification of cement production combined with CCS | Potential = 0 t CO2/t clinker (if fossil free electricity is used) | TRL 2–4 | [75,82,84] |
Fuel Switching | Depend on the fuel mix percentage | [85] | ||
Biomass | Combusting biomass as a fuel to provide the necessary process heat. | TRL 9 | ||
Hydrogen | Combusting hydrogen as a fuel to provide the high temperatures required in the cement manufacturing process. | TRL 2 | ||
Alternative binders | Substitution of clinker with lower GHG cementious materials | Average 20–30% CO2 reduction. | ||
Fly ash BF slag Limestone and calcined clays | Theoretical potential 60% reduction for substitution levels of over 70%. | TRL 9 TRL 7 TRL 5–7 | [86] [82,86] [82,86] | |
Alternative cement chemistries Calcium sulfone aluminate, geopolymer, magnesium silicate, etc. | All these chemistries have potential to replace limestone, but require extensive piloting and commercialisation. | Depends on the chemistries | TRL 2–4 | [87] |
Technology | Description | CO2 Reduction Potential | Technology Readiness Level (TRL) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Waste heat recovery | Optimise heat usage and recover waste heat for new purposes | 10% | TRL 7 | [58] |
Electrification | Increased use of low-carbon electricity Use of electricity for general operations and some heating processes. Production of hydrogen with electrolysers | 25% | TRL 4–8 | [107] |
Carbon capture and storage | Partial capture of CO2 emission, for instance at steam reforming plants (SMR) to produce a low-carbon intensity hydrogen. | 25% for partial capture; up to >90% for full capture | TRL 6–7 | [107] |
Low carbon feedstocks | Integration of bio-based feedstocks, power to-fuels (renewable hydrogen) into the refinery. Negative emissions could potentially be achieved when combined with CCS. | Depending on pathways to produce renewable feedstocks | TRL 3–7 | [107] |
Industry | Capacity in 2018 | Total GHG Emissions | Historical GHGs Emission Reduction Rate (% Change) | Future Scenario of CO2-Emission Reduction c (% Change) | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Value | Unit | MtCO2, 2018 | 1990–2018 | 1990–2030 | 1990–2045 | ||
Iron and steel | 4.6 | Mt crude steel/year | 5.7 | −1.3% | 6% | 7% | [45,108,109] |
Mining | 81.4 | Mt ore/year | 0.8 | 49.2% | Not specified | Not specified | [45,70,108] |
Cement | 3.0 | Mt cement/year | 2.5 | 2.8% | −12% | −15% | [45,75,108] |
Refinery a | 21.8 | Mt crude oil/year | 3.0 | 33.2% | 46% | 49% | [45,108,110] |
Pulp and paper b | 6.2 | Mt paper and packaging/year | 0.8 | −58.8% | −64% | −72% | [45,108,111] |
Total industry d | 16.8 | −17% | −18% | −20% |
Industry | Total CO2 Emission in 2018 (Mt CO2-eq) | Decarbonisation Pathways | Status in Sweden | Example Projects | Potential Reduction of Annual CO2 Emission (Mt CO2-eq/y) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Steel | 5.7 | Hydrogen | Hydrogen direct reduction of iron ore | Demonstration project | HYBRIT | 4–5 |
Electrification | Electrification of heat treatment process (<1000 °C) Electrification of heating process (>1000 °C) | Initiated process, R&D | PLATIS | 0.3–0.4 | ||
Fuel switching | Switching to biomass-based gas Switching to biochar | R&D | Probiostål | 0.5–0.6 0.1–0.2 | ||
Mining, mineral and metal | 2.2 | Electrification | Electrification of processes Electrification of work machines | R&D Test project | Electrified Mine Truck Operation | 0.2–0.3 0.5–1 |
Fuel switching | Switching to biofuels | R&D | HYBRIT | 0.5–0.6 | ||
CCS/CCU | CO2 capture for reuse or storage in geological formation | Demo and test facilities required | 0.4–0.5 | |||
Cement | 2.5 | Electrification | Electrification of heating processes | R&D, test project | Cemzero | 0.4–0.6 |
Fuel switching | Switching to biofuels in heating process | Currently, 20% biofuels and 50% waste fuel | 0.4–0.6 | |||
CCS/CCU | CO2 capture for reuse or storage in geological formation | Pilot project in Norway | 1–1.1 | |||
New products | CO2 uptake in cement-containing products and new cement varieties | R&D | 0.3–0.4 | |||
Pulp & paper | 0.8 | Electrification | Electrification of heating process | R&D | Not specified | |
Fuel switching | Replace fossil oil in the lime kilns with biofuels | Ongoing | Not specified | |||
Refinery | 2.8 | Hydrogen | Replace fossil-based hydrogen with renewable H2 | Test project | Preem-Vattenfall | Not specified |
CCS/CCU | CO2 capture for reuse or storage in geological formation | Test project, under development | Preem CCS, CinfraCap | Not specified | ||
New products | Production of renewable fuels | Ongoing process, R&D | Not specified |
Policy Type | Policy | Short Description | Effective Date/Year |
---|---|---|---|
Price-based system | Carbon dioxide (CO2) tax | Most fossil fuel use, as well as low blends of biofuels in gasoline and diesel are subject to CO2 tax. Emitters to pay a fee per ton of CO2 they emit, at a nominal rate of SEK 1190 per tonne of CO2. Industries covered by the EU ETS generally do not pay the CO2 Tax. | 1991 |
Energy tax | Most fossil fuels as well as a low blends of biofuels in gasoline and diesel used in the industry are subject to the energy tax. The manufacturing industry pays 30% of the general energy tax. | 1924 | |
EU ETS | Under the ‘cap and trade’ principle, a cap is set on the total emissions that can be emitted by all participants but, within that limit, allows participants in the system to buy and sell allowances as they require. Includes emissions from major industries, incineration plants and civil aviation within EU. | 1 January 2005 | |
Technology support policies | Climate leap | The program aims to reduce emissions by providing local and regional investments in all sectors, except those included in the EU ETS. | 2015 |
Industrial leap | The program aims to support the development of technologies and processes to significantly reduce process emissions in Swedish industry. Feasibility studies and full-scale investments can be granted. | 2018 | |
Investment support for renewables | The program aims to support solar power and initiatives for wind power through investment support, dissemination of knowledge and information. | 2009 | |
Quota system | Electricity certificate system | The system aims to increase the production of renewable electricity. Producers of electricity are allocated a certificate unit for every MWh of electricity generated, which can then be sold in an open market. The purchasers are mainly electricity suppliers having quota obligations. | 2003 |
Command and control regulations | Environmental code | The code contains general rules for consideration to be observed in all activities and measures that affect the environment including GHG emissions. | 1 January 1999 |
Information and voluntary approaches | Energy audit | Large companies are required to conduct an energy audit at least every fourth year except they have implemented an environment or energy management system. | 2010 |
Energy step | Energy efficiency program where companies can get support for projecting energy efficiency actions or investing in energy efficiency measures identified in the audit. | 2018 | |
Grants energy audit | Financial support to small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) to conduct an energy audit. | 2010 | |
Energy and climate coaches | A national initiative that combines coaching and knowledge transfer between participating companies to improve energy efficiency. | 2016 | |
Energy efficiency network | A network project for SMEs that supporting them to introduce energy management principles. The networks has regional coordinators and energy experts. | 2015 | |
Information | Provides useful knowledge and tools on how to mitigate climate change and adapt to climate change. |
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Nurdiawati, A.; Urban, F. Towards Deep Decarbonisation of Energy-Intensive Industries: A Review of Current Status, Technologies and Policies. Energies 2021, 14, 2408. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092408
Nurdiawati A, Urban F. Towards Deep Decarbonisation of Energy-Intensive Industries: A Review of Current Status, Technologies and Policies. Energies. 2021; 14(9):2408. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092408
Chicago/Turabian StyleNurdiawati, Anissa, and Frauke Urban. 2021. "Towards Deep Decarbonisation of Energy-Intensive Industries: A Review of Current Status, Technologies and Policies" Energies 14, no. 9: 2408. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14092408