Cefnfor India
| Cefnforoedd y Ddaear |
|---|
| (Cefnfor y Byd) |
 | |
| Math | cefnfor, môr, rhanbarth  |
|---|---|
| Enwyd ar ôl | India |
| Daearyddiaeth | |
| Rhan o'r canlynol | Cefnfor y Byd |
| Arwynebedd | 76,174,000 km² |
| Uwch y môr | 0 metr |
| Yn ffinio gyda | Kismayo, De Affrica, Cefnfor yr Iwerydd, Y Cefnfor Tawel, Cefnfor y De |
| Cyfesurynnau | 20°S 80°E |
 | |
Cefnfor India yw'r trydydd mwyaf o gefnforoedd y byd, gan orchuddio 70,560,000 km² (27,240,000 metr sgwâr) neu 19.8% meo'r dŵr ar wyneb y Ddaear.[1] Mae wedi'i ffinio gan Asia i'r gogledd, Affrica i'r gorllewin ac Awstralia i'r dwyrain. I'r de mae wedi'i ffinio â'r Cefnfor Deheuol neu Antarctica, yn dibynnu ar y diffiniad a ddefnyddir. Mae gan Gefnfor India rai moroedd ymylol neu ranbarthol mawr, fel Môr Arabia, y Môr Laccadive, Môr Somalïaidd, Bae Bengal, Môr Andaman, Môr Andaman a Môr Timor. Yma hefyd ceir Gwlff Aden, Gwlff Oman a Gwlff Persia. Ymlith y gwledydd o gwmpas Cefnfor India mae De Affrica, Mosambic, Tansanïa, Cenia a Somalia yn Affrica, Iemen, Oman, Pacistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar ac Indonesia yn Asia ac Awstralia.
Yr ynysoedd mwyaf yw Madagasgar, Comoros, Seychelles, Socotra, ynysoedd Lakshadweep, Maldives, Ynysfor Chagos, Sri Lanca, Ynysoedd Andaman, Ynysoedd Nicobar, Ynysoedd Mantawai, ac Ynysoedd Kerguélen.
Mae Cefnfor India'n cynnwys 291.9 miliwn km³ o ddŵr. Ei ddyfnder mwyaf yw dyffryn hollt Java gyda dyfnder o 7,258 medr, ond mae dyfnder cyfartolog y cefnfor yn 3,897 medr, bron i bedwar gwaith uchder yr Wyddfa.
Geirdarddiad
[golygu | golygu cod]Mae'r enw 'Cefnfor India' wedi'i ddefnyddio ers o leiaf 1515 pan ardystiwyd y ffurf Ladin Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ("Cefnfor Dwyrain Indiaidd"), a ddefnyddiwyd gan fod India'n ymwthio i'r mor. Fe'i gelwid cyn hynny'n "Gefnfor Dwyreiniol", term a oedd yn dal i gael ei ddefnyddio yng nghanol y 18g.[2]
Yng Ngwlad Groeg Hynafol, galwyd Cefnfor India yn "Fôr Erythraean".[3]
Daearyddiaeth
[golygu | golygu cod]
Maint a data
[golygu | golygu cod]Roedd ffiniau Cefnfor India, fel yr amlinellwyd gan y Sefydliad Hydrograffig Rhyngwladol ym 1953 yn cynnwys y Cefnfor Deheuol ond nid y moroedd ymylol ar hyd yr ymyl ogleddol, ond yn y flwyddyn 2000 amffiniodd yr IHO y Cefnfor Deheuol ar wahân, gweithred a symudodd ddyfroedd i'r De o 60° S o Gefnfor India, ond a oedd yn cynnwys y moroedd ymylol gogleddol.[4][5] Mae rhan fwyaf gogleddol Cefnfor India (gan gynnwys moroedd ymylol) oddeutu 30 ° i'r gogledd yng Ngwlff Persia.[5]
Arfordiroedd a silffoedd
[golygu | golygu cod]Mewn cyferbyniad â'r Môr Iwerydd a'r Môr Tawel, mae Cefnfor India wedi'i amgáu gan brif diroedd ac archipelago ar dair ochr ac nid yw'n ymestyn o begwn i begwn. Mae wedi'i ganoli ar Benrhyn India. Er bod yr isgyfandir hwn wedi chwarae rhan sylweddol yn ei hanes, mae Cefnfor India wedi bod yn ferw o gymunedau cosmopolitaidd, gan gydgysylltu rhanbarthau amrywiol gan arloesiadau, masnach a chrefydd ers yn gynnar iawn.[6] Mae gan ymylon gweithredol Cefnfor India ddyfnder cyfartalog o 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 milltir) gyda dyfnder uchaf o 175 km (109 milltir). Mae gan yr ymylon goddefol ddyfnder cyfartalog o 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 milltir).[7] Lled cyfartalog llethrau'r silffoedd cyfandirol yw 50.4-52.4 km (31.3-32.6 milltir) ar gyfer ymylon gweithredol a goddefol yn y drefn honno, gyda dyfnder uchaf o 205.3-255.2 km (127.6–158.6 milltir).[8]
Awstralia, Indonesia, ac India yw'r tair gwlad sydd â'r traethlinau hiraf a'r parthau economaidd unigryw. Mae'r silff gyfandirol yn 15% o Gefnfor India. Mae mwy na dau biliwn o bobl yn byw mewn gwledydd sy'n ffinio â Chefnfor India, o'i gymharu ag 1.7 biliwn ar gyfer Môr yr Iwerydd a 2.7 biliwn ar gyfer y Môr Tawel (mae rhai gwledydd yn ffinio â mwy nag un cefnfor).
Afonydd
[golygu | golygu cod]Mae basn draenio Cefnfor India yn gorchuddio 21,100,000 km2 (8,100,000 metr sgwâr), bron yn union yr un fath ag arwynebedd y Môr Tawel a hanner basn yr Iwerydd, neu 30% o arwyneb ei gefnfor (o'i gymharu â 15% ar gyfer y Môr Tawel). Rhennir basn draenio Cefnfor India yn oddeutu 800 o fasnau unigol, hanner yr un o'r Môr Tawel. Lleolir 50% ohono yn Asia, 30% yn Affrica, ac 20% yn Awstralasia. Mae afonydd Cefnfor India'n fyrrach, ar gyfartaledd, (740 km sef 460 milltir) nag afonydd y cefnforoedd mawr eraill. Yr afonydd mwyaf yw (dosbarth 5) afonydd Zambezi, Ganges-Brahmaputra, Indus, Jubba, a Murray ac (dosbarth 4) Shatt al-Arab, Wadi Ad Dawasir (system afon sych ar Benrhyn Arabia) ac afonydd Limpopo.
Hinsawdd
[golygu | golygu cod]Mae sawl nodwedd yn gwneud Cefnfor India'n unigryw. Mae'n ffurfio craidd y Pwll Cynnes Trofannol ar raddfa fawr sydd, wrth ryngweithio â'r awyrgylch, yn effeithio ar yr hinsawdd yn rhanbarthol ac yn fyd-eang. Mae Asia'n blocio allforio gwres ac mae'n atal awyru Cefnfor India. Y cyfandir hwn hefyd sy'n gyrru monsŵn Cefnfor India, y cryfaf ar y Ddaear, sy'n achosi amrywiadau tymhorol ar raddfa fawr mewn ceryntau cefnfor, gan gynnwys gwrthdroi Cerrynt Somalïaidd a Cherrynt Monsoon Indiaidd.
Mae ymchwydd (upwelling) yn digwydd ger Corn Affrica a Phenrhyn Arabia yn Hemisffer y Gogledd ac i'r gogledd o'r gwyntoedd masnach yn Hemisffer y De. Mae'r Indonesian Throughflow yn gysylltiad Cyhydeddol unigryw â'r Môr Tawel.
Hanes
[golygu | golygu cod]Mae Cefnfor India, ynghyd â Môr y Canoldir, wedi cysylltu pobl ers talwm, tra bod yr Iwerydd a'r Môr Tawel wedi gweithredu fel rhwystrau neu mare incognitum. Mae hanes ysgrifenedig Cefnfor India, fodd bynnag, wedi bod yn Ewrocentrig ac yn dibynnu i raddau helaeth ar argaeledd ffynonellau ysgrifenedig o'r oes drefedigaethol (colonial). Yn aml, rhennir yr hanes hwn yn gyfnod hynafol ac yna cyfnod Islamaidd; mae'r cyfnodau dilynol yn aml yn cael eu hisrannu i gyfnodau Portiwgalaidd, Iseldiraidd a Phrydeinig.[9]
Aneddiadau cyntaf
[golygu | golygu cod]Yn India darganfuwyd ffosiliau Pleistosenaidd o Homo erectus a ffosiliau dynolaidd (hominidaidd) cynharach eraill, tebyg i Homo heidelbergensis yn Ewrop. Yn ôl theori trychineb Toba, 74000 o flynyddoedd yn ôl, pan echdorodd llosgfynydd yn Llyn Toba,Sumatra, gorchuddiwyd India â lludw folcanig gan ddileu un neu ragor o linachau bodau dynol hynafol yn India a De-ddwyrain Asia.[10]
Mae theori 'Allan o Affrica' yn nodi bod Homo sapiens wedi ymledu o Affrica i dir mawr Ewrasia. Mae'r rhagdybiaeth Gwasgariad Deheuol neu Arfordirol mwy diweddar, fodd bynnag, yn dadlau bod bodau dynol modern wedi ymledu ar hyd arfordiroedd Penrhyn Arabia a de Asia. Cefnogir y rhagdybiaeth hon gan ymchwil mtDNA sy'n datgelu digwyddiad gwasgaru cyflym yn ystod y Pleistosen Hwyr (11,000 CP / o flynyddoedd yn ôl). Dechreuodd y gwasgariad arfordirol hwn, fodd bynnag, yn Nwyrain Affrica 75,000 o CP a digwyddodd yn ysbeidiol o aber i aber ar hyd perimedr gogleddol Cefnfor India ar gyfradd o 0.7–4.0 km (0.43-2.49 milltir) y flwyddyn. Yn y pen draw, arweiniodd at fodau dynol modern yn mudo o Sunda dros Wallacea i Sahul (De-ddwyrain Asia i Awstralia).[11] Ers hynny, mae tonnau o bobloedd wedi ymfudo ac wedi ailsefydlu ac, yn amlwg, roedd pobl arfordirol Cefnfor India wedi bod yn byw yno ymhell cyn i'r gwareiddiadau cyntaf ddod i'r amlwg. 5000–6000 o flynyddoedd yn ôl roedd chwe chanolfan ddiwylliannol wahanol wedi esblygu o amgylch Cefnfor India: Dwyrain Affrica, y Dwyrain Canol, Isgyfandir India, De-ddwyrain Asia, Ynysfor Maleia ac Awstralia; pob un yn rhyng-gysylltu â'i gymdogion.[12]
Dechreuodd globaleiddio bwyd ar dir mawr Cefnfor India c. 4.000 o flynyddoedd yn ôl. Daeth pum cnwd Affricanaidd - sorgwm, miled perlog, ragi, pys y fuwch a ffa hiasinth - rywsut o hyd i Gwjarat yn India yn ystod yr Harappan Hwyr (2000–1700 BCE).
Esblygodd masnachwyr Gwjarati yn fforwyr cyntaf Cefnfor India wrth iddynt fasnachu nwyddau Affricanaidd fel ifori, cregyn crwbanod a chaethweision. Canfu miled (Panicum miliaceum) ei ffordd o Ganol Asia i Affrica, ynghyd ag ieir a sebwaid, er bod anghydfod ynghylch yr union amseriad. Oddeutu 2000 BCE ymddangosodd pupur du a sesame, y ddau yn frodorol o Asia, yn yr Aifft. Tua'r un amser symudodd y llygoden fawr ddu a llygoden y tŷ o Asia i'r Aifft. Cyrhaeddodd bananas i Affrica tua 3000 o flynyddoedd yn ôl.[13]
Mae o leiaf un ar ddeg o tswnamïau cynhanesyddol wedi taro arfordir Cefnfor India yn Indonesia rhwng 7,400 a 2,900 o flynyddoedd yn ôl. Wrth ddadansoddi gwelyau tywod mewn ogofâu yn rhanbarth Aceh, daeth gwyddonwyr i'r casgliad bod y cyfnodau rhwng y tswnamïau hyn wedi amrywio o gyfresi o fân tswnamïau dros ganrif i gyfnodau o fwy na 2,000 o flynyddoedd cyn y megawthiadau (megathrusts) yn Ffos Sunda. Er bod y risg ar gyfer tswnamïau yn y dyfodol yn uchel, mae'n debygol y bydd cyfnod tawel yn dilyn megawthiad mawr fel yr un yn 2,004, a hynny am gyfnod go hir.[14]
Darllen pellach
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Dolennau allanol
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Cyfeiriadau
[golygu | golygu cod]- ↑ Eakins & Sharman 2010
- ↑ Harper, Douglas. "Indian Ocean". Online Etymology Dictionary. Cyrchwyd 18 Ionawr 2011.
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- ↑ 5.0 5.1 IHO 2002
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- ↑ Harris et al. 2014, Table 3, p. 11
- ↑ Parthasarathi & Riello 2014, Time and the Indian Ocean, pp. 2–3
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- ↑ Bulbeck 2007, t. 315
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