„Wirkungen der Meditation“ – Versionsunterschied

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The psychological and physiological effects of meditation have been studied. In recent years, studies of meditation have increasingly involved the use of modern instruments, such as fMRI and EEG, which are able to observe brain physiology and neural activity in living subjects, either during the act of meditation itself or before and after meditation. Correlations can thus be established between meditative practices and brain structure or function.^[1]

Since the 1950s hundreds of studies on meditation have been conducted, but many of the early studies were flawed and thus yielded unreliable results.^[2]^[3] Contemporary studies have attempted to address many of these flaws with the hope of guiding current research into a more fruitful path.^[4] In 2013, researchers found moderate evidence that meditation can reduce anxiety, depression, and pain, but no evidence that it is more effective than active treatments such as drugs or exercise.^[5] Another major review article also cautioned about possible misinformation and misinterpretation of data related to the subject.^[6]^[7]

Effects of mindfulness meditation

A previous study commissioned by the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality found that meditation interventions reduce multiple negative dimensions of psychological stress.^[5] Other systematic reviews and meta-analyses show that mindfulness meditation has several mental health benefits such as bringing about reductions in depression symptoms,^[8]^[9]^[10] improvements in mood,^[11] stress-resilience^[11] and attentional control.^[11] Mindfulness interventions also appear to be a promising intervention for managing depression in youth.^[12]^[13] Mindfulness meditation is useful for managing stress,^[9]^[14]^[15]^[11] anxiety^[8]^[9]^[15] and also appears to be effective in treating substance use disorders.^[16]^[17]^[18] A recent meta analysis by Hilton et al. (2016) including 30 randomized controlled trials found high quality evidence for improvement in depressive symptoms.^[19] Other review studies have shown that mindfulness meditation can enhance the psychological functioning of breast cancer survivors,^[9] is effective for people with eating disorders^[20]^[21] and may also be effective in treating psychosis.^[22]^[23]^[24]

Studies have also shown that rumination and worry contribute to mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety,^[25] and mindfulness-based interventions are effective in the reduction of worry.^[25]^[26]

Some studies suggest that mindfulness meditation contributes to a more coherent and healthy sense of self and identity, when considering aspects such as sense of responsibility, authenticity, compassion, self-acceptance and character.^[27]^[28]

Brain mechanisms

The analgesic effect of mindfulness meditation may involve multiple brain mechanisms, but there are too few studies to allow conclusions about its effects on chronic pain.^[29]

Changes in the brain

Mindfulness meditation is under study for whether structural changes in the brain may occur, but most studies have weak methodology.^[30] A meta-analysis found preliminary evidence for effects in the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions associated with body awareness.^[31] However, the results should be interpreted with caution because funnel plots indicate that publication bias is an issue in meditation research.^[30] A 2016 review using 78 functional neuroimaging studies suggests that different meditation styles are associated with different brain activity.^[32]

Attention and mindfulness

Attention networks and mindfulness meditation

Psychological and Buddhist conceptualizations of mindfulness both highlight awareness and attention training as key components, in which levels of mindfulness can be cultivated with practise of mindfulness meditation.^[33]^[11] Focused attention meditation (FAM) and open monitoring meditation (OMM) are distinct types of mindfulness meditation; FAM refers to the practice of intently maintaining focus on one object, whereas OMM is the progression of general awareness of one's surroundings while regulating thoughts.^[34]^[35]

Focused attention meditation is typically practiced first to increase the ability to enhance attentional stability, and awareness of mental states with the goal being to transition to open monitoring meditation practise that emphasizes the ability to monitor moment-by-moment changes in experience, without a focus of attention to maintain. Mindfulness meditation may lead to greater cognitive flexibility.^[36]

In an active randomized controlled study completed in 2019, participants who practiced mindfulness meditation demonstrated a greater improvement in awareness and attention than participants in the active control condition.^[11] Alpha wave neural oscillation power (which is normally associated with an alert resting state) has been shown to be increased by mindfulness in both healthy subjects and patients.^[37]

Areas of attention

Sustained attention

Tasks of sustained attention relate to vigilance and the preparedness that aids completing a particular task goal. Psychological research into the relationship between mindfulness meditation and the sustained attention network have revealed the following:

In a continuous performance task^[38] an association was found between higher dispositional mindfulness and more stable maintenance of sustained attention.
In an EEG study, the attentional blink effect was reduced, and P3b ERP amplitude decreased in a group of participants who completed a mindfulness retreat.^[39] The incidence of reduced attentional blink effect relates to an increase in detectability of a second target.
A greater degree of attentional resources may also be reflected in faster response times in task performance, as was found for participants with higher levels of mindfulness experience.^[40]

Selective attention

Selective attention as linked with the orientation network, is involved in selecting the relevant stimuli to attend to.
Performance in the ability to limit attention to potentially sensory inputs (i.e. selective attention) was found to be higher following the completion of an eight-week MBSR course, compared to a one-month retreat and control group (with no mindfulness training).^[40] The ANT task is a general applicable task designed to test the three attention networks, in which participants are required to determine the direction of a central arrow on a computer screen.^[41] Efficiency in orienting that represent the capacity to selectively attend to stimuli was calculated by examining changes in the reaction time that accompanied cues indicating where the target occurred relative to the aid of no cues.
Meditation experience was found to correlate negatively with reaction times on an Eriksen flanker task measuring responses to global and local figures. Similar findings have been observed for correlations between mindfulness experience in an orienting score of response times taken from Attention Network Task performance.^[42]
Participants who engaged in the Meditation Breath Attention Score exercise performed better on anagram tasks and reported greater focused attention on this task compared to those who did not undergo this exercise.^[43]

Executive control attention

Executive control attention include functions of inhibiting the conscious processing of distracting information. In the context of mindful meditation, distracting information relates to attention grabbing mental events such as thoughts related to the future or past.^[35]
More than one study have reported findings of a reduced Stroop effect following mindfulness meditation training.^[36]^[44]^[45] The Stroop effect indexes interference created by having words printed in colour that differ to the read semantic meaning e.g. green printed in red. However findings for this task are not consistently found.^[46]^[47] For instance the MBSR may differ to how mindful one becomes relative to a person who is already high in trait mindfulness.^[48]
Using the Attention Network Task (a version of Eriksen flanker task^[41]) it was found that error scores that indicate executive control performance were reduced in experienced meditators ^[40] and following a brief five-session mindfulness training program.^[44]
A neuroimaging study supports behavioural research findings that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with greater proficiency to inhibit distracting information. As greater activation of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was shown for mindfulness meditators than matched controls.^[49]
Participants with at least 6 years of experience meditating performed better on the Stroop Test compared to participants who had not had experience meditating.^[50] The group of meditators also had lower reaction times during this test than the group of non-meditators.^[50]
Following a Stroop test, reduced amplitude of the P3 ERP component was found for a meditation group relative to control participants. This was taken to signify that mindfulness meditation improves executive control functions of attention. An increased amplitude in the N2 ERP component was also observed in the mindfulness meditation group, thought to reflect more efficient perceptual discrimination in earlier stages of perceptual processing.^[51]

Emotion regulation and mindfulness

Research shows meditation practices lead to greater emotional regulation abilities. Mindfulness can help people become more aware of thoughts in the present moment, and this increased self-awareness leads to better processing and control over one's responses to surroundings or circumstances.^[52]^[53]

Positive effects of this heightened awareness include a greater sense of empathy for others, an increase in positive patterns of thinking, and a reduction in anxiety.^[53]^[52] Reductions in rumination also have been found following mindfulness meditation practice, contributing to the development of positive thinking and emotional well-being.^[54]

Evidence of mindfulness and emotion regulation outcomes

Emotional reactivity can be measured and reflected in brain regions related to the production of emotions.^[55] It can also be reflected in tests of attentional performance, indexed in poorer performance in attention related tasks. The regulation of emotional reactivity as initiated by attentional control capacities can be taxing to performance, as attentional resources are limited.^[56]

Patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) exhibited reduced amygdala activation in response to negative self-beliefs following an MBSR intervention program that involves mindfulness meditation practice.^[57]
The LPP ERP component indexes arousal and is larger in amplitude for emotionally salient stimuli relative to neutral.^[58]^[59]^[60] Individuals higher in trait mindfulness showed lower LPP responses to high arousal unpleasant images. These findings suggest that individuals with higher trait mindfulness were better able to regulate emotional reactivity to emotionally evocative stimuli.^[61]
Participants who completed a seven-week mindfulness training program demonstrated a reduction in a measure of emotional interference (measured as slower responses times following the presentation of emotional relative to neutral pictures). This suggests a reduction in emotional interference.^[62]
Following a MBSR intervention, decreases in social anxiety symptom severity were found, as well as increases in bilateral parietal cortex neural correlates. This is thought to reflect the increased employment of inhibitory attentional control capacities to regulate emotions.^[63]^[64]
Participants who engaged in emotion-focus meditation and breathing meditation exhibited delayed emotional response to negatively valanced film stimuli compared to participants who did not engage in any type of meditation.^[65]

Controversies in mindful emotion regulation

It is debated as to whether top-down executive control regions such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC),^[66] are required^[64] or not^[57] to inhibit reactivity of the amygdala activation related to the production of evoked emotional responses. Arguably an initial increase in activation of executive control regions developed during mindfulness training may lessen with increasing mindfulness expertise.^[67]

Stress reduction

Research has shown stress reduction benefits from mindfulness.^[68]^[69]^[70] A 2019 study tested the effects of meditation on the psychological well-being, work stress, and blood pressure of employees working in the United Kingdom. One group of participants were instructed to meditate once a day using a mindfulness app on their smartphones, while the control group did not engage in meditation. Measurements of well-being, stress, and perceived workplace support were taken for both groups before the intervention and then again after four months. Based on self-report questionnaires, the participants who engaged in meditation showed a significant increase in psychological well-being and perceived workplace support. The meditators also reported a significant decrease in anxiety and stress levels.^[70]

Another study conducted to understand association between mindfulness, perceived stress and work engagement indicated that mindfulness was associated with lower perceived stress and higher work engagement.^[71]

Other research shows decreased stress levels in people who engage in meditation after shorter periods of time as well. Evidence of significant stress reduction was found after only three weeks of meditation intervention.^[11] Brief, daily meditation sessions can alter one's behavioral response to stressors, improving coping mechanisms and decreasing the adverse impact caused by stress.^[72]^[73] A study from 2016 examined anxiety and emotional states of naive meditators before and after a seven-day meditation retreat in Thailand. Results displayed a significant reduction in perceived stress after this traditional Buddhist meditation retreat.^[73]

Insomnia and sleep

Chronic insomnia is often associated with anxious hyperarousal and frustration over inability to sleep.^[74] Mindfulness has been shown to reduce insomnia and improve sleep quality, although self-reported measures show larger effects than objective measures.^[74]^[75]

Future directions

A large part of mindfulness research is dependent on technology. As new technology continues to be developed, new imaging techniques will become useful in this field. Real-time fMRI might give immediate feedback and guide participants through the programs. It could also be used to more easily train and evaluate mental states during meditation itself.^[76]

Effects of other types of meditation

Insight (Vipassana) meditation

Vipassana meditation is a component of Buddhist practice. Phra Taweepong Inwongsakul and Sampath Kumar from the University of Mysore have been studying the effects of this meditation on 120 students by measuring the associated increase of cortical thickness in the brain. The results of this study are inconclusive.^[77]^[78] Vipassana meditation leads to more than just mindfulness, but has been found to reduce stress, increase well-being and self-kindness.^[79] These effects were found to be most powerful short-term, but still had a relatively significant impact six months later. In a study conducted by Szekeres and Wertheim (2014), they found stress to be the category that seemed to have the most regression, but the others contained higher prevalence when compared to the participants' original scores that were given before embarking on Vipassana meditation. Overall, according to self-reports, Vipassana can have short and long-term effects on an individual.

EEG studies on Vipassana meditators seemed to indicate significant increase in parieto-occipital gamma rhythms in experienced meditators (35–45 Hz).^[80] In another study conducted by NIMHANS on Vipassana meditators, researchers found readings associated with improved cognitive processing after a session of meditation, with distinct and graded difference in the readings between novice meditators and experienced meditators.^[81]

An essential component to the Vipassana mediation approach is the focus on awareness, referring to bodily sensations and psychological status. In a study conducted by Zeng et al. (2013), awareness was described as the acknowledgement of consciousness which is monitoring all aspects of the environment.^[82] This definition differentiates the concept of awareness from mindfulness. The emphasis on awareness, and the way it assists in monitoring emotion, is unique to this meditative practice.

Kundalini yoga

Kundalini yoga has proved to increase the prevention of cognitive decline and evaluate the response of biomarkers to treatment, thereby shedding light on the underlying mechanisms of the link between Kundalini Yoga and cognitive impairment. For the study, 81 participants aged 55 and older who had subjective memory complaints and met criteria for mild cognitive impairment, indicated by a total score of 0.5 on the Clinical Dementia Rating Scale. The results showed that at 12 weeks, both the yoga group showed significant improvements in recall memory and visual memory and showed a significant sustained improvement in memory up to the 24-week follow-up, the yoga group showed significant improvement in verbal fluency and sustained significant improvements in executive functioning at week 24. In addition, the yoga cohort showed significant improvement in depressive symptoms, apathy, and resilience from emotional stress. This research was provided by Helen Lavretsky, M.D. and colleagues.^[83] In another study, Kundalini Yoga did not show significant effectiveness in treating obsessive-compulsive disorders compared with Relaxation/Meditation.^[84]

Sahaja yoga and mental silence

Sahaja yoga meditation is regarded as a mental silence meditation, and has been shown to correlate with particular brain^[85]^[86] and brain wave^[87]^[88]^[89] characteristics. One study has led to suggestions that Sahaja meditation involves 'switching off' irrelevant brain networks for the maintenance of focused internalized attention and inhibition of inappropriate information.^[90] Sahaja meditators appear to benefit from lower depression^[91] and scored above control group for emotional well-being and mental health measures on SF-36 ratings.^[92]^[93]^[94]

A study comparing practitioners of Sahaja Yoga meditation with a group of non-meditators doing a simple relaxation exercise, measured a drop in skin temperature in the meditators compared to a rise in skin temperature in the non-meditators as they relaxed. The researchers noted that all other meditation studies that have observed skin temperature have recorded increases and none have recorded a decrease in skin temperature. This suggests that Sahaja Yoga meditation, being a mental silence approach, may differ both experientially and physiologically from simple relaxation.^[89]

Transcendental Meditation

Vorlage:Update section The first Transcendental Meditation (TM) research studies were conducted at UCLA and Harvard University and published in Science and the American Journal of Physiology in 1970 and 1971.^[95] However, much research has been of poor quality,^[2]^[84]^[96] including a high risk for bias due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization and the selection of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.^[97]^[98]^[99] Independent systematic reviews have not found health benefits for TM exceeding those of relaxation and health education.^[2]^[84]^[98] A 2013 statement from the American Heart Association described the evidence supporting TM as a treatment for hypertension as Level IIB, meaning that TM "may be considered in clinical practice" but that its effectiveness is "unknown/unclear/uncertain or not well-established".^[100]

In another study, TM proved comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety.^[84] Practitioners of TM have demonstrated a one Hertz reduction in EEG alpha wave frequency relative to controls.^[101]

Research on unspecified or multiple types of meditation

Brain activity

The medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices have been found to be relatively deactivated during meditation by experienced meditators using concentration, lovingkindness and choiceless awareness meditation.^[102] In addition experienced meditators were found to have stronger coupling between the posterior cingulate, dorsal anterior cingulate, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices both when meditating and when not meditating.^[103] Over time meditation can actually increase the integrity of both gray and white matter. The added amount of gray matter found in the brain stem after meditation improves communication between the cortex and all other areas within the brain.^[104]^[105] Meditation often stimulates a large network of cortical regions including the frontal and parietal regions, lateral occipital lobe, the insular cortex, thalamic nuclei, basal ganglia, and the cerebellum region in the brain. These parts of the brain are connected with attention and the default network of the brain which is associated to day dreaming.^[106]

In addition, both meditation and yoga have been found to have impacts on the brain, specifically the caudate.^[108] Strengthening of the caudate has been shown in meditators as well as yogis. The increased connectedness of the caudate has potential to be responsible for the improved well-being that is associated with yoga and meditation.^[107]

Changes in the brain

Meditation is under preliminary research to assess possible changes in grey matter concentrations.^[30]

Attention/Mind wandering

Meditation has been found to decrease mind wandering and allows the brain to fully focus on challenging tasks for longer periods of time without getting distracted.^[109] This is due to an increased ability to reduce activity in the default mode network when focusing on a particular task.^[110] Non-directive forms of meditation where the meditator lets their mind wander freely can actually produce higher levels of activity in the default mode network when compared to a resting state or having the brain in a neutral place.^[110]^[111] These Non directive forms of meditation allows the meditators to have better control over thoughts during everyday activities or when focusing on specific task due to a reduced frustration at the brains mind wandering process.^[111] When given a specific task, meditation can allow quicker response to changing environmental stimuli. Meditation can allow the brain to decrease attention to unwanted responses of irrelevant environmental stimuli and a reduces the Stroop effect. Those who meditate have regularly demonstrated more control on what they focus their attention on while maintaining a mindful awareness on what is around them.^[112] Experienced meditators have been shown to have an increased ability when it comes to conflict monitoring^[11] and find it easier to switch between competing stimuli.^[113] Those who practice meditation experience an increase of attentional resources in the brain and steady meditation practice can lead to the reduction of the attentional blink due to a decreased mental exertion when identifying important stimuli.^[113]

Perception

Studies have shown that meditation has both short-term and long-term effects on various perceptual faculties. In 1984 a study showed that meditators have a significantly lower detection threshold for light stimuli of short duration.^[114] In 2000 a study of the perception of visual illusions by zen masters, novice meditators, and non-meditators showed statistically significant effects found for the Poggendorff Illusion but not for the Müller-Lyer Illusion. The zen masters experienced a statistically significant reduction in initial illusion (measured as error in millimeters) and a lower decrement in illusion for subsequent trials.^[115] Tloczynski has described the theory of mechanism behind the changes in perception that accompany mindfulness meditation thus: "A person who meditates consequently perceives objects more as directly experienced stimuli and less as concepts… With the removal or minimization of cognitive stimuli and generally increasing awareness, meditation can therefore influence both the quality (accuracy) and quantity (detection) of perception."^[115] Brown points to this as a possible explanation of the phenomenon: "[the higher rate of detection of single light flashes] involves quieting some of the higher mental processes which normally obstruct the perception of subtle events."^[116] In other words, the practice may temporarily or permanently alter some of the top-down processing involved in filtering subtle events usually deemed noise by the perceptual filters.^[116]

Memory

Meditation enhances memory capacity specifically in the working memory and increases executive functioning by helping participants better understand what is happening moment for moment.^[117]^[118] Those who meditate regularly have demonstrated the ability to better process and distinguish important information from the working memory and store it into long-term memory with more accuracy than those who do not practice meditation techniques.^[105] Meditation may be able to expand the amount of information that can be held within working memory and by so doing is able to improve IQ scores and increase individual intelligence.^[110] The encoding process for both audio and visual information has been shown to be more accurate and detailed when meditation is used.^[113] Though there are limited studies on meditation's effects on long-term memory, because of meditations ability to increase attentional awareness, episodic long-term memory is believed to be more vivid and accurate for those who meditate regularly. Meditation has also shown to decrease memory complaints from those with Alzheimer's disease which also suggests the benefits meditation could have on episodic long-term memory which is linked to Alzheimer's.^[119]

Calming and relaxation

According to an article in Psychological Bulletin, EEG activity slows as a result of meditation.^[120] Some types of meditation may lead to a calming effect by reducing sympathetic nervous system activity while increasing parasympathetic nervous system activity. Or, equivalently, that meditation produces a reduction in arousal and increase in relaxation.^[121]

Herbert Benson, founder of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with Harvard University and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response".^[122] The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains.^[123] Benson wrote The Relaxation Response to document the benefits of meditation, which in 1975 were not yet widely known.^[124]

Aging

There is no good evidence to indicate that meditation affects the brain in aging.^[125]

Happiness and emotional well-being

Studies have shown meditators to have higher happiness than control groups, although this may be due to non-specific factors such as meditators having better general self-care.^[126]^[127]^[92]^[91]

Positive relationships have been found between the volume of gray matter in the right precuneus area of the brain and both meditation and the subject's subjective happiness score.^[128]^[129]^[130]^[131]^[30]^[132] A recent study found that participants who engaged in a body-scan meditation for about 20 minutes self-reported higher levels of happiness and decrease in anxiety compared to participants who just rested during the 20-minute time span. These results suggest that an increase in awareness of one's body through meditation causes a state of selflessness and a feeling of connectedness. This result then leads to reports of positive emotions.^[133]

A technique known as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) displays significant benefits for mental health and coping behaviors. Participants who had no prior experience with MBSR reported a significant increase in happiness after eight weeks of MBSR practice. Focus on the present moment and increased awareness of one's thoughts can help monitor and reduce judgment or negative thoughts, causing a report of higher emotional well-being.^[134] The MBSR program and evidence for its effectiveness is described in Jon Kabat-Zinn's book Full Catastrophe Living.^[135]

Pain

Vorlage:See also Meditation has been show to reduce pain perception.^[136] An intervention known as mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) has been subject to a range of studies demonstrating its effectiveness.^[137]^[138]

Potential adverse effects and limits of meditation

Vorlage:See also

The understanding of the potential for adverse effects in meditation is evolving. In 2014, the US government-run National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health suggested that:

Meditation is considered to be safe for healthy people. There have been rare reports that meditation could cause or worsen symptoms in people who have certain psychiatric problems, but this question has not been fully researched.^[139]

A 2022 update of the same webpage is more cautionary:

A 2020 review examined 83 studies (a total of 6,703 participants) and found that 55 of those studies reported negative experiences related to meditation practices. The researchers concluded that about 8 percent of participants had a negative effect from practicing meditation, which is similar to the percentage reported for psychological therapies.^[140]

Another 2021 review found negative impacts in 37% of the sampled participants in mindfulness-based programmes, with lasting bad effects in 6–14% of the sample, associated with hyperarousal and dissociation.^[141]

More broadly, the potential for adverse effects from meditation is well-documented both in scientific articles and the popular press.^[142]^[143]^[144] Cases of suicide, self-harm, and significant disturbance among meditation practitioners are also documented in canonical and other historical sources.^[145]^[146]^[147] Organisations such as Cheetah House and Meditating in Safety document research on problems arising in meditation, and offer help for meditators in distress or those recovering from meditation-related health problems. In some cases, adverse effects may be attributed to "improper use of meditation"^[148] or the aggravation of a preexisting condition; however, developing research in this area suggests the need for deeper engagement with the causes of severe distress, which previous "meditation teachers have perhaps too quickly and rather insensitively dismissed as pre-existing or unrelated psychopathology".^[149] Where meditation is prescribed or offered as a treatment,

Principles of informed consent require that treatment choice be based in part on the balance of benefits to harms, and therefore can only be made if harms are adequately measured and known.^[141]

As with any practice, meditation may also be used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the meditator's life. In such situations, it may instead be helpful to apply mindful attitudes while actively engaging with current problems.^[150]^[151] According to the NIH, meditation should not be used as a replacement for conventional health care or as a reason to postpone seeing a doctor.^[140]

Difficulties in the scientific study of meditation

Weaknesses in historic meditation and mindfulness research

A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic blood pressure^[2]

In June 2007, the United States National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by researchers at the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies involving five broad categories of meditation: mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, T'ai chi, and Qigong, and included all studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and substance abuse. The report concluded:

Vorlage:Blockquote

It noted that there is no theoretical explanation of health effects from meditation common to all meditation techniques.^[2]

A version of this report subsequently published in the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine in 2008 stated: "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to validity in every major quality domain assessed." This was despite a statistically significant increase in quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956 and 2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.^[4] These authors also noted that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research domains.

Of more than 3,000 scientific studies that were found in a comprehensive search of 17 relevant databases, only about 4% had randomised controlled trials (RCTs), which are designed to exclude the placebo effect.^[2]

In a 2013 meta-analysis, Awasthi argued that meditation is defined poorly and despite the research studies showing clinical efficacy, exact mechanisms of action remain unclear.^[152] A 2017 commentary was similarly mixed,^[6]^[7] with concerns including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate in mindfulness and meditation research.^[153]

Position statements

A 2013 statement from the American Heart Association (AHA) evaluated the evidence for the effectiveness of TM as a treatment for hypertension as "unknown/unclear/uncertain or not well-established", and stated: "Because of many negative studies or mixed results and a paucity of available trials... other meditation techniques are not recommended in clinical practice to lower BP at this time."^[100] According to the AHA, while there are promising results about the impact of meditation in reducing blood pressure and managing insomnia, depression and anxiety, it is not a replacement for healthy lifestyle changes and is not a substitute for effective medication.^[154]

Methodological obstacles

The term meditation encompasses a wide range of practices and interventions rooted in different traditions, but research literature has sometimes failed to adequately specify the nature of the particular meditation practice(s) being studied.^[155] Different forms of meditation practice may yield different results depending on the factors being studied.^[155]

The presence of a number of intertwined factors including the effects of meditation, the theoretical orientation of how meditation practices are taught, the cultural background of meditators, and generic group effects complicates the task of isolating the effects of meditation:^[68]

Vorlage:Blockquote

Vorlage:Clear

References

Vorlage:Reflist

External links

Vorlage:Commons category-inline

Vorlage:Meditation

↑ Sepehrdad Rahimian: Commentary: Content-Free Awareness: EEG-fcMRI Correlates of Consciousness as Such in an Expert Meditator. In: PsyArXiv. 30. August 2021, doi:10.31234/osf.io/6q5b2 (osf.io).
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP: Meditation practices for health: state of the research. In: Evidence Report/Technology Assessment. Nr. 155, Juni 2007, S. 1–263, PMID 17764203, PMC 4780968 (freier Volltext) – (ahrq.gov (Memento des Originals vom 25 February 2009 im Internet Archive)).
↑ Antoine Lutz, John D. Dunne, Richard J. Davidson: The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness (= Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology). Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-511-81678-9, Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction, S. 499–552, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816789.020 (semanticscholar.org).
↑ ^a ^b Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Barnes V, Carlson LE, Dusek JA, Shannahoff-Khalsa D: Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality. In: Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 14. Jahrgang, Nr. 10, Dezember 2008, S. 1199–213, doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0307, PMID 19123875 (semanticscholar.org).
↑ ^a ^b Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, Berger Z, Sleicher D, Maron DD, Shihab HM, Ranasinghe PD, Linn S, Saha S, Bass EB, Haythornthwaite JA: Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. In: JAMA Internal Medicine. 174. Jahrgang, Nr. 3, März 2014, S. 357–68, doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018, PMID 24395196, PMC 4142584 (freier Volltext).
↑ ^a ^b Van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Gorchov J, Fox KC, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE: Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation. In: Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, Januar 2018, S. 36–61, doi:10.1177/1745691617709589, PMID 29016274, PMC 5758421 (freier Volltext).
↑ ^a ^b Bret Stetka: Where's the Proof That Mindfulness Meditation Works? In: Scientific American. Oktober 2017, doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0118-20 (scientificamerican.com).
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@@ Zeile 1: / Zeile 1: @@
+{{Short description|Surveys & evaluates various meditative practices & evidence of neurophysiological benefits}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
+[[File:EEG cap.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Electroencephalography|EEG]] has been used for meditation research.]]
+The psychological and physiological '''effects of meditation''' have been studied. In recent years, studies of [[meditation]] have increasingly involved the use of modern instruments, such as [[fMRI]] and [[EEG]], which are able to observe brain physiology and neural activity in living subjects, either during the act of [[meditation]] itself or before and after meditation. Correlations can thus be established between meditative practices and [[Brain Structure and Function|brain structure]] or function.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |last=Rahimian |first=Sepehrdad |title=Commentary: Content-Free Awareness: EEG-fcMRI Correlates of Consciousness as Such in an Expert Meditator |date=2021-08-30 |journal=PsyArXiv |url=https://osf.io/6q5b2|doi=10.31234/osf.io/6q5b2|s2cid=242883247}}</ref>
+Since the 1950s hundreds of studies on meditation have been conducted, but many of the early studies were flawed and thus yielded unreliable results.<ref name="State of the Research">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP | title = Meditation practices for health: state of the research | journal = Evidence Report/Technology Assessment | issue = 155 | pages = 1–263 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17764203 | pmc = 4780968 | url = http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090225175425/http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf| url-status = dead | archive-date = 25 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Antoine |last1=Lutz |first2=John D. |last2=Dunne |first3=Richard J. |last3=Davidson | name-list-style = vanc |year=2007 |chapter=Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction |pages=499–552 |editor1-first=Philip David |editor1-last=Zelazo |editor2-first=Morris |editor2-last=Moscovitch |editor3-first=Evan |editor3-last=Thompson |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness |series=Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-81678-9 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511816789.020|s2cid=2635196 |chapter-url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/175754d83888a4164b84f7310dc8d23274403976 }}</ref> Contemporary studies have attempted to address many of these flaws with the hope of guiding current research into a more fruitful path.<ref name="NCCIH 2008">{{cite journal|vauthors=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Barnes V, Carlson LE, Dusek JA, Shannahoff-Khalsa D|date=December 2008|title=Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics and quality|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/50410f7dadaadfd9c34e7d0138a627032154ef4e|journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine|volume=14|issue=10|pages=1199–213|doi=10.1089/acm.2008.0307|pmid=19123875|s2cid=43745958}}</ref> In 2013, researchers found moderate evidence that meditation can reduce [[anxiety]], [[Depression (mood)|depression]], and pain, but no evidence that it is more effective than active treatments such as drugs or exercise.<ref name="Goyal_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, Berger Z, Sleicher D, Maron DD, Shihab HM, Ranasinghe PD, Linn S, Saha S, Bass EB, Haythornthwaite JA | title = Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = JAMA Internal Medicine | volume = 174 | issue = 3 | pages = 357–68 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24395196 | pmc = 4142584 | doi = 10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018 }}</ref> Another major review article also cautioned about possible misinformation and [[The Misinterpretation Agitation|misinterpretation]] of data related to the subject.<ref name="Van_Dam_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Gorchov J, Fox KC, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE | title = Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–61 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 29016274 | pmc = 5758421 | doi = 10.1177/1745691617709589 }}</ref><ref name=Stetka2017>{{cite journal | first = Bret | last = Stetka | name-list-style = vanc | date = October 2017 | title = Where's the Proof That Mindfulness Meditation Works? | url = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/wheres-the-proof-that-mindfulness-meditation-works1/ | journal = Scientific American | doi = 10.1038/scientificamericanmind0118-20 }}</ref>
+{{TOC limit|3}}
+==Effects of mindfulness meditation==
+A previous study commissioned by the [[US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] found that meditation interventions reduce multiple negative dimensions of psychological stress.<ref name="Goyal_2014" /> Other systematic reviews and meta-analyses show that [[mindfulness]] meditation has several mental health benefits such as bringing about reductions in depression symptoms,<ref name="Strauss">{{cite journal | vauthors = Strauss C, Cavanagh K, Oliver A, Pettman D | title = Mindfulness-based interventions for people diagnosed with a current episode of an anxiety or depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials | journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = e96110 | date = Apr 2014 | pmid = 24763812 | pmc = 3999148 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0096110 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...996110S | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Khoury_2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Khoury B, Sharma M, Rush SE, Fournier C | title = Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Psychosomatic Research | volume = 78 | issue = 6 | pages = 519–28 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25818837 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009 }}</ref><ref name="Jain">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jain FA, Walsh RN, Eisendrath SJ, Christensen S, Rael Cahn B | title = Critical analysis of the efficacy of meditation therapies for acute and subacute phase treatment of depressive disorders: a systematic review | journal = Psychosomatics | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 140–52 | date = 2014 | pmid = 25591492 | pmc = 4383597 | doi = 10.1016/j.psym.2014.10.007 | url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/0372c9xp }}</ref> improvements in mood,<ref name="Walsh e10844">{{Cite journal|last1=Walsh|first1=Kathleen Marie|last2=Saab|first2=Bechara J|last3=Farb|first3=Norman AS|date=2019-01-08|title=Effects of a Mindfulness Meditation App on Subjective Well-Being: Active Randomized Controlled Trial and Experience Sampling Study|journal=JMIR Mental Health|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=e10844|doi=10.2196/10844|issn=2368-7959|pmc=6329416|pmid=30622094}}</ref> stress-resilience<ref name="Walsh e10844" /> and attentional control.<ref name="Walsh e10844" /> Mindfulness interventions also appear to be a promising intervention for managing depression in youth.<ref name="Simkin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Simkin DR, Black NB | title = Meditation and mindfulness in clinical practice | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 487–534 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24975623 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2014.03.002 }}</ref><ref name="Zoogman">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zoogman S, Goldberg SB, Hoyt WT |title= Mindfulness Interventions with Youth: A Meta-Analysis |journal= Mindfulness |date=Jan 2014 | doi=10.1093/sw/swu030 |pmid= 25365830 |volume=59 |issue= 4 |pages=297–302|s2cid= 14256504 |url= https://semanticscholar.org/paper/d2cfe8c682e240cc1f6a6e00d5a0a96610b1379a }}</ref>
+Mindfulness meditation is useful for managing stress,<ref name="Khoury_2015" /><ref name="Sharma">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma M, Rush SE | title = Mindfulness-based stress reduction as a stress management intervention for healthy individuals: a systematic review | journal = Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 271–86 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25053754 | doi = 10.1177/2156587214543143 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Hofmann">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Witt AA, Oh D | title = The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review | journal = Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | volume = 78 | issue = 2 | pages = 169–83 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20350028 | pmc = 2848393 | doi = 10.1037/a0018555 }}</ref><ref name="Walsh e10844" /> anxiety<ref name="Strauss" /><ref name="Khoury_2015" /><ref name="Hofmann" /> and also appears to be effective in treating substance use disorders.<ref name="Chiesa">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chiesa A, Serretti A | title = Are mindfulness-based interventions effective for substance use disorders? A systematic review of the evidence | journal = Substance Use & Misuse | volume = 49 | issue = 5 | pages = 492–512 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 23461667 | doi = 10.3109/10826084.2013.770027 | s2cid = 34990668 }}</ref><ref name="Garland">{{cite journal | vauthors = Garland EL, Froeliger B, Howard MO | title = Mindfulness training targets neurocognitive mechanisms of addiction at the attention-appraisal-emotion interface | journal = Frontiers in Psychiatry | volume = 4 | issue = 173 | pages = 173 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24454293 | pmc = 3887509 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00173 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Black">{{cite journal | vauthors = Black DS | title = Mindfulness-based interventions: an antidote to suffering in the context of substance use, misuse, and addiction | journal = Substance Use & Misuse | volume = 49 | issue = 5 | pages = 487–91 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24611846 | doi = 10.3109/10826084.2014.860749 | s2cid = 34770367 }}</ref>
+A recent meta analysis by Hilton et al. (2016) including 30 randomized controlled trials found high quality evidence for improvement in depressive symptoms.<ref name="Hilton_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hilton L, Hempel S, Ewing BA, Apaydin E, Xenakis L, Newberry S, Colaiaco B, Maher AR, Shanman RM, Sorbero ME, Maglione MA | title = Mindfulness Meditation for Chronic Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = Annals of Behavioral Medicine | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 199–213 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27658913 | pmc = 5368208 | doi = 10.1007/s12160-016-9844-2 }}</ref>
+Other review studies have shown that mindfulness meditation can enhance the psychological functioning of breast cancer survivors,<ref name="Khoury_2015" /> is effective for people with eating disorders<ref name="Godfrey">{{cite journal | vauthors = Godfrey KM, Gallo LC, Afari N | title = Mindfulness-based interventions for binge eating: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Behavioral Medicine | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 348–62 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25417199 | doi = 10.1007/s10865-014-9610-5 | s2cid = 22953790 }}</ref><ref name="Olson">{{cite journal | vauthors = Olson KL, Emery CF | title = Mindfulness and weight loss: a systematic review | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–67 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25490697 | doi = 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000127 | s2cid = 32414780 }}</ref> and may also be effective in treating psychosis.<ref name="Shonin2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shonin E, Van Gordon W, Griffiths MD | title = Do mindfulness-based therapies have a role in the treatment of psychosis? | journal = The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 48 | issue = 2 | pages = 124–7 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24220133 | doi = 10.1177/0004867413512688 | s2cid = 32414692 | url = http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/26548/1/PubSub3164_Griffiths.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Chadwick">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chadwick P | title = Mindfulness for psychosis | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 204 | issue = 5 | pages = 333–4 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24785766 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.bp.113.136044 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Khoury2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Khoury B, Lecomte T, Gaudiano BA, Paquin K | title = Mindfulness interventions for psychosis: a meta-analysis | journal = Schizophrenia Research | volume = 150 | issue = 1 | pages = 176–84 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23954146 | doi = 10.1016/j.schres.2013.07.055 | s2cid = 25506013 }}</ref>
+Studies have also shown that rumination and worry contribute to mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety,<ref name="Querstret">{{cite journal | vauthors = Querstret D, Cropley M | title = Assessing treatments used to reduce rumination and/or worry: a systematic review | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 33 | issue = 8 | pages = 996–1009 | date = December 2013 | pmid = 24036088 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.004 | url = http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/805216/6/Querstret%26Cropley_2013.pdf | hdl = 2164/3892 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> and mindfulness-based interventions are effective in the reduction of worry.<ref name="Querstret" /><ref name="Gu2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gu J, Strauss C, Bond R, Cavanagh K | title = How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of meditation studies | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 37 | pages = 1–12 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25689576 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.006 }}</ref>
+Some studies suggest that mindfulness meditation contributes to a more coherent and healthy sense of self and identity, when considering aspects such as sense of responsibility, authenticity, compassion, self-acceptance and character.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crescentini C, Capurso V | title = Mindfulness meditation and explicit and implicit indicators of personality and self-concept changes | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 6 | pages = 44 | year = 2015 | pmid = 25688222 | pmc = 4310269 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00044 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crescentini C, Matiz A, Fabbro F | title = Improving personality/character traits in individuals with alcohol dependence: the influence of mindfulness-oriented meditation | journal = Journal of Addictive Diseases | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–87 | year = 2015 | pmid = 25585050 | doi = 10.1080/10550887.2014.991657 | s2cid = 8250105 }}</ref>
+===Brain mechanisms===
+{{main|Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation}}
+The [[analgesic]] effect of [[Mindfulness-based stress reduction|mindfulness]] meditation may involve multiple brain [[Mechanisms of schizophrenia|mechanisms]], but there are too few studies to allow conclusions about its effects on [[chronic pain]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jensen MP, Day MA, Miró J | title = Neuromodulatory treatments for chronic pain: efficacy and mechanisms | journal = Nature Reviews. Neurology | volume = 10 | issue = 3 | pages = 167–78 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24535464 | pmc = 5652321 | doi = 10.1038/nrneurol.2014.12 }}</ref>
+===Changes in the brain===
+{{main|Brain activity and meditation}}
+Mindfulness meditation is under study for whether structural changes in the brain may occur, but most studies have weak methodology.<ref name="Fox_2014" /> A meta-analysis found preliminary evidence for effects in the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions associated with body awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fox|first1=Kieran C. R.|last2=Nijeboer|first2=Savannah|last3=Dixon|first3=Matthew L.|last4=Floman|first4=James L.|last5=Ellamil|first5=Melissa|last6=Rumak|first6=Samuel P.|last7=Sedlmeier|first7=Peter|last8=Christoff|first8=Kalina|date=June 2014|title=Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=43|pages=48–73|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016|issn=1873-7528|pmid=24705269|s2cid=207090878}}</ref> However, the results should be interpreted with caution because [[funnel plot]]s indicate that publication bias is an issue in meditation research.<ref name="Fox_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fox KC, Nijeboer S, Dixon ML, Floman JL, Ellamil M, Rumak SP, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K | title = Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 43 | pages = 48–73 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24705269 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016 | s2cid = 207090878 }}</ref> A 2016 review using 78 functional [[neuroimaging]] studies suggests that different meditation styles are associated with different brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fox KC, Dixon ML, Nijeboer S, Girn M, Floman JL, Lifshitz M, Ellamil M, Sedlmeier P, Christoff K | title = Functional neuroanatomy of meditation: A review and meta-analysis of 78 functional neuroimaging investigations | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 65 | pages = 208–28 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27032724 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.021 | arxiv = 1603.06342 | bibcode = 2016arXiv160306342F | s2cid = 9451371 }}</ref>
+===Attention and mindfulness===
+====Attention networks and mindfulness meditation====
+Psychological and Buddhist conceptualizations of [[mindfulness]] both highlight awareness and attention training as key components, in which levels of mindfulness can be cultivated with practise of mindfulness meditation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kabat-Zinn J | year = 2003 | title = Mindfulness‐based interventions in context: past, present, and future | journal = Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice | volume = 10 | issue = 2| pages = 144–156 | doi=10.1093/clipsy/bpg016}}</ref><ref name="Walsh e10844" /> Focused attention meditation (FAM) and open monitoring meditation (OMM) are distinct types of mindfulness meditation; FAM refers to the practice of intently maintaining focus on one object, whereas OMM is the progression of general awareness of one's surroundings while regulating thoughts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lippelt DP, Hommel B, Colzato LS | title = Focused attention, open monitoring and loving kindness meditation: effects on attention, conflict monitoring, and creativity - A review | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 5 | pages = 1083 | date = 2014 | pmid = 25295025 | pmc = 4171985 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01083 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Lutz2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lutz A, Slagter HA, Dunne JD, Davidson RJ | title = Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 163–9 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18329323 | pmc = 2693206 | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005 }}</ref>
+Focused attention meditation is typically practiced first to increase the ability to enhance attentional stability, and awareness of mental states with the goal being to transition to open monitoring meditation practise that emphasizes the ability to monitor moment-by-moment changes in experience, without a focus of attention to maintain. Mindfulness meditation may lead to greater [[cognitive flexibility]].<ref name="Moore&Malinowski2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moore A, Malinowski P | title = Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility | journal = Consciousness and Cognition | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 176–86 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19181542 | doi = 10.1016/j.concog.2008.12.008 | s2cid = 9818458 }}</ref>
+In an active randomized controlled study completed in 2019, participants who practiced mindfulness meditation demonstrated a greater improvement in awareness and attention than participants in the active control condition.<ref name="Walsh e10844" /> [[Alpha wave]] [[neural oscillation]] [[Quantitative electroencephalography|power]] (which is normally associated with an alert resting state) has been shown to be increased by mindfulness in both healthy subjects and patients.<ref name="pmid26441373">{{cite journal|vauthors=Lomas T, Ivtzan I, Fu CH|date=October 2015|title=A systematic review of the neurophysiology of mindfulness on EEG oscillations|url=http://roar.uel.ac.uk/4509/1/A%20systematic%20review%20of%20the%20neurophysiology%20of.pdf|journal=[[Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews]]|volume=57|pages=401–410|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.018|pmid=26441373|s2cid=7276590}}</ref>
+====Areas of attention====
+=====Sustained attention=====
+Tasks of sustained attention relate to vigilance and the preparedness that aids completing a particular task goal. Psychological research into the relationship between mindfulness meditation and the sustained attention network have revealed the following:
+* In a [[continuous performance task]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors =Schmertz SK, Anderson PL, Robins DL | year = 2009 | title = The relation between self-report mindfulness and performance on tasks of sustained attention | journal = Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 60–66 | doi=10.1007/s10862-008-9086-0| s2cid = 143771349 }}</ref> an association was found between higher dispositional mindfulness and more stable maintenance of sustained attention.
+* In an [[EEG]] study, the [[attentional blink]] effect was reduced, and [[P3b]] ERP amplitude decreased in a group of participants who completed a mindfulness retreat.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Slagter HA, Lutz A, Greischar LL, Francis AD, Nieuwenhuis S, Davis JM, Davidson RJ | title = Mental training affects distribution of limited brain resources | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 6 | pages = e138 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17488185 | pmc = 1865565 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050138 }}</ref> The incidence of reduced attentional blink effect relates to an increase in detectability of a second target.
+* A greater degree of attentional resources may also be reflected in faster response times in task performance, as was found for participants with higher levels of mindfulness experience.<ref name="Jha2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jha AP, Krompinger J, Baime MJ | title = Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention | journal = Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 109–19 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17672382 | doi = 10.3758/cabn.7.2.109 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+=====Selective attention=====
+* Selective attention as linked with the orientation network, is involved in selecting the relevant stimuli to attend to.
+* Performance in the ability to limit attention to potentially sensory inputs (i.e. selective attention) was found to be higher following the completion of an eight-week MBSR course, compared to a one-month retreat and control group (with no mindfulness training).<ref name="Jha2007" /> The ANT task is a general applicable task designed to test the three attention networks, in which participants are required to determine the direction of a central arrow on a computer screen.<ref name="Fan, J. 2002">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fan J, McCandliss BD, Sommer T, Raz A, Posner MI | title = Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pages = 340–7 | date = April 2002 | pmid = 11970796 | doi = 10.1162/089892902317361886 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.590.8796 | s2cid = 12681459 }}</ref> Efficiency in orienting that represent the capacity to selectively attend to stimuli was calculated by examining changes in the reaction time that accompanied cues indicating where the target occurred relative to the aid of no cues.
+* Meditation experience was found to correlate negatively with reaction times on an [[Eriksen flanker task]] measuring responses to global and local figures. Similar findings have been observed for correlations between mindfulness experience in an orienting score of response times taken from Attention Network Task performance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = van den Hurk PA, Giommi F, Gielen SC, Speckens AE, Barendregt HP | title = Greater efficiency in attentional processing related to mindfulness meditation | journal = Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 63 | issue = 6 | pages = 1168–80 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20509209 | doi = 10.1080/17470210903249365 | s2cid = 717916 }}</ref>
+* Participants who engaged in the Meditation Breath Attention Score exercise performed better on anagram tasks and reported greater focused attention on this task compared to those who did not undergo this exercise.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Joseph P.|last2=Black|first2=Katharine N.|date=2017|title=Meditation-focused attention with the MBAS and solving anagrams.|journal=Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice|volume=4|issue=4|pages=348–366|doi=10.1037/cns0000113|s2cid=151764564|issn=2326-5531}}</ref>
+=====Executive control attention=====
+* Executive control attention include functions of inhibiting the conscious processing of distracting information. In the context of mindful meditation, distracting information relates to attention grabbing mental events such as thoughts related to the future or past.<ref name="Lutz2008" />
+* More than one study have reported findings of a reduced [[Stroop effect]] following mindfulness meditation training.<ref name="Moore&Malinowski2009" /><ref name="Tang2007" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chan D, Woollacott M | title = Effects of level of meditation experience on attentional focus: is the efficiency of executive or orientation networks improved? | journal = Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 651–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17718648 | doi = 10.1089/acm.2007.7022 | s2cid = 26104244 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/17ed959ece2bc6ee416f214bb4aaf534d27da133 }}</ref> The Stroop effect indexes interference created by having words printed in colour that differ to the read semantic meaning e.g. green printed in red. However findings for this task are not consistently found.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Anderson ND, Lau MA, Segal ZV, Bishop SR | year = 2007 | title = Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control | journal = Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy | volume = 14 | issue = 6| pages = 449–463 | doi=10.1002/cpp.544| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Hölzel_2011b">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hölzel BK, Lazar SW, Gard T, Schuman-Olivier Z, Vago DR, Ott U | title = How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | pages = 537–59 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 26168376 | doi = 10.1177/1745691611419671 | s2cid = 2218023 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/73b8a5091dc9a8a7ea60b81641689bb5ccc5aea1 }}</ref> For instance the MBSR may differ to how mindful one becomes relative to a person who is already high in trait mindfulness.<ref name="Malinowski_2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Malinowski P | title = Neural mechanisms of attentional control in mindfulness meditation | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 7 | pages = 8 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23382709 | pmc = 3563089 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2013.00008 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+* Using the Attention Network Task (a version of [[Eriksen flanker task]]<ref name="Fan, J. 2002" />) it was found that error scores that indicate executive control performance were reduced in experienced meditators <ref name="Jha2007" /> and following a brief five-session mindfulness training program.<ref name="Tang2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tang YY, Ma Y, Wang J, Fan Y, Feng S, Lu Q, Yu Q, Sui D, Rothbart MK, Fan M, Posner MI | title = Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 104 | issue = 43 | pages = 17152–6 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17940025 | pmc = 2040428 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0707678104 | bibcode = 2007PNAS..10417152T | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+* A neuroimaging study supports behavioural research findings that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with greater proficiency to inhibit distracting information. As greater activation of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was shown for mindfulness meditators than matched controls.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marchand|first=William R|date=2014-07-28|title=Neural mechanisms of mindfulness and meditation: Evidence from neuroimaging studies|journal=World Journal of Radiology|volume=6|issue=7|pages=471–479|doi=10.4329/wjr.v6.i7.471|issn=1949-8470|pmc=4109098|pmid=25071887}}</ref>
+* Participants with at least 6 years of experience meditating performed better on the Stroop Test compared to participants who had not had experience meditating.<ref name="Fabio_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fabio RA, Towey GE | title = Long-term meditation: the relationship between cognitive processes, thinking styles and mindfulness | journal = Cognitive Processing | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–85 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29110263 | doi = 10.1007/s10339-017-0844-3 | s2cid = 3477655 }}</ref> The group of meditators also had lower reaction times during this test than the group of non-meditators.<ref name="Fabio_2018" />
+* Following a [[Stroop test]], reduced amplitude of the [[P300 (neuroscience)|P3]] ERP component was found for a meditation group relative to control participants. This was taken to signify that mindfulness meditation improves executive control functions of attention. An increased amplitude in the [[N200 (neuroscience)|N2]] ERP component was also observed in the mindfulness meditation group, thought to reflect more efficient perceptual discrimination in earlier stages of perceptual processing.<ref name="pmid22363278">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moore A, Gruber T, Derose J, Malinowski P | title = Regular, brief mindfulness meditation practice improves electrophysiological markers of attentional control | journal = Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | volume = 6 | pages = 18 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22363278 | pmc = 3277272 | doi = 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00018 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
+=== Emotion regulation and mindfulness ===
+Research shows meditation practices lead to greater emotional regulation abilities. Mindfulness can help people become more aware of thoughts in the present moment, and this increased self-awareness leads to better processing and control over one's responses to surroundings or circumstances.<ref name="Chawla_2003">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Chawla|first1=Neharika |last2=Marlatt|first2=G. Alan | name-list-style = vanc |title=Mindlessness-Mindfulness|date=2010 |encyclopedia=The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology |pages=1–2 |publisher=American Cancer Society |doi=10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0549 |isbn=9780470479216 }}</ref><ref name="Baer_2003">{{cite journal|last=Baer|first=Ruth A. | name-list-style = vanc |date=2003|title=Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review  |journal=Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice |volume=10|issue=2|pages=125–143|doi=10.1093/clipsy.bpg015 }}</ref>
+Positive effects of this heightened awareness include a greater sense of empathy for others, an increase in positive patterns of thinking, and a reduction in anxiety.<ref name="Baer_2003" /><ref name="Chawla_2003" /> Reductions in [[Rumination (psychology)|rumination]] also have been found following mindfulness meditation practice, contributing to the development of positive thinking and emotional well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wolkin|first=Jennifer R|date=2015-06-29|title=Cultivating multiple aspects of attention through mindfulness meditation accounts for psychological well-being through decreased rumination|journal=Psychology Research and Behavior Management|volume=8|pages=171–180|doi=10.2147/PRBM.S31458|issn=1179-1578|pmc=4492627|pmid=26170728}}</ref>
+====Evidence of mindfulness and emotion regulation outcomes====
+Emotional reactivity can be measured and reflected in brain regions related to the production of emotions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ochsner KN, Gross JJ | title = The cognitive control of emotion | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 9 | issue = 5 | pages = 242–9 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15866151 | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010 | s2cid = 151594 }}</ref> It can also be reflected in tests of attentional performance, indexed in poorer performance in attention related tasks. The regulation of emotional reactivity as initiated by attentional control capacities can be taxing to performance, as attentional resources are limited.<ref name="Posner_2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Posner MI, Rothbart MK | title = Research on attention networks as a model for the integration of psychological science | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 58 | pages = 1–23 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17029565 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085516 | s2cid = 8826493 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/084ab2c74d9244e562de3730c433cd9e4043a68f }}</ref>
+* Patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) exhibited reduced amygdala activation in response to negative self-beliefs following an MBSR intervention program that involves mindfulness meditation practice.<ref name="Goldin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goldin PR, Gross JJ | title = Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder | journal = Emotion | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–91 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20141305 | pmc = 4203918 | doi = 10.1037/a0018441 }}</ref>
+* The LPP ERP component indexes arousal and is larger in amplitude for emotionally salient stimuli relative to neutral.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cuthbert BN, Schupp HT, Bradley MM, Birbaumer N, Lang PJ | title = Brain potentials in affective picture processing: covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 52 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–111 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10699350 | doi = 10.1016/s0301-0511(99)00044-7 | s2cid = 17202155 | url = http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-opus-21021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schupp HT, Cuthbert BN, Bradley MM, Cacioppo JT, Ito T, Lang PJ | title = Affective picture processing: the late positive potential is modulated by motivational relevance | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 257–61 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10731776 | doi = 10.1111/1469-8986.3720257 | url = http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-opus-21050 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schupp HT, Junghöfer M, Weike AI, Hamm AO | title = Attention and emotion: an ERP analysis of facilitated emotional stimulus processing | journal = NeuroReport | volume = 14 | issue = 8 | pages = 1107–10 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12821791 | doi = 10.1097/00001756-200306110-00002 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.521.5802 | s2cid = 14610024 }}</ref> Individuals higher in trait mindfulness showed lower LPP responses to high arousal unpleasant images. These findings suggest that individuals with higher trait mindfulness were better able to regulate emotional reactivity to emotionally evocative stimuli.<ref name="pmid22253259">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown KW, Goodman RJ, Inzlicht M | title = Dispositional mindfulness and the attenuation of neural responses to emotional stimuli | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 93–9 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 22253259 | pmc = 3541486 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nss004 }}</ref>
+* Participants who completed a seven-week mindfulness training program demonstrated a reduction in a measure of emotional interference (measured as slower responses times following the presentation of emotional relative to neutral pictures). This suggests a reduction in emotional interference.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ortner CN, Kilner SJ, Zelazo PD | year = 2007 | title = Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task | journal = Motivation and Emotion | volume = 31 | issue = 4| pages = 271–283 | doi=10.1007/s11031-007-9076-7| s2cid = 3114372 }}</ref>
+* Following a MBSR intervention, decreases in social anxiety symptom severity were found, as well as increases in bilateral parietal cortex neural correlates. This is thought to reflect the increased employment of inhibitory attentional control capacities to regulate emotions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Goldin P, Ziv M, Jazaieri H, Hahn K, Gross JJ | title = MBSR vs aerobic exercise in social anxiety: fMRI of emotion regulation of negative self-beliefs | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 65–72 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 22586252 | pmc = 3541489 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nss054 }}</ref><ref name="Farb">{{cite journal | vauthors = Farb NA, Segal ZV, Mayberg H, Bean J, McKeon D, Fatima Z, Anderson AK | title = Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 313–22 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18985137 | pmc = 2566754 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsm030 }}</ref>
+* Participants who engaged in emotion-focus meditation and breathing meditation exhibited delayed emotional response to negatively valanced film stimuli compared to participants who did not engage in any type of meditation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Beblo T, Pelster S, Schilling C, Kleinke K, Iffland B, Driessen M, Fernando S | title = Breath Versus Emotions: The Impact of Different Foci of Attention During Mindfulness Meditation on the Experience of Negative and Positive Emotions | journal = Behavior Therapy | volume = 49 | issue = 5 | pages = 702–714 | date = September 2018 | pmid = 30146138 | doi = 10.1016/j.beth.2017.12.006 | s2cid = 52092402 }}</ref>
+====Controversies in mindful emotion regulation====
+It is debated as to whether top-down executive control regions such as the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] (DLPFC),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Quirk GJ, Beer JS | title = Prefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion: convergence of rat and human studies | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 723–7 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17084617 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2006.07.004 | s2cid = 17157089 }}</ref> are required<ref name="Farb" /> or not<ref name="Goldin" /> to inhibit reactivity of the amygdala activation related to the production of evoked emotional responses. Arguably an initial increase in activation of executive control regions developed during mindfulness training may lessen with increasing mindfulness expertise.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chiesa A, Calati R, Serretti A | title = Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 449–64 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21183265 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003 }}</ref>
+===Stress reduction===
+Research has shown [[Psychological stress|stress]] reduction benefits from mindfulness.<ref name="Sevinc_20182">{{cite journal|vauthors=Sevinc G, Hölzel BK, Hashmi J, Greenberg J, McCallister A, Treadway M, Schneider ML, Dusek JA, Carmody J, Lazar SW|date=June 2018|title=Common and Dissociable Neural Activity After Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Relaxation Response Programs|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|volume=80|issue=5|pages=439–451|doi=10.1097/PSY.0000000000000590|pmc=5976535|pmid=29642115}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.laboratoryequipment.com/news/2018/06/mindfulness-meditation-relaxation-response-have-different-effects-brain-function|title=Mindfulness, Meditation, Relaxation Response Have Different Effects on Brain Function|date=2018-06-13}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal|last1=Bostock|first1=Sophie|last2=Crosswell|first2=Alexandra D.|last3=Prather|first3=Aric A.|last4=Steptoe|first4=Andrew|date=2019|title=Mindfulness on-the-go: Effects of a mindfulness meditation app on work stress and well-being.|journal=Journal of Occupational Health Psychology|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=127–138|doi=10.1037/ocp0000118|issn=1939-1307|pmc=6215525|pmid=29723001}}</ref> A 2019 study tested the effects of meditation on the psychological well-being, work stress, and blood pressure of employees working in the United Kingdom. One group of participants were instructed to meditate once a day using a mindfulness app on their smartphones, while the control group did not engage in meditation. Measurements of well-being, stress, and perceived workplace support were taken for both groups before the intervention and then again after four months. Based on self-report questionnaires, the participants who engaged in meditation showed a significant increase in psychological well-being and perceived workplace support. The meditators also reported a significant decrease in anxiety and stress levels.<ref name="auto1" />
+Another study conducted to understand association between mindfulness, perceived stress and work engagement indicated that mindfulness was associated with lower perceived stress and higher work engagement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bartlett |first1=Larissa |last2=Buscot |first2=Marie-Jeanne |last3=Bindoff |first3=Aidan |last4=Chambers |first4=Richard |last5=Hassed |first5=Craig |date=2021 |title=Mindfulness Is Associated With Lower Stress and Higher Work Engagement in a Large Sample of MOOC Participants |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |page=724126 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724126 |pmid=34566805 |pmc=8461060 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref>
+Other research shows decreased stress levels in people who engage in meditation after shorter periods of time as well. Evidence of significant stress reduction was found after only three weeks of meditation intervention.<ref name="Walsh e10844" /> Brief, daily meditation sessions can alter one's behavioral response to stressors, improving coping mechanisms and decreasing the adverse impact caused by stress.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Basso|first1=Julia C.|last2=McHale|first2=Alexandra|last3=Ende|first3=Victoria|last4=Oberlin|first4=Douglas J.|last5=Suzuki|first5=Wendy A.|date=2019|title=Brief, daily meditation enhances attention, memory, mood, and emotional regulation in non-experienced meditators|journal=Behavioural Brain Research|volume=356|pages=208–220|doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2018.08.023|pmid=30153464|issn=0166-4328|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Surinrut|first1=Piyawan|last2=Auamnoy|first2=Titinun|last3=Sangwatanaroj|first3=Somkiat|date=2016|title=Enhanced happiness and stress alleviation upon insight meditation retreat: mindfulness, a part of traditional Buddhist meditation|journal=Mental Health, Religion & Culture|volume=19|issue=7|pages=648–659|doi=10.1080/13674676.2016.1207618|s2cid=152177044|issn=1367-4676}}</ref> A study from 2016 examined anxiety and emotional states of naive meditators before and after a seven-day meditation retreat in Thailand. Results displayed a significant reduction in perceived stress after this traditional [[Buddhist meditation]] retreat.<ref name="auto" />
+===Insomnia and sleep===
+Chronic [[insomnia]] is often associated with anxious hyperarousal and frustration over inability to sleep.<ref name="pmid31539830">{{cite journal | vauthors= Ong JC, Moore C | title = What do we really know about mindfulness and sleep health? | journal = [[Current Opinion in Psychology]] | volume = 34 | pages=18–22 | year = 2020 | doi = 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.08.020 |  pmid=31539830| s2cid = 202248995 }}</ref> Mindfulness has been shown to reduce insomnia and improve sleep quality, although self-reported measures show larger effects than objective measures.<ref name="pmid31539830" /><ref name="pmid30894878">{{cite journal | vauthors= Wang X, Li P, Yunlong Deng Y | title = The Effect of Mind-Body Therapies on Insomnia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal = [[Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] | volume = 13 | pages=9359807 | year = 2019 | doi = 10.1155/2019/9359807 | pmc=6393899 |  pmid=30894878| doi-access = free }}</ref>
+===Future directions===
+A large part of mindfulness research is dependent on technology. As new technology continues to be developed, new imaging techniques will become useful in this field. Real-time fMRI might give immediate feedback and guide participants through the programs. It could also be used to more easily train and evaluate mental states during meditation itself.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tang YY, Posner MI | title = Tools of the trade: theory and method in mindfulness neuroscience | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 118–20 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23081977 | pmc = 3541497 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nss112 }}</ref>
+==Effects of other types of meditation==
+===Insight (Vipassana) meditation===
+[[File:Cortical Areas Thicker in Meditators .jpg|thumb]]
+[[Vipassana]] meditation is a component of Buddhist practice. Phra Taweepong Inwongsakul and Sampath Kumar from the University of Mysore have been studying the effects of this meditation on 120 students by measuring the associated increase of cortical thickness in the brain. The results of this study are inconclusive.<ref>{{cite thesis | degree = PhD | last = Inwongsakul | first = Phra Taweepong | name-list-style = vanc | title = Impact of vipassana meditation on life satisfaction and quality of life | publisher = University of Mysore | date = September 2015 | url = http://ir.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/handle/10603/129894 }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis | degree = PhD | date=April 2017|title=The Impact of Vipassana Meditation on Quality of Life <!-- | journal = Indian Streams Research Journal | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 --> |last = Dargah | first = Minoo | name-list-style = vanc | publisher = The Chicago School of Professional Psychology }}</ref> Vipassana meditation leads to more than just mindfulness, but has been found to reduce stress, increase well-being and self-kindness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Szekeres|first1=Roberta A.|last2=Wertheim|first2=Eleanor H.|date=December 2015|title=Evaluation of Vipassana Meditation Course Effects on Subjective Stress, Well-being, Self-kindness and Mindfulness in a Community Sample: Post-course and 6-month Outcomes: Vipassana , Stress, Mindfulness and Well-being|journal=Stress and Health|language=en|volume=31|issue=5|pages=373–381|doi=10.1002/smi.2562|pmid=24515781}}</ref> These effects were found to be most powerful short-term, but still had a relatively significant impact six months later. In a study conducted by Szekeres and Wertheim (2014), they found stress to be the category that seemed to have the most regression, but the others contained higher prevalence when compared to the participants' original scores that were given before embarking on Vipassana meditation. Overall, according to self-reports, Vipassana can have short and long-term effects on an individual.
+EEG studies on Vipassana meditators seemed to indicate significant increase in [[Parietal lobe|parieto]]-[[Occipital lobe|occipital]] [[gamma wave|gamma rhythms]] in experienced meditators (35–45&nbsp;Hz).<ref name="COGNITIVE PROCESSING - GAMMA">{{cite journal |last1=Cahn |first1=BR |last2=Delorme |first2=A |last3=Polich |first3=J |title=Occipital gamma activation during Vipassana meditation. |journal=Cognitive Processing |date=February 2010 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=39–56 |doi=10.1007/s10339-009-0352-1 |pmid=20013298|pmc=2812711 }}</ref>
+In another study conducted by [[NIMHANS]] on Vipassana meditators, researchers found readings associated with improved cognitive processing after a session of meditation, with distinct and graded difference in the readings between novice meditators and experienced meditators.<ref name="NIMHANS - cognitive processing">{{cite book |last1=Kakumanu |first1=Ratna Jyothi |last2=Nair |first2=Ajay Kumar |last3=Sasidharan |first3=Arun |last4=John |first4=John P. |last5=Mehrotra |first5=Seema |last6=Panth |first6=Ravindra |last7=Kutty |first7=Bindu M. |title=State-trait influences of Vipassana meditation practice on P3 EEG dynamics |series=Progress in Brain Research |date=2019 |volume=244 |pages=115–136 |doi=10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.027|pmid=30732834 |isbn=9780444642271 |s2cid=73417633 }}</ref>
+An essential component to the Vipassana mediation approach is the focus on awareness, referring to bodily sensations and psychological status. In a study conducted by Zeng et al. (2013), awareness was described as the acknowledgement of consciousness which is monitoring all aspects of the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zeng|first1=Xianglong|last2=Oei|first2=Tian P. S.|last3=Liu|first3=Xiangping|date=December 2014|title=Monitoring Emotion Through Body Sensation: A Review of Awareness in Goenka's Vipassana|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|language=en|volume=53|issue=6|pages=1693–1705|doi=10.1007/s10943-013-9754-6|pmid=23846450|s2cid=10485156|issn=0022-4197}}</ref> This definition differentiates the concept of awareness from mindfulness. The emphasis on awareness, and the way it assists in monitoring emotion, is unique to this meditative practice.
+===Kundalini yoga===
+[[Kundalini yoga]] has proved to increase the prevention of cognitive decline and evaluate the response of biomarkers to treatment, thereby shedding light on the underlying mechanisms of the link between Kundalini Yoga and cognitive impairment. For the study, 81 participants aged 55 and older who had subjective memory complaints and met criteria for mild cognitive impairment, indicated by a total score of 0.5 on the Clinical Dementia Rating Scale. The results showed that at 12 weeks, both the yoga group showed significant improvements in recall memory and visual memory and showed a significant sustained improvement in memory up to the 24-week follow-up, the yoga group showed significant improvement in verbal fluency and sustained significant improvements in executive functioning at week 24. In addition, the yoga cohort showed significant improvement in depressive symptoms, apathy, and resilience from emotional stress. This research was provided by Helen Lavretsky, M.D. and colleagues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watts |first1=Vabren | name-list-style = vanc |title=Kundalini Yoga Found to Enhance Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults |journal=Psychiatric News |volume=51 |issue=9 |year=2016 |pages=1 |doi=10.1176/appi.pn.2016.4b11 }}</ref> In another study, Kundalini Yoga did not show significant effectiveness in treating obsessive-compulsive disorders compared with Relaxation/Meditation.<ref name="pmid16437509">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krisanaprakornkit T, Krisanaprakornkit W, Piyavhatkul N, Laopaiboon M | title = Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 1 | pages = CD004998 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16437509 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2 }}</ref>
+===Sahaja yoga and mental silence===
+[[Sahaja yoga]] meditation is regarded as a mental silence meditation, and has been shown to correlate with particular brain<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hernández SE, Suero J, Rubia K, González-Mora JL | title = Monitoring the neural activity of the state of mental silence while practicing Sahaja yoga meditation | journal = Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 175–9 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25671603 | doi = 10.1089/acm.2013.0450 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hernández SE, Barros-Loscertales A, Xiao Y, González-Mora JL, Rubia K | title = Gray Matter and Functional Connectivity in Anterior Cingulate Cortex are Associated with the State of Mental Silence During Sahaja Yoga Meditation | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 371 | pages = 395–406 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 29275207 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.12.017 | hdl = 10234/175002 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and brain wave<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aftanas LI, Golocheikine SA | title = Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 310 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–60 | date = September 2001 | pmid = 11524157 | doi = 10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02094-8 | s2cid = 26624762 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aftanas L, Golosheykin S | title = Impact of regular meditation practice on EEG activity at rest and during evoked negative emotions | journal = The International Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 115 | issue = 6 | pages = 893–909 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 16019582 | doi = 10.1080/00207450590897969 | s2cid = 23303346 }}</ref><ref name="Manocha_2010">{{cite journal |last1=Manocha |first1=Ramesh |last2=Black |first2=Deborah |last3=Spiro |first3=David |last4=Ryan |first4=Jake |last5=Stough |first5=Con | name-list-style = vanc |date=March 2010 |title=Changing Definitions of Meditation – Is there a Physiological Corollary? Skin temperature changes of a mental silence orientated form of meditation compared to rest |journal=Journal of the International Society of Life Sciences |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 | url = http://www.researchingmeditation.org/meditation_research/skintemp.pdf }}</ref> characteristics. One study has led to suggestions that Sahaja meditation involves 'switching off' irrelevant brain networks for the maintenance of focused internalized attention and inhibition of inappropriate information.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aftanas LI, Golocheikine SA | title = Non-linear dynamic complexity of the human EEG during meditation | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 330 | issue = 2 | pages = 143–6 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12231432 | doi = 10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00745-0 | s2cid = 2515889 }}</ref> Sahaja meditators appear to benefit from lower depression<ref name="Hendriks_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hendriks T | title = The effects of Sahaja Yoga meditation on mental health: a systematic review | journal = Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine| volume = 15 | issue = 3 | date = May 2018 | pmid = 29847314 | doi = 10.1515/jcim-2016-0163 | s2cid = 44076116 }}</ref> and scored above control group for emotional well-being and mental health measures on [[SF-36]] ratings.<ref name="Manocha_2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manocha R, Black D, Wilson L | title = Quality of life and functional health status of long-term meditators | journal = Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine | volume = 2012 | pages = 1–9 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22611427 | pmc = 3352577 | doi = 10.1155/2012/350674 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1601-5215.2010.00519.x |title=Meditation, mindfulness and mind-emptiness |journal=Acta Neuropsychiatrica |volume=23 |pages=46–7 |year=2014 |last1=Manocha |first1=Ramesh |s2cid=144683760 | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis | first = Adam | last = Morgon | name-list-style = vanc | degree = Doctor of Clinical Psychology | title = Sahaja Yoga: an Ancient Path to Modern Mental Health? | publisher = University of Plymouth | url = https://pearl.plymouth.ac.uk/handle/10026.1/1969 }}</ref>
+A study comparing practitioners of Sahaja Yoga meditation with a group of non-meditators doing a simple relaxation exercise, measured a drop in skin temperature in the meditators compared to a rise in skin temperature in the non-meditators as they relaxed. The researchers noted that all other meditation studies that have observed skin temperature have recorded increases and none have recorded a decrease in skin temperature. This suggests that Sahaja Yoga meditation, being a mental silence approach, may differ both experientially and physiologically from simple relaxation.<ref name="Manocha_2010" />
+===Transcendental Meditation===
+{{update section|date=October 2021}}
+The first [[Transcendental Meditation]] (TM) research studies were conducted at UCLA and Harvard University and published in ''Science'' and the ''American Journal of Physiology'' in 1970 and 1971.<ref>Lyn Freeman, ''Mosby’s Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach'', Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163</ref> However, much research has been of poor quality,<ref name="State of the Research" /><ref name="pmid16437509" /><ref name="Braunwald 2011">{{cite book | vauthors = Ernst E | veditors = Bonow RO |title=Chapter 51: Complementary and Alternative Approaches to Management of Patients with Heart Disease |work=Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine |year=2011 |edition=9th |isbn=978-1-4377-2708-1 |publisher=Saunders |quote=A systematic review of six RCTs of transcendental meditation failed to generate convincing evidence that meditation is an effective treatment for hypertension|display-editors=etal}} (References the same 2004 systematic review by Canter and Ernst on TM and hypertension that is separately referenced in this article)</ref> including a high risk for [[bias]] due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization and the selection of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Canter PH, Ernst E | title = Insufficient evidence to conclude whether or not Transcendental Meditation decreases blood pressure: results of a systematic review of randomized clinical trials | journal = Journal of Hypertension | volume = 22 | issue = 11 | pages = 2049–54 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15480084 | doi = 10.1097/00004872-200411000-00002 | s2cid = 22171451 }}</ref><ref name="pmid20556767">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krisanaprakornkit T, Ngamjarus C, Witoonchart C, Piyavhatkul N | title = Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 6 | pages = CD006507 | date = June 2010 | volume = 2010 | pmid = 20556767 | pmc = 6823216 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Canter PH, Ernst E | title = The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function--a systematic review of randomised controlled trials | journal = Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift | volume = 115 | issue = 21–22 | pages = 758–66 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14743579 | doi = 10.1007/BF03040500 | s2cid = 20166373 }}</ref> Independent [[systematic reviews]] have not found health benefits for TM exceeding those of [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]] and [[health education]].<ref name="State of the Research" /><ref name="pmid16437509" /><ref name="pmid20556767" /> A 2013 statement from the [[American Heart Association]] described the evidence supporting TM as a treatment for hypertension as Level IIB, meaning that TM "may be considered in clinical practice" but that its effectiveness is "unknown/unclear/uncertain or not well-established".<ref name="aha" />
+In another study, TM proved comparable with other kinds of relaxation therapies in reducing anxiety.<ref name="pmid16437509" /> Practitioners of TM have demonstrated a one [[Hertz]] reduction in [[Electroencephalography|EEG]] [[alpha wave]] frequency relative to controls.<ref name="pmid16536641">{{cite journal | vauthors= Cahn BR, Polich J | title = Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies | journal = [[Psychological Bulletin]] | volume = 132 | issue=2 | pages=180–211 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180 |  pmid=16536641}}</ref>
+==Research on unspecified or multiple types of meditation==
+===Brain activity===
+{{Main|Brain activity and meditation}}
+The medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices have been found to be relatively deactivated during meditation by experienced meditators using concentration, lovingkindness and choiceless awareness meditation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brewer|first1=J. A.|last2=Worhunsky|first2=P. D.|last3=Gray|first3=J. R.|last4=Tang|first4=Y.-Y.|last5=Weber|first5=J.|last6=Kober|first6=H.|date=2011-11-23|title=Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=50|pages=20254–20259|doi=10.1073/pnas.1112029108|pmid=22114193|pmc=3250176|bibcode=2011PNAS..10820254B |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition experienced meditators were found to have stronger coupling between the posterior cingulate, dorsal anterior cingulate, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices both when meditating and when not meditating.<ref name="pnas">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer JA, Worhunsky PD, Gray JR, Tang YY, Weber J, Kober H | title = Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 108 | issue = 50 | pages = 20254–9 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22114193 | pmc = 3250176 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1112029108 | bibcode = 2011PNAS..10820254B | jstor = 23060108 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Over time meditation can actually increase the integrity of both gray and white matter. The added amount of gray matter found in the brain stem after meditation improves communication between the cortex and all other areas within the brain.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Baer|first=Ruth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlnH-qadA08C&q=meditation+and+neuroplasticity&pg=PA185|title=Assessing Mindfulness and Acceptance Processes in Clients: Illuminating the Theory and Practice of Change|date=2010-05-01|publisher=New Harbinger Publications|isbn=978-1-60882-263-8|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Chambers|first1=Richard|last2=Lo|first2=Barbara Chuen Yee|last3=Allen|first3=Nicholas B.|date=2008-06-01|title=The Impact of Intensive Mindfulness Training on Attentional Control, Cognitive Style, and Affect|journal=Cognitive Therapy and Research|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=303–322|doi=10.1007/s10608-007-9119-0|s2cid=3329869|issn=1573-2819}}</ref> Meditation often stimulates a large network of cortical regions including the [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] and [[Parietal lobe|parietal]] regions, lateral [[occipital lobe]], the [[insular cortex]], [[List of thalamic nuclei|thalamic nuclei]], [[basal ganglia]], and the [[cerebellum]] region in the brain. These parts of the brain are connected with attention and the default network of the brain which is associated to day dreaming.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brefczynski-Lewis|first1=J. A.|last2=Lutz|first2=A.|last3=Schaefer|first3=H. S.|last4=Levinson|first4=D. B.|last5=Davidson|first5=R. J.|date=2007-07-03|title=Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=104|issue=27|pages=11483–11488|doi=10.1073/pnas.0606552104|issn=0027-8424|pmid=17596341|pmc=1903340|bibcode=2007PNAS..10411483B|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+[[File:Caudate nucleus.gif|thumb|Strengthening of the caudate has been found in avid meditators and yogis.<ref name=":6" />]]
+In addition, both meditation and yoga have been found to have impacts on the brain, specifically the caudate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gard|first1=Tim|last2=Taquet|first2=Maxime|last3=Dixit|first3=Rohan|last4=Hölzel|first4=Britta K.|last5=Dickerson|first5=Bradford C.|last6=Lazar|first6=Sara W.|date=2015|title=Greater widespread functional connectivity of the caudate in older adults who practice kripalu yoga and vipassana meditation than in controls|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=9|page=137|language=English|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2015.00137|pmid=25852521|pmc=4360708|issn=1662-5161|doi-access=free}}</ref> Strengthening of the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]] has been shown in meditators as well as yogis. The increased connectedness of the caudate has potential to be responsible for the improved well-being that is associated with yoga and meditation.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Gard|first1=Tim|last2=Taquet|first2=Maxime|last3=Dixit|first3=Rohan|last4=Hölzel|first4=Britta K.|last5=Dickerson|first5=Bradford C.|last6=Lazar|first6=Sara W.|date=2015-03-16|title=Greater widespread functional connectivity of the caudate in older adults who practice kripalu yoga and vipassana meditation than in controls|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=9|pages=137|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2015.00137|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4360708|pmid=25852521|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+===Changes in the brain===
+Meditation is under preliminary research to assess possible changes in [[grey matter]] concentrations.<ref name="Fox_2014" />
+=== Attention/Mind wandering ===
+Meditation has been found to decrease [[Mind-wandering|mind wandering]] and allows the brain to fully focus on challenging tasks for longer periods of time without getting distracted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rahl|first1=Hayley A.|last2=Lindsay|first2=Emily K.|last3=Pacilio|first3=Laura E.|last4=Brown|first4=Kirk W.|last5=Creswell|first5=J. David|date=March 2017|title=Brief Mindfulness Meditation Training Reduces Mind-Wandering: The Critical Role of Acceptance|journal=Emotion|volume=17|issue=2|pages=224–230|doi=10.1037/emo0000250|issn=1528-3542|pmc=5329004|pmid=27819445}}</ref> This is due to an increased ability to reduce activity in the [[default mode network]] when focusing on a particular task.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Mrazek|first1=Michael D.|last2=Franklin|first2=Michael S.|last3=Phillips|first3=Dawa Tarchin|last4=Baird|first4=Benjamin|last5=Schooler|first5=Jonathan W.|date=2013-03-28|title=Mindfulness Training Improves Working Memory Capacity and GRE Performance While Reducing Mind Wandering|journal=Psychological Science|language=en-US|volume=24|issue=5|pages=776–781|doi=10.1177/0956797612459659|pmid=23538911|s2cid=17754950|issn=0956-7976}}</ref> Non-directive forms of meditation where the meditator lets their mind wander freely can actually produce higher levels of activity in the default mode network when compared to a resting state or having the brain in a neutral place.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Jian|last2=Vik|first2=Alexandra|last3=Groote|first3=Inge Rasmus|last4=Lagopoulos|first4=Jim|last5=Holen|first5=Are|last6=Ellingsen|first6=Øyvind|last7=Davanger|first7=Svend|date=2014|title=Nondirective meditation activates default mode network and areas associated with memory retrieval and emotional processing|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|language=English|volume=8|pages=86|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00086|pmid=24616684|pmc=3935386|issn=1662-5161|doi-access=free}}</ref> These Non directive forms of meditation allows the meditators to have better control over thoughts during everyday activities or when focusing on specific task due to a reduced frustration at the brains mind wandering process.<ref name=":4" /> When given a specific task, meditation can allow quicker response to changing environmental stimuli. Meditation can allow the brain to decrease attention to unwanted responses of irrelevant environmental stimuli and a reduces the [[Stroop effect]]. Those who meditate have regularly demonstrated more control on what they focus their attention on while maintaining a mindful awareness on what is around them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Semple|first=Randye J.|date=2010-06-01|title=Does Mindfulness Meditation Enhance Attention? A Randomized Controlled Trial|journal=Mindfulness|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=121–130|doi=10.1007/s12671-010-0017-2|s2cid=28567382|issn=1868-8535}}</ref>  Experienced meditators have been shown to have an increased ability when it comes to conflict monitoring<ref name="Walsh e10844" /> and find it easier to switch between competing stimuli.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Kirk Warren|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF-uCgAAQBAJ&q=meditation+and+episodic+memory&pg=PA190|title=Handbook of Mindfulness: Theory, Research, and Practice|last2=Creswell|first2=J. David|last3=Ryan|first3=Richard M.|date=2015-11-17|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-2593-5|language=en}}</ref> Those who practice meditation experience an increase of attentional resources in the brain and steady meditation practice can lead to the reduction of the [[attentional blink]] due to a decreased mental exertion when identifying important stimuli.<ref name=":5" />
+===Perception===
+Studies have shown that meditation has both short-term and long-term effects on various perceptual faculties. In 1984 a study showed that meditators have a significantly lower detection threshold for light stimuli of short duration.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown D, Forte M, Dysart M | title = Differences in visual sensitivity among mindfulness meditators and non-meditators | journal = Perceptual and Motor Skills | volume = 58 | issue = 3 | pages = 727–33 | date = June 1984 | pmid = 6382144 | doi = 10.2466/pms.1984.58.3.727 | s2cid = 38007120 }}</ref> In 2000 a study of the perception of visual illusions by zen masters, novice meditators, and non-meditators showed statistically significant effects found for the [[Poggendorff Illusion]] but not for the [[Müller-Lyer Illusion]]. The zen masters experienced a statistically significant reduction in initial illusion (measured as error in millimeters) and a lower decrement in illusion for subsequent trials.<ref name="perceptualskills">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tloczynski J, Santucci A, Astor-Stetson E | title = Perception of visual illusions by novice and longer-term meditators | journal = Perceptual and Motor Skills | volume = 91 | issue = 3 Pt 1 | pages = 1021–6 | date = December 2000 | pmid = 11153836 | doi = 10.2466/pms.2000.91.3.1021 | s2cid = 31828795 }}</ref> Tloczynski has described the theory of mechanism behind the changes in perception that accompany mindfulness meditation thus: "A person who meditates consequently perceives objects more as directly experienced stimuli and less as concepts… With the removal or minimization of cognitive stimuli and generally increasing awareness, meditation can therefore influence both the quality (accuracy) and quantity (detection) of perception."<ref name="perceptualskills" /> Brown points to this as a possible explanation of the phenomenon: "[the higher rate of detection of single light flashes] involves quieting some of the higher mental processes which normally obstruct the perception of subtle events."<ref name="Brown 775–784">{{Cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=Daniel|last2=Forte|first2=Michael|last3=Dysart|first3=Michael|date=June 1984|title=Visual Sensitivity and Mindfulness Meditation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1984.58.3.775|journal=Perceptual and Motor Skills|volume=58|issue=3|pages=775–784|doi=10.2466/pms.1984.58.3.775|pmid=6382145|s2cid=39549396|issn=0031-5125}}</ref> In other words, the practice may temporarily or permanently alter some of the top-down processing involved in filtering subtle events usually deemed noise by the perceptual filters.<ref name="Brown 775–784"/>
+=== Memory ===
+Meditation enhances memory capacity specifically in the [[working memory]] and increases [[Executive functions|executive functioning]] by helping participants better understand what is happening moment for moment.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016-02-01|title=Mindfulness meditation practice and executive functioning: Breaking down the benefit|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1053810016300058|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|language=en|volume=40|pages=116–130|doi=10.1016/j.concog.2016.01.005|issn=1053-8100|last1=Gallant|first1=Sara N.|pmid=26784917|s2cid=10182245}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bailey|first1=N. W.|last2=Freedman|first2=G.|last3=Raj|first3=K.|last4=Spierings|first4=K. N.|last5=Piccoli|first5=L. R.|last6=Sullivan|first6=C. M.|last7=Chung|first7=S. W.|last8=Hill|first8=A. T.|last9=Rogasch|first9=N. C.|last10=Fitzgerald|first10=P. B.|date=2019-10-16|title=Mindfulness meditators show enhanced working memory performance concurrent with different brain region engagement patterns during recall|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/801746v1|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=801746|doi=10.1101/801746|s2cid=208590582}}</ref> Those who meditate regularly have demonstrated the ability to better process and distinguish important information from the [[working memory]] and store it into [[long-term memory]] with more accuracy than those who do not practice meditation techniques.<ref name=":1" /> Meditation may be able to expand the amount of information that can be held within working memory and by so doing is able to improve IQ scores and increase individual intelligence.<ref name=":3" /> The encoding process for both audio and visual information has been shown to be more accurate and detailed when meditation is used.<ref name=":5" /> Though there are limited studies on meditation's effects on long-term memory, because of meditations ability to increase attentional awareness, [[Episodic memory|episodic long-term memory]] is believed to be more vivid and accurate for those who meditate regularly. Meditation has also shown to decrease memory complaints from those with Alzheimer's disease which also suggests the benefits meditation could have on episodic long-term memory which is linked to Alzheimer's.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Lynn C.|year=2004|title=A Pilot Study of a Yoga and Meditation Intervention for Dementia Caregiver Stress|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology|volume=60|issue=6|pages=677–687|doi=10.1002/jclp.10259|pmid=15141399}}</ref>
+===Calming and relaxation===
+According to an article in ''Psychological Bulletin'', EEG activity slows as a result of meditation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cahn BR, Polich J | title = Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 132 | issue = 2 | pages = 180–211 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16536641 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180 }}</ref> Some types of meditation may lead to a calming effect by reducing [[sympathetic nervous system]] activity while increasing [[parasympathetic nervous system]] activity. Or, equivalently, that meditation produces a reduction in arousal and increase in relaxation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Flanagan |first1=Steven R. |last2=Zaretsky, PhD |first2=Dr. Herb |last3=Moroz, MD |first3=Alex |title=Medical Aspects of Disability, Fourth Edition |date=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9780826127846 |page=596 |edition=Fourth |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Medical_Aspects_of_Disability_Fourth_Edi/azCbzY2q0_kC |quote=It is thought that some types of meditation might work by reducing activity in the sympathetic nervous system and increasing activity in the parasympathetic nervous system}}</ref>
+[[Herbert Benson]], founder of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with [[Harvard University]] and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "relaxation response".<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Benson H|date=December 1997|title=The relaxation response: therapeutic effect|journal=Science|volume=278|issue=5344|pages=1694–5|bibcode=1997Sci...278.1693B|doi=10.1126/science.278.5344.1693b|pmid=9411784}}</ref> The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the [[Himalaya]]n Mountains.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/04.18/09-tummo.html|title=Meditation changes temperatures: Mind controls body in extreme experiments|last1=Cromie|first1=William J.|date=18 April 2002|work=Harvard University Gazette|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524212421/http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/04.18/09-tummo.html|archive-date=24 May 2007}}</ref> Benson wrote ''[[The Relaxation Response]]'' to document the benefits of meditation, which in 1975 were not yet widely known.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Relaxation Response|last=Benson|first=Herbert|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2001|isbn=978-0-380-81595-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/relaxationrespon00bens_0/page/61 61–3]|name-list-style=vanc|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/relaxationrespon00bens_0/page/61}}{{psc|date=October 2014}}</ref>
+===Aging===
+There is no good evidence to indicate that meditation affects the brain in aging.<ref name="Luders">{{cite journal | last1=Luders | first1=Eileen | last2=Cherbuin | first2=Nicolas | title=Searching for the philosopher's stone: promising links between meditation and brain preservation | journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences| volume=1373 | issue=1 | date=2016-05-17 | issn=0077-8923 | doi=10.1111/nyas.13082 | pages=38–44| pmid=27187107 | bibcode=2016NYASA1373...38L | s2cid=5043942 }}</ref>
+===Happiness and emotional well-being===
+Studies have shown meditators to have higher happiness than control groups, although this may be due to non-specific factors such as meditators having better general self-care.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ramesh MG, Sathian B, Sinu E, Kiranmai SR | title = Efficacy of rajayoga meditation on positive thinking: an index for self-satisfaction and happiness in life | journal = Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research | volume = 7 | issue = 10 | pages = 2265–7 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 24298493 | pmc = 3843423 | doi = 10.7860/JCDR/2013/5889.3488 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.040 |title=Meditation and happiness: Mindfulness and self-compassion may mediate the meditation–happiness relationship |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=93 |pages=80–85 |year=2016 |last1=Campos |first1=Daniel |last2=Cebolla |first2=Ausiàs |last3=Quero |first3=Soledad |last4=Bretón-López |first4=Juana |last5=Botella |first5=Cristina |last6=Soler |first6=Joaquim |last7=García-Campayo |first7=Javier |last8=Demarzo |first8=Marcelo |last9=Baños |first9=Rosa María | name-list-style = vanc |hdl=10234/157867 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Manocha_2012" /><ref name="Hendriks_2018" />
+Positive relationships have been found between the volume of gray matter in the right [[precuneus]] area of the brain and both meditation and the subject's subjective [[happiness]] score.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sato W, Kochiyama T, Uono S, Kubota Y, Sawada R, Yoshimura S, Toichi M | title = The structural neural substrate of subjective happiness | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 5 | pages = 16891 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26586449 | pmc = 4653620 | doi = 10.1038/srep16891 | bibcode = 2015NatSR...516891S }}</ref><ref name="pmid25632405">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kurth F, Luders E, Wu B, Black DS | title = Brain Gray Matter Changes Associated with Mindfulness Meditation in Older Adults: An Exploratory Pilot Study using Voxel-based Morphometry | journal = Neuro | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–26 | year = 2014 | pmid = 25632405 | pmc = 4306280 | doi = 10.17140/NOJ-1-106 }}</ref><ref name="Hölzel_2011a">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Vangel M, Congleton C, Yerramsetti SM, Gard T, Lazar SW | title = Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 191 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–43 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21071182 | pmc = 3004979 | doi = 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006 }}</ref><ref name="Kurth_2015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kurth F, MacKenzie-Graham A, Toga AW, Luders E | title = Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–61 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 24643652 | pmc = 4994843 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsu029 }}</ref><ref name="Fox_2014" /><ref name="Hölzel_2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Evans KC, Hoge EA, Dusek JA, Morgan L, Pitman RK, Lazar SW | title = Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 11–7 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 19776221 | pmc = 2840837 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsp034 }}</ref> A recent study found that participants who engaged in a body-scan meditation for about 20 minutes self-reported higher levels of happiness and decrease in anxiety compared to participants who just rested during the 20-minute time span. These results suggest that an increase in awareness of one's body through meditation causes a state of selflessness and a feeling of connectedness. This result then leads to reports of positive emotions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dambrun M | title = When the dissolution of perceived body boundaries elicits happiness: The effect of selflessness induced by a body scan meditation | journal = Consciousness and Cognition | volume = 46 | pages = 89–98 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27684609 | doi = 10.1016/j.concog.2016.09.013 | s2cid = 23099927 }}</ref>
+A technique known as [[mindfulness-based stress reduction]] (MBSR) displays significant benefits for mental health and coping behaviors. Participants who had no prior experience with MBSR reported a significant increase in happiness after eight weeks of MBSR practice. Focus on the present moment and increased awareness of one's thoughts can help monitor and reduce judgment or negative thoughts, causing a report of higher emotional well-being.<ref name="Anderson_2007">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Anderson ND, Lau MA, Segal ZV, Bishop SR |title=Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control |journal=Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy |date=2007 |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=449–463 |doi=10.1002/cpp.544 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The MBSR program and evidence for its effectiveness is described in [[Jon Kabat-Zinn|Jon Kabat-Zinn's]] book ''[[Full Catastrophe Living]]''.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Kabat-Zinn|first=Jon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fIuNDtnb2ZkC|title=Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness|date=2013|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-345-53972-4|edition=2nd|language=en}}</ref>
+===Pain===
+{{See also|Meditation and pain|Mindfulness-based pain management}}
+Meditation has been show to reduce [[pain]] perception.<ref name="pmid25566158">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nakata H, Sakamoto K, Kakigi R | title = Meditation reduces pain-related neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, secondary somatosensory cortex, and thalamus | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 5 | pages = 1489 | year = 2014 | pmid = 25566158 | pmc = 4267182 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01489 | doi-access = free }}</ref> An intervention known as [[mindfulness-based pain management]] (MBPM) has been subject to a range of studies demonstrating its effectiveness.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mehan S, Morris J|date=2018|title=A literature review of Breathworks and mindfulness intervention|journal=British Journal of Healthcare Management|volume=24|issue=5|pages=235–241|doi=10.12968/bjhc.2018.24.5.235}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{cite journal|vauthors=Brown CA, Jones AK|date=March 2013|title=Psychobiological correlates of improved mental health in patients with musculoskeletal pain after a mindfulness-based pain management program|journal=The Clinical Journal of Pain|volume=29|issue=3|pages=233–44|doi=10.1097/AJP.0b013e31824c5d9f|pmid=22874090|s2cid=33688569}}</ref>
+==Potential adverse effects and limits of meditation==
+{{see also|Meditation#Potential adverse effects}}
+The understanding of the potential for adverse effects in meditation is evolving. In 2014, the [[Federal government of the United States|US government]]-run [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] suggested that:
+<blockquote>Meditation is considered to be safe for healthy people. There have been rare reports that meditation could cause or worsen symptoms in people who have certain psychiatric problems, but this question has not been fully researched.<ref>{{cite web
+|url=http://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm
+|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405085602/http://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm
+|title=Meditation: What You Need To Know
+|author=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
+|year=2014
+|archive-date=April 5, 2015
+}}
+</ref></blockquote>
+A 2022 update of the same webpage is more cautionary:
+<blockquote>A 2020 review examined 83 studies (a total of 6,703 participants) and found that 55 of those studies reported negative experiences related to meditation practices. The researchers concluded that about 8 percent of participants had a negative effect from practicing meditation, which is similar to the percentage reported for psychological therapies.<ref name="NCAAM overview" /></blockquote>
+Another 2021 review found negative impacts in 37% of the sampled participants in mindfulness-based programmes, with lasting bad effects in 6–14% of the sample, associated with [[hyperarousal]] and [[Dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]].<ref name="Britton2021">
+{{cite journal
+| title=Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based programs
+| authors=Britton, Willoughby B; Lindahl, Jared R; Cooper, David J; Canby, Nicholas K; and Palitsky, Roman
+| journal=Clinical Psychological Science
+| volume=9
+| number=6
+| pages=1185--1204
+| year=2021
+| publisher=SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA
+}}</ref>
+More broadly, the potential for adverse effects from meditation is well-documented both in scientific articles and the popular press.<ref>{{cite journal
+|title=Adverse Effects of Meditation: A Preliminary Investigation of Long-Term Meditators
+|author=Shapiro Jr, Deane H
+|journal=International Journal of Psychosomatics
+|volume=39
+|number=1-4
+|pages=63
+|year=1992
+|url=http://deanehshapirojr.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Adverse-Effect-of-Meditation.pdf
+}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alberto |last1=Perez-De-Albeniz |first2=Jeremy |last2=Holmes | name-list-style = vanc |year=2000 |title=Meditation: Concepts, effects and uses in therapy |journal=International Journal of Psychotherapy |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=49–58 |doi=10.1080/13569080050020263}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/06/the-dark-knight-of-the-souls/372766/?single_page=true |title=The Dark Knight of the Soul |first=Tomas |last=Rocha | name-list-style = vanc |date=25 June 2014 |website=The Atlantic}}</ref> Cases of suicide, self-harm, and significant disturbance among meditation practitioners are also documented in canonical and other historical sources.<ref>{{cite web
+|translator-last=Thannisaro Bikku
+|title=Vesali Sutta: At Vesali
+|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn54/sn54.009.than.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
+| title = Cutting Off Your Arm On a Snowy Morning
+| year = 2021
+| url = https://www.sotozen.com/eng/library/stories/vol02.html
+}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
+| title = Wild Ivy: The Spiritual Autobiography of Zen Master Hakuin
+| translator = Norman Waddell
+| author = Hakuin
+| year = 2010
+| publisher=Shambhala Publications
+}}
+</ref>  Organisations such as [https://www.cheetahhouse.org Cheetah House] and [https://meditatinginsafety.org.uk/ Meditating in Safety] document research on problems arising in meditation, and offer help for meditators in distress or those recovering from meditation-related health problems.  In some cases, adverse effects may be attributed to "improper use of meditation"<ref name="Turner, Robert P. Page 440">{{cite journal | vauthors = Turner RP, Lukoff D, Barnhouse RT, Lu FG | title = Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV | journal = The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume = 183 | issue = 7 | pages = 435–44 | date = July 1995 | pmid = 7623015 | doi = 10.1097/00005053-199507000-00003 }}</ref> or the aggravation of a preexisting condition; however, developing research in this area suggests the need for deeper engagement with the causes of severe distress, which previous "meditation teachers have perhaps too quickly and rather insensitively dismissed as pre-existing or unrelated psychopathology".<ref>{{cite journal
+| title=Delineating the ‘dark night’ in Buddhist postmodernism
+| author=Lutkajtis, Anna
+| journal=Literature & Aesthetics
+| volume=29
+| number=2
+|year=2019
+}}</ref> Where meditation is prescribed or offered as a treatment,
+<blockquote>Principles of informed consent require that treatment choice be based in part on the balance of benefits to harms, and therefore can only be made if harms are adequately measured and known.<ref name="Britton2021"></ref>
+</blockquote>
+As with any practice, meditation may also be used to avoid facing ongoing problems or emerging crises in the meditator's life. In such situations, it may instead be helpful to apply [[Mindfulness|mindful attitudes]] while actively engaging with current problems.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Steven C. |last2=Strosahl |first2=Kirk D. |last3=Wilson |first3=Kelly G. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experiential Approach to Behavior Change |date=1999 |publisher=Guilford |location=New York |isbn=978-1-57230-481-9 | chapter = 3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Metzner | first = Ralph | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2005 | chapter = Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness | editor-last = Earlywine | editor-first = Mitch | title = Mind-Altering Drugs | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | pages = 25–48 | isbn = 978-0-19-516531-9 | doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195165319.003.0002 }}</ref> According to the [[National Institute of Health|NIH]], meditation should not be used as a replacement for conventional health care or as a reason to postpone seeing a [[physician|doctor]].<ref name="NCAAM overview">{{cite web |title=Meditation and Mindfulness: What You Need To Know |publisher=[[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] |url=http://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm |date=June 2022}}</ref>
+==Difficulties in the scientific study of meditation==
+===Weaknesses in historic meditation and mindfulness research===
+[[File:Meditation&BP.jpg|thumb|300px|A comparison of the effect of various meditation techniques on systolic [[blood pressure]]<ref name="State of the Research"/>]]
+In June 2007, the United States [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] (NCCIH) published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by researchers at the [[University of Alberta]] Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies involving five broad categories of meditation: [[mantra]] meditation, [[Mindfulness (Buddhism)|mindfulness meditation]], [[yoga]], [[T'ai chi ch'uan|T'ai chi]], and [[Qigong]], and included all studies on adults through September 2005, with a particular focus on research pertaining to [[hypertension]], [[cardiovascular disease]], and [[substance abuse]]. The report concluded:
+{{blockquote|Scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality. Future research on meditation practices must be more rigorous in the design and execution of studies and in the analysis and reporting of results. (p.&nbsp;6)}}
+It noted that there is no theoretical explanation of health effects from meditation common to all meditation techniques.<ref name="State of the Research" />
+A version of this report subsequently published in the ''[[Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine]]'' in 2008 stated: "Most clinical trials on meditation practices are generally characterized by poor methodological quality with significant threats to [[Validity (logic)|validity]] in every major quality domain assessed." This was despite a [[statistically significant]] increase in quality of all reviewed meditation research, in general, over time between 1956 and 2005. Of the 400 clinical studies, 10% were found to be good quality. A call was made for rigorous study of meditation.<ref name="NCCIH 2008" /> These authors also noted that this finding is not unique to the area of meditation research and that the quality of reporting is a frequent problem in other areas of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) research and related therapy research domains.
+Of more than 3,000 scientific studies that were found in a comprehensive search of 17 relevant databases, only about 4% had [[randomised controlled trial]]s (RCTs), which are designed to exclude the [[placebo]] effect.<ref name="State of the Research"/>
+In a 2013 meta-analysis, Awasthi argued that meditation is defined poorly and despite the research studies showing clinical efficacy, exact mechanisms of action remain unclear.<ref name="Awasthi">{{cite journal|author=Awasthi B|year=2013|title=Issues and perspectives in meditation research: in search for a definition|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=3|pages=613|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00613|pmc=3541715|pmid=23335908|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+A 2017 commentary was similarly mixed,<ref name="Van_Dam_2018"/><ref name=Stetka2017/> with concerns including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate in mindfulness and meditation research.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Van Dam NT, van Vugt MK, Vago DR, Schmalzl L, Saron CD, Olendzki A, Meissner T, Lazar SW, Gorchov J, Fox KC, Field BA, Britton WB, Brefczynski-Lewis JA, Meyer DE|date=January 2018|title=Reiterated Concerns and Further Challenges for Mindfulness and Meditation Research: A Reply to Davidson and Dahl|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|volume=13|issue=1|pages=66–69|doi=10.1177/1745691617727529|pmc=5817993|pmid=29016240}}</ref>
+===Position statements===
+A 2013 statement from the [[American Heart Association]] (AHA) evaluated the evidence for the effectiveness of TM as a treatment for hypertension as "unknown/unclear/uncertain or not well-established", and stated: "Because of many negative studies or mixed results and a paucity of available trials... other meditation techniques are not recommended in clinical practice to lower BP at this time."<ref name="aha">{{cite journal|vauthors=Brook RD, Appel LJ, Rubenfire M, Ogedegbe G, Bisognano JD, Elliott WJ, Fuchs FD, Hughes JW, Lackland DT, Staffileno BA, Townsend RR, Rajagopalan S|date=June 2013|title=Beyond Medications and Diet: Alternative Approaches to Lowering Blood Pressure: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association|journal=Hypertension|volume=61|issue=6|pages=1360–83|doi=10.1161/HYP.0b013e318293645f|pmid=23608661|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to the AHA, while there are promising results about the impact of meditation in reducing blood pressure and managing insomnia, depression and anxiety, it is not a replacement for healthy lifestyle changes and is not a substitute for effective medication.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meditation to Boost Health and Well-Being|url=https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-lifestyle/mental-health-and-wellbeing/meditation-to-boost-health-and-wellbeing}}</ref>
+===Methodological obstacles===
+The term ''meditation'' encompasses a wide range of practices and interventions rooted in different traditions, but research literature has sometimes failed to adequately specify the nature of the particular meditation practice(s) being studied.<ref name="Davidson-Kaszniak">{{cite journal|last1=Davidson|first1=Richard J.|last2=Kaszniak|first2=Alfred W.|date=October 2015|title=Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Research on Mindfulness and Meditation|journal=American Psychologist|volume=70|issue=7|pages=581–592|doi=10.1037/a0039512|pmc=4627495|pmid=26436310|authorlink1=Richard Davidson}}</ref> Different forms of meditation practice may yield different results depending on the factors being studied.<ref name="Davidson-Kaszniak"/>
+The presence of a number of intertwined factors including the effects of meditation, the theoretical orientation of how meditation practices are taught, the cultural background of meditators, and generic group effects complicates the task of isolating the effects of meditation:<ref name="Sevinc_20182"/>
+{{blockquote|Numerous studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of a variety of meditation practices. It has been unclear to what extent these practices share neural correlates. Interestingly, a recent study compared electroencephalogram activity during a focused-attention and open monitoring meditation practice from practitioners of two [[Buddhist]] traditions. The researchers found that the differences between the two meditation traditions were more pronounced than the differences between the two types of meditation. These data are consistent with our findings that theoretical orientation of how a practice is taught strongly influences neural activity during these practices. However, the study used long-term practitioners from different cultures, which may have confounded the results.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deolindo|first1=Camila Sardeto|last2=Ribeiro|first2=Mauricio Watanabe|last3=Aratanha|first3=Maria Adelia|last4=Afonso|first4=Rui Ferreira|last5=Irrmischer|first5=Mona|last6=Kozasa|first6=Elisa Harumi|date=2020-08-07|title=A Critical Analysis on Characterizing the Meditation Experience Through the Electroencephalogram|journal=Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience|volume=14|page=53|doi=10.3389/fnsys.2020.00053|pmid=32848645|pmc=7427581|issn=1662-5137|doi-access=free}}</ref>}}
+{{Clear}}
+== See also ==
+* [[Buddhism and psychology]]
+* [[Neuroplasticity]]
+== References ==
+{{Reflist}}
+== External links ==
+* {{Commons category-inline}}
+{{Meditation}}
+[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
+[[Category:Meditation]]
+[[Category:Mindfulness (psychology)]]

„Wirkungen der Meditation“ – Versionsunterschied

Version vom 24. Januar 2023, 17:40 Uhr

Effects of mindfulness meditation

Brain mechanisms

Changes in the brain

Attention and mindfulness

Attention networks and mindfulness meditation

Areas of attention

Sustained attention

Selective attention

Executive control attention

Emotion regulation and mindfulness

Evidence of mindfulness and emotion regulation outcomes

Controversies in mindful emotion regulation

Stress reduction

Insomnia and sleep

Future directions

Effects of other types of meditation

Insight (Vipassana) meditation

Kundalini yoga

Sahaja yoga and mental silence

Transcendental Meditation

Research on unspecified or multiple types of meditation

Brain activity

Changes in the brain

Attention/Mind wandering

Perception

Memory

Calming and relaxation

Aging

Happiness and emotional well-being

Pain

Potential adverse effects and limits of meditation

Difficulties in the scientific study of meditation

Weaknesses in historic meditation and mindfulness research

Position statements

Methodological obstacles

See also

References

External links

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