Introducing Grasslands into Crop Rotations, a Way to Restore Microbiodiversity and Soil Functions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Soil Samples
2.2. Microbial Biomass C Measurement
2.3. Phospholipid Fatty Acids (PLFAs) Analysis
2.4. Ergosterol Analysis
2.5. Total DNA Extraction and Quantification
2.6. Real-Time PCR Amplification
2.7. Enzyme Assays
2.8. Statistical Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Soil Physicochemical Characteristics
3.2. Microbial Communities’ Abundance
3.3. Enzyme Activities
3.4. Relationship between Soil Physicochemical Characteristics, Microbial Communities, and Enzyme Activities
3.5. Relationships between Abundance of Microbial Communities and Enzyme Activities Levels Following the Introduction of Grassland into Crop Rotation
4. Discussion
4.1. Influence of Soil Characteristics in Shaping the Whole Microbial Community and Enzyme Activities
4.2. Relationships between Microbial Communities and Soil Enzyme Activities
4.3. Transition of Microbial Abundance and Functional States Following the Introduction of Grassland into Crop Rotation
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Plots | Abbreviations | Clay (g/kg) | Silt (g/kg) | Sand (g/kg) | Agricultural Practices | Land Use at the Sampling Time | Plots Area (ha) | Cumulative Years under Grassland since 20 Years |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Permanent grassland | PG 1 | 163 | 633 | 204 | Permanent grassland no tillage | Grassland | 3 | 20 years |
Restored grasslands | RGI 2 | 141 | 665 | 194 | Restored grassland | Grassland | 2 | 5.5 years |
RGII 3 | 126 | 665 | 210 | Restored grassland | Grassland | 3 | 11 years | |
Temporary grasslands | TC 4 | 141 | 656 | 203 | Temporary grassland, switched to crop in 2010 | Wheat crop | 3 | 14 years |
TG 5 | 147 | 651 | 202 | Temporary grassland | Grassland | 3 | 14 years | |
Continuous crop | CC 6 | 133 | 671 | 196 | Continuous crop and fertilization | Wheat crop | 4 | 0 year |
Plots | Permanent Grassland | Restored Grasslands | Temporary Grasslands | Continuous Crop | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Years | PG | RGI | RGII | TC | TG | CC |
2010 | grassland | grassland | grassland | Triticum aestivum | grassland | Triticum aestivum |
2009 | grassland | grassland | grassland | Zea mays | grassland | Zea mays |
2008 | grassland | Triticum aestivum | Triticum aestivum | grassland | grassland | Triticum aestivum |
2007 | grassland | Zea mays | Vicia faba | grassland | grassland | Zea mays |
2006 | grassland | Triticum aestivum | Linum usitatissimum | grassland | grassland | Triticum aestivum |
2005 | grassland | Zea mays | Triticum aestivum | grassland | Triticum aestivum | Linum usitatissimum |
2004 | grassland | Triticum aestivum | Zea mays | grassland | Zea mays | Triticum aestivum |
2003 | grassland | Zea mays | grassland | Triticum aestivum | grassland | Beta vulgaris |
2002 | grassland | grassland | grassland | Zea mays | grassland | Triticum aestivum |
2001 | grassland | grassland | grassland | grassland | grassland | Zea mays |
2000 | grassland | grassland | grassland | grassland | Triticum aestivum | Triticum aestivum |
1999 | grassland | Pisum sativum | grassland | grassland | Zea mays | Beta vulgaris |
1998 | grassland | Triticum aestivum | grassland | grassland | grassland | Triticum aestivum |
1997 | grassland | Zea mays | grassland | grassland | grassland | Linum usitatissimum |
1996 | grassland | Triticum aestivum | grassland | grassland | grassland | - |
1995 | grassland | Zea mays | grassland | grassland | grassland | - |
1994 | grassland | Linum usitatissimum | Triticum aestivum | grassland | grassland | - |
1993 | grassland | Zea mays | Zea mays | Triticum aestivum | grassland | - |
1992 | grassland | Triticum aestivum | Triticum aestivum | Zea mays | Triticum aestivum | - |
1991 | grassland | Zea mays | Pisum sativum | grassland | Zea mays | - |
Enzymes | Abbreviations | E.C. Numbers | Substrates (Buffer pH and Concentration) |
---|---|---|---|
Global enzymatic activities | |||
Dehydrogenase | DEH | 1.1.1.1 | 2,3,5 triphenyltetrazolium chloride (pH 7; 0.12 M) |
Fluorescein diacetate hydrolase | FDA | Fluorescein diacetate (pH 7.6; 1000 µg mL−1) | |
C cycle enzymatic activities | |||
β-galactosidase | GAL | 3.2.1.23 | p-NP-β-D-galactopyranoside (pH 7; 0.02 M) |
β-glucosidase | GLU | 3.2.1.21 | p-NP-β-D-glucopyranoside (pH 6; 50 mM) |
Cellulase | CEL | 3.2.1.4 | p-NP-β-D-cellobioside (pH 6; 10 mM) |
Laccase | LAC | 1.10.3.2 | 2,2′-azino-bis-(3 ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (pH 5; 0.5 mM) |
Lipase | LIP | 3.1.1.3 | p-NP-palmitate (pH 6.5; 1 mM) |
N-acetylglucosaminidase | NAG | 3.2.1.30 | p-NP-N-acetylglucosaminide (pH 6; 10 mM) |
Xylanase | XYL | 3.2.1.8 | Xylan (pH 5.5, 12 g L−1) |
N cycle enzymatic activities | |||
Arylamidase | ARYLN | 3.4.11.2 | L-leucine b-naphtylamide (pH 8; 2 mM) |
Urease | URE | 3.5.1.5 | Urea (pH 7; 0.05 mM) |
S cycle enzymatic activities | |||
Arylsulfatase | ARYLS | 3.1.6.1 | p-NP-sulfate (pH7; 25 mM) |
P cycle enzymatic activities | |||
Acid phosphatase | ACP | 3.1.3.2 | p-NP-phosphate (pH 5; 50 mM) |
Alkaline phosphatase | AKP | 3.1.3.1 | p-NP-phosphate (pH 9; 50 mM) |
Plots | Permanent Grassland | Restored Grasslands | Temporary Grasslands | Continuous Crop | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PG | RGI | RGII | TC | TG | CC | |
Total C (g kg−1) | 25.74 ± (0.96) a | 11.11 ± (0.34) d | 14.30 ± (0.22) c | 13.89 ± (0.53) c | 18.60 ± (0.81) b | 10.67 ± (0.34) d |
Total N (g kg−1) | 2.46 ± (0.07) a | 1.14 ± (0.03) d | 1.41 ± (0.02) c | 1.44 ± (0.06) c | 1.81 ± (0.06) b | 1.08 ± (0.04) d |
C/N ratio | 10.47 ± (0.18) a | 9.76 ± (0.06) b | 10.15 ± (0.11) a | 9.61 ± (0.18) b | 10.25 ± (0.09) a | 9.85 ± (0.13) b |
Moisture (%) | 13.83 ± (0.55) a | 10.53 ± (0.29) c | 9.58 ± (0.19) d | 10.45 ± (0.25) b | 11.78 ± (0.56) b | 9.35 ± (0.25) d |
pHwater | 5.46 ± (0.05) b | 5.57 ± (0.05) b | 6.04 ± (0.05) c | 6.27 ± (0.05) a | 5.51 ± (0.05) b | 6.43 ± (0.05) a |
CEC (cmol+ kg−1) | 8.08 ± (0.26) a | 5.46 ± (0.37) d | 6.92 ± (0.31) b | 7.76 ± (0.05) c | 7.29 ± (0.20) b | 7.04 ± (0.30) b |
P2O5 (g kg−1) | 0.13 ± (0.03) bc | 0.09 ± (0.01) d | 0.13 ± (0.01) c | 0.15 ± (0.01) ab | 0.19 ± (0.02) ab | 0.20 ± (0.02) a |
Plots | Permanent Grassland | Restored Grasslands | Temporary Grasslands | Continuous Crop | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abundance of Microbial Communities | PG | RGI | RGII | TC | TG | CC |
Total microbial biomass | ||||||
Total dsDNA (µg g−1) | 25.82 ± (4.37) a | 12.22 ± (3.24) c | 16.49 ± (0.28) b | 9.76 ± (1.79) b | 15.70 ± (3.62) bc | 13.24 ± (3.11) b |
Total microbial PLFA (nmol g−1) | 717.05 ± (70.2) a | 184.26 ± (4.00) c | 259.41 ± (29.1) b | 102.66 ± (31.3) d | 262.33 ± (84.5) bcd | 141.33 ± (26.8) d |
Microbial biomass carbon (mg C kg−1) | 987.78 ± (88.4) a | 250.52 ± (13.4) d | 348.50 ± (6.03) c | 339.32 ± (23.3) c | 570.32 ± (63.1) b | 234.39 ± (16.8) d |
Bacterial biomass | ||||||
Bacterial dsDNA (µg g−1) | 6.91 ± (1.70) a | 3.30 ± (1.12) bc | 3.96 ± (0.50) b | 2.91 ± (0.39) c | 3.28 ± (1.7) abc | 2.93 ± (1.20) bc |
Total bacterial PLFA (nmol g−1) | 348.88 ± (29.7) a | 72.66 ± (0.82) c | 105.34 ± (13.4) b | 41.62 ± (17.0) d | 110.76 ± (41.7) bcd | 53.78 ± (9.79) d |
Fungal biomass | ||||||
Fungal dsDNA (µg g−1) | 1.78 ± (0.25) a | 1.55 ± (0.84) abc | 1.34 ± (0.19) ab | 0.65 ± (0.12) c | 1.13 ± (0.58) abc | 0.84 ± (0.29) bc |
Total fungal PLFA (nmol g−1) | 22.68 ± (5.21) a | 9.95 ± (0.33) c | 13.10 ± (1.57) b | 1.95 ± (0.72) e | 12.04 ± (4.44) bc | 5.12 ± (1.10) d |
Total ergosterol (µg g−1) | 2.08 ± (0.60) a | 0.99 ± (0.22) b | 1.21 ± (0.21) b | 0.82 ± (0.06) b | 3.12 ± (0.68) a | 0.65 ± (0.22) b |
Free ergosterol (µg g−1) | 1.28 ± (0.23) a | 0.77 ± (0.08) b | 0.75 ± (0.45) abc | 0.48 ± (0.04) c | 1.06 ± (0.10) a | 0.51 ± (0.04) c |
Plots | Permanent Grassland | Restored Grasslands | Temporary Grasslands | Continuous Crop | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Enzyme Activities (nmole min−1 g dry soil−1) | PG | RGI | RGII | TC | TG | CC |
Global enzyme | ||||||
DEH | 0.20 ± (0.10) a | 0.04 ± (0.02) b | 0.04 ± (0.03) bc | 0.04 ± (0.03) bc | 0.08 ± (0.04) ab | 0.00 ± (0.01) c |
FDA | 3.00 ± (0.30) a | 1.56 ± (0.04) b | 2.56 ± (0.54) a | 1.30 ± (0.84) b | 2.12 ± (0.46) a | 1.08 ± (0.25) b |
C cycle enzymes | ||||||
GAL | 4.65 ± (0.28) a | 2.07 ± (0.28) b | 2.20 ± (0.36) b | 1.48 ± (0.12) c | 3.42 ± (0.36) d | 1.35 ± (0.16) e |
GLU | 9.65 ± (0.81) b | 3.36 ± (0.52) e | 7.97 ± (0.44) c | 5.94 ± (0.67) d | 12.10 ± (0.94) a | 5.36 ± (0.65) d |
CEL | 1.96 ± (0.24) a | 0.77 ± (0.23) b | 0.94 ± (0.14) b | 0.81 ± (0.16) b | 1.75 ± (0.26) a | 0.65 ± (0.09) b |
LAC | 8.03 ± (1.35) a | 5.80 ± (1.47) ab | 2.57 ± (1.30) c | 1.41 ± (0.58) c | 3.53 ± (1.88) bc | 2.73 ± (0.63) c |
LIP | 2.82 ± (0.26) a | 1.68 ± (0.16) b | 1.46 ± (0.32) b | 1.06 ± (0.16) c | 1.72 ± (0.17) b | 0.74 ± (0.19) c |
XYL | 0.08 ± (0.01) a | 0.01 ± (0.01) c | 0.01 ± (0.00) c | 0.02 ± (0.01) bc | 0.04 ± (0.01) b | 0.00 ± (0.01) c |
N cycle enzymes | ||||||
ARYLN | 3.94 ± (0.39) a | 1.32 ± (0.09) c | 1.66 ± (0.08) b | 1.49 ± (0.11) c | 1.90 ± (0.32) b | 2.04 ± (0.24) b |
NAG | 5.78 ± (0.72) a | 2.03 ± (0.41) cd | 2.70 ± (0.20) d | 1.97 ± (0.64) cd | 4.20 ± (0.46) b | 1.36 ± (0.31) c |
URE | 79.43 ± (10.03) a | 25.84 ± (2.46) d | 34.63 ± (2.01) c | 30.01 ± (3.57) cd | 54.71 ± (3.32) b | 21.18 ± (0.36) e |
S cycle enzyme | ||||||
ARYLS | 7.27 ± (0.23) a | 2.70 ± (0.11) b | 3.32 ± (0.22) c | 2.70 ± (0.10) b | 5.48 ± (0.33) d | 1.83 ± (0.24) e |
P cycle enzymes | ||||||
ACP | 42.72 ± (1.25) a | 10.73 ± (7.23) e | 20.86 ± (1.92) c | 17.74 ± (0.91) d | 30.60 ± (2.29) b | 10.81 ± (0.90) e |
AKP | 4.30 ± (1.13) c | 2.65 ± (0.39) d | 7.90 ± (0.56) a | 3.52 ± (1.11) cd | 5.24 ± (1.17) cb | 6.15 ± (0.48) b |
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Riah-Anglet, W.; Cusset, E.; Chaussod, R.; Criquet, S.; Norini, M.-P.; Cheviron, N.; Mougin, C.; Laval, K.; Latour, X.; Legras, M.; et al. Introducing Grasslands into Crop Rotations, a Way to Restore Microbiodiversity and Soil Functions. Agriculture 2021, 11, 909. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11100909
Riah-Anglet W, Cusset E, Chaussod R, Criquet S, Norini M-P, Cheviron N, Mougin C, Laval K, Latour X, Legras M, et al. Introducing Grasslands into Crop Rotations, a Way to Restore Microbiodiversity and Soil Functions. Agriculture. 2021; 11(10):909. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11100909
Chicago/Turabian StyleRiah-Anglet, Wassila, Elodie Cusset, Rémi Chaussod, Stéven Criquet, Marie-Paule Norini, Nathalie Cheviron, Christian Mougin, Karine Laval, Xavier Latour, Marc Legras, and et al. 2021. "Introducing Grasslands into Crop Rotations, a Way to Restore Microbiodiversity and Soil Functions" Agriculture 11, no. 10: 909. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11100909