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Lyn 16: Lyn 16:
|title=Titan, Mars and Earth: Entropy Production by Latitudinal Heat Transport
|title=Titan, Mars and Earth: Entropy Production by Latitudinal Heat Transport
|author=Lorenz, Ralph D.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Withers, Paul G.; McKay, Christopher P.
|author=Lorenz, Ralph D.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Withers, Paul G.; McKay, Christopher P.
|publisher=[[Ames Research Center]], University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory|url=http://sirius.bu.edu/withers/pppp/pdf/mepgrl2001.pdf|year=2001|accessdate=2007-08-21
|publisher=Ames Research Center, University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory|url=http://sirius.bu.edu/withers/pppp/pdf/mepgrl2001.pdf|year=2001|accessdate=2007-08-21
|format=PDF}}</ref>
|format=PDF}}</ref>
| avg_speed = 35,02&nbsp;km/s
| avg_speed = 35,02&nbsp;km/s
Lyn 45: Lyn 45:
|date=2006-02-27
|date=2006-02-27
|title=HORIZONS Web-Interface for Venus (Major Body=299)
|title=HORIZONS Web-Interface for Venus (Major Body=299)
|publisher=[[JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System]]
|publisher=JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System
|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=mb&sstr=299
|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=mb&sstr=299
|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref> tot −3,8<ref name="ephemeris">{{cite web |last=Espenak |first=Fred |year=1996 |url=http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/TYPE/venus2.html#ve2006 |title=Venus: Twelve year planetary ephemeris, 1995–2006 |work=NASA Reference Publication 1349 |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=20 Junie 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516220859/https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/TYPE/venus2.html |archive-date=16 Mei 2020 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|accessdate=2010-11-28}}</ref> tot −3,8<ref name="ephemeris">{{cite web |last=Espenak |first=Fred |year=1996 |url=http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/TYPE/venus2.html#ve2006 |title=Venus: Twelve year planetary ephemeris, 1995–2006 |work=NASA Reference Publication 1349 |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=20 Junie 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516220859/https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/TYPE/venus2.html |archive-date=16 Mei 2020 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
Lyn 148: Lyn 148:
Sekere eienskappe van Venus, soos die tektoniese verskynsels wat "tessera-terreine" genoem word, vereis die teenwoordigheid van wateroseane en plaattektoniek, wat aandui bewoonbare toestande met groot waterliggame het vroeër in 'n stadium op Venus voorgekom.<ref name="Petkowski Seager 2021">{{cite web | last1=Petkowski | first1=Dr. Janusz | last2=Seager | first2=Prof. Sara | title=Did Venus ever have oceans? - MIT | website=Venus Cloud Life - MIT | date=2021-11-18 | url=https://venuscloudlife.com/are-venus-cloud-layers-too-dry-for-life/ | access-date=2023-04-13}}</ref> Die aard van tessera-terreine is egter glad nie seker nie.<ref name=Gilmore_et_al_2017/>
Sekere eienskappe van Venus, soos die tektoniese verskynsels wat "tessera-terreine" genoem word, vereis die teenwoordigheid van wateroseane en plaattektoniek, wat aandui bewoonbare toestande met groot waterliggame het vroeër in 'n stadium op Venus voorgekom.<ref name="Petkowski Seager 2021">{{cite web | last1=Petkowski | first1=Dr. Janusz | last2=Seager | first2=Prof. Sara | title=Did Venus ever have oceans? - MIT | website=Venus Cloud Life - MIT | date=2021-11-18 | url=https://venuscloudlife.com/are-venus-cloud-layers-too-dry-for-life/ | access-date=2023-04-13}}</ref> Die aard van tessera-terreine is egter glad nie seker nie.<ref name=Gilmore_et_al_2017/>


Die resultate van studies wat op 26 Oktober 2023 aangekondig is, stel vir die eerste keer voor dat dit lyk of Venus in antieke tye plaattektoniek kon gehad en dus lewensvorme kon onderhou het.<ref name="NYT-20231026">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Billions of Years Ago, Venus May Have Had a Key Earthlike Feature - A new study makes the case that the solar system's hellish second planet once may have had plate tectonics that could have made it more hospitable to life. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/26/science/venus-plate-tectonics-life.html |date=26 October 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231026181052/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/26/science/venus-plate-tectonics-life.html |archive-date=26 October 2023 |access-date=27 October 2023 }}</ref><ref name="NA-20231026">{{cite journal |author=Weller, Matthew B. |display-authors=et al. |title=Venus's atmospheric nitrogen explained by ancient plate tectonics |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02102-w |date=26 October 2023 |journal=[[Nature Astronomy]] |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1038/s41550-023-02102-w |bibcode=2023NatAs.tmp....6W |s2cid=264530764 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231027132655/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02102-w |archive-date=27 October 2023 |access-date=27 October 2023 }}</ref>
Die resultate van studies wat op 26 Oktober 2023 aangekondig is, stel vir die eerste keer voor dat dit lyk of Venus in antieke tye plaattektoniek kon gehad en dus lewensvorme kon onderhou het.<ref name="NYT-20231026">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Billions of Years Ago, Venus May Have Had a Key Earthlike Feature - A new study makes the case that the solar system's hellish second planet once may have had plate tectonics that could have made it more hospitable to life. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/26/science/venus-plate-tectonics-life.html |date=26 October 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231026181052/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/26/science/venus-plate-tectonics-life.html |archive-date=26 October 2023 |access-date=27 October 2023 }}</ref><ref name="NA-20231026">{{cite journal |author=Weller, Matthew B. |display-authors=et al. |title=Venus's atmospheric nitrogen explained by ancient plate tectonics |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02102-w |date=26 October 2023 |journal=Nature Astronomy |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1038/s41550-023-02102-w |bibcode=2023NatAs.tmp....6W |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231027132655/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-02102-w |archive-date=27 October 2023 |access-date=27 October 2023 }}</ref>


====Vulkanisme====
====Vulkanisme====
[[Beeld:PIA00084 Eistla region pancake volcanoes.jpg|thumb|links|220px|'n Radarmosaïek van twee pannekoekkoepels in Venus se Eistla-streek. Hulle is 65&nbsp;km breed en minder as 1&nbsp;km hoog.]]
[[Beeld:PIA00084 Eistla region pancake volcanoes.jpg|thumb|links|220px|'n Radarmosaïek van twee pannekoekkoepels in Venus se Eistla-streek. Hulle is 65&nbsp;km breed en minder as 1&nbsp;km hoog.]]


'n Groot deel van Venus se oppervlak is skynbaar deur [[Vulkaan|vulkanisme]] gevorm. Die planeet het 'n paar keer soveel vulkane as die Aarde: 167 groot vulkane is meer as 100&nbsp;km breed. Die enigste vulkaankompleks van dié grootte op Aarde is die [[Hawaii (eiland)|Groot Eiland]] van [[Hawaii]].<ref name="Frankel" />{{rp|154}} Meer as 85&nbsp;000 vulkane op Venus is geïdentifiseer en gekarteer.<ref>{{cite web |title=A new catalog pinpoints volcanic cones in the best available surface images of Venus – those gathered 30 years ago by NASA's Magellan spacecraft. |url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/85000-volcanoes-mapped-on-venus |website=skyandtelescope.org |access-date=16 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=Rebecca M. |last2=Byrne |first2=Paul K. |title=A Morphological and Spatial Analysis of Volcanoes on Venus |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |date=April 2023 |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=e2023JE007753 |doi=10.1029/2023JE007753 |bibcode=2023JGRE..12807753H |s2cid=257745255 }}</ref> Dit is nie omdat Venus vulkanies aktiewer as die Aarde is nie, maar omdat sy kors ouer is en nie aan dieselfde [[erosie]]prosesse onderworpe is nie. Die Aarde se oseaankors word voortdurend by die grense van die tektoniese plate deur [[subduksie]] hersirkuleer en is gemiddeld sowat 100&nbsp;miljoen jaar oud.<ref name=Karttunen_et_al_2007/> Venus se oppervlak deerenteen word geraam op 300&nbsp;miljoen tot 600&nbsp;miljoen jaar oud.<ref name="Nimmo98" /><ref name="Frankel" />
'n Groot deel van Venus se oppervlak is skynbaar deur [[Vulkaan|vulkanisme]] gevorm. Die planeet het 'n paar keer soveel vulkane as die Aarde: 167 groot vulkane is meer as 100&nbsp;km breed. Die enigste vulkaankompleks van dié grootte op Aarde is die [[Hawaii (eiland)|Groot Eiland]] van [[Hawaii]].<ref name="Frankel" />{{rp|154}} Meer as 85&nbsp;000 vulkane op Venus is geïdentifiseer en gekarteer.<ref>{{cite web |title=A new catalog pinpoints volcanic cones in the best available surface images of Venus – those gathered 30 years ago by NASA's Magellan spacecraft. |url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/85000-volcanoes-mapped-on-venus |website=skyandtelescope.org |access-date=16 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=Rebecca M. |last2=Byrne |first2=Paul K. |title=A Morphological and Spatial Analysis of Volcanoes on Venus |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |date=April 2023 |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=e2023JE007753 |doi=10.1029/2023JE007753 |bibcode=2023JGRE..12807753H }}</ref> Dit is nie omdat Venus vulkanies aktiewer as die Aarde is nie, maar omdat sy kors ouer is en nie aan dieselfde [[erosie]]prosesse onderworpe is nie. Die Aarde se oseaankors word voortdurend by die grense van die tektoniese plate deur [[subduksie]] hersirkuleer en is gemiddeld sowat 100&nbsp;miljoen jaar oud.<ref name=Karttunen_et_al_2007/> Venus se oppervlak deerenteen word geraam op 300&nbsp;miljoen tot 600&nbsp;miljoen jaar oud.<ref name="Nimmo98" /><ref name="Frankel" />


Verskeie bewyse toon vulkanisme vind steeds op Venus plaas. Konsentrasies van [[swaeldioksied]] in die boonste aftmosfeer het tussen 1978 en 1986 met 'n faktor van 10 gedaal, in 2006 gestyg en daarna weer 10-voudig afgeneem.<ref name="ESA_2012-12-03"/> Dit beteken vlakke is verskeie kere deur groot vulkaniese uitbarstings opgestoot.<ref name=Glaze_1999/><ref name="Marcq2012"/> Daar is al voorgestel [[weerlig]] op Venus kan ontstaan vanweë vulkaniese aktiwiteit. In Januarie 2020 het sterrekundiges bewyse gerapporteer wat aandui Venus is tans vulkanies aktief, veral vanweë die opsporing van [[olivien]], 'n vulkaniese produk wat vinnig op die planeet se oppervlak sal verweer.<ref name="NYT-20200109"/><ref name="SCI-20200103"/>
Verskeie bewyse toon vulkanisme vind steeds op Venus plaas. Konsentrasies van [[swaeldioksied]] in die boonste aftmosfeer het tussen 1978 en 1986 met 'n faktor van 10 gedaal, in 2006 gestyg en daarna weer 10-voudig afgeneem.<ref name="ESA_2012-12-03"/> Dit beteken vlakke is verskeie kere deur groot vulkaniese uitbarstings opgestoot.<ref name=Glaze_1999/><ref name="Marcq2012"/> Daar is al voorgestel [[weerlig]] op Venus kan ontstaan vanweë vulkaniese aktiwiteit. In Januarie 2020 het sterrekundiges bewyse gerapporteer wat aandui Venus is tans vulkanies aktief, veral vanweë die opsporing van [[olivien]], 'n vulkaniese produk wat vinnig op die planeet se oppervlak sal verweer.<ref name="NYT-20200109"/><ref name="SCI-20200103"/>
Lyn 178: Lyn 178:


===Magneetveld en kern===
===Magneetveld en kern===
In 1967 het [[Wenera-ruimteprogram|Wenera 4]] gevind Venus se magneetveld is baie swakker as die Aarde s'n. Die magneetveld word opgewek deur 'n wisselwerking tussen die [[ionosfeer]] en die [[sonwind]],<ref name=Eroshenko_et_al_1969/><ref name=Kivelson_Russell_1995/> eerder as deur 'n interne [[dinamo]], soos in die Aarde se kern. Venus se klein [[magnetosfeer]] verskaf min beskerming aan die atmosfeer teen son- en [[kosmiese straling]]. Dit bereik eers op hoogtes van 54 tot 48&nbsp;km dieselfde vlakke as op Aarde.<ref name="Patel Mason Nordheim Dartnell 2022 p=114796">{{cite journal | last1=Patel | first1=M.R. | last2=Mason | first2=J.P. | last3=Nordheim | first3=T.A. | last4=Dartnell | first4=L.R. | title=Constraints on a potential aerial biosphere on Venus: II. Ultraviolet radiation | journal=Icarus | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=373 | year=2022 | issn=0019-1035 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114796 | page=114796| bibcode=2022Icar..37314796P | s2cid=244168415 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Herbst Banjac Atri Nordheim 2019 p=A15">{{cite journal | last1=Herbst | first1=Konstantin | last2=Banjac | first2=Saša | last3=Atri | first3=Dimitra | last4=Nordheim | first4=Tom A. | title=Revisiting the cosmic-ray induced Venusian radiation dose in the context of habitability | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | publisher=EDP Sciences | volume=633 | date=2019-12-24 | issn=0004-6361 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201936968 | page=A15| arxiv=1911.12788 | bibcode=2020A&A...633A..15H | s2cid=208513344 }}</ref>
In 1967 het [[Wenera-ruimteprogram|Wenera 4]] gevind Venus se magneetveld is baie swakker as die Aarde s'n. Die magneetveld word opgewek deur 'n wisselwerking tussen die [[ionosfeer]] en die [[sonwind]],<ref name=Eroshenko_et_al_1969/><ref name=Kivelson_Russell_1995/> eerder as deur 'n interne [[dinamo]], soos in die Aarde se kern. Venus se klein [[magnetosfeer]] verskaf min beskerming aan die atmosfeer teen son- en [[kosmiese straling]]. Dit bereik eers op hoogtes van 54 tot 48&nbsp;km dieselfde vlakke as op Aarde.<ref name="Patel Mason Nordheim Dartnell 2022 p=114796">{{cite journal | last1=Patel | first1=M.R. | last2=Mason | first2=J.P. | last3=Nordheim | first3=T.A. | last4=Dartnell | first4=L.R. | title=Constraints on a potential aerial biosphere on Venus: II. Ultraviolet radiation | journal=Icarus | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=373 | year=2022 | issn=0019-1035 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114796 | page=114796| bibcode=2022Icar..37314796P | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Herbst Banjac Atri Nordheim 2019 p=A15">{{cite journal | last1=Herbst | first1=Konstantin | last2=Banjac | first2=Saša | last3=Atri | first3=Dimitra | last4=Nordheim | first4=Tom A. | title=Revisiting the cosmic-ray induced Venusian radiation dose in the context of habitability | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | publisher=EDP Sciences | volume=633 | date=2019-12-24 | issn=0004-6361 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201936968 | page=A15| arxiv=1911.12788 | bibcode=2020A&A...633A..15H | s2cid=208513344 }}</ref>


Die gebrek aan 'n werklike magneetveld op Venus was verbasend, omdat dit byna net so groot soos die Aarde is en na verwagting 'n dinamo in sy kern gehad het. 'n Dinamo vereis drie dinge: 'n geleidende vloeistof, rotasie en [[konveksie]]. Die kern is vermoedelik elektries geleidend en, hoewel sy rotasie dikwels as te stadig beskou word, wys simulasies dit is vinnig genoeg om 'n dinamo te skep.<ref name=Luhmann_Russell_2006/><ref name=Stevenson_2003/> Dit dui aan die dinamo is afwesig weens Venus se gebrek aan konveksie in sy kern.
Die gebrek aan 'n werklike magneetveld op Venus was verbasend, omdat dit byna net so groot soos die Aarde is en na verwagting 'n dinamo in sy kern gehad het. 'n Dinamo vereis drie dinge: 'n geleidende vloeistof, rotasie en [[konveksie]]. Die kern is vermoedelik elektries geleidend en, hoewel sy rotasie dikwels as te stadig beskou word, wys simulasies dit is vinnig genoeg om 'n dinamo te skep.<ref name=Luhmann_Russell_2006/><ref name=Stevenson_2003/> Dit dui aan die dinamo is afwesig weens Venus se gebrek aan konveksie in sy kern.
Lyn 251: Lyn 251:
In April 2006 het die [[ESA]] se Venus Express in 'n wentelbaan om Venus gegaan. Dit het waarnemings sonder presedent van Venus se atmosfeer verskaf. Die ESA het dit tot in Januarie 2015 in sy wentelbaan gehou.<ref name=Howell_2014/> In 2010 het die eerste suksesvolle interplanetêre sonseilruimtetuig, IKAROS, na Venus gevlieg vir 'n verbyvlug. Teen 2023 was daar net een aktiewe sending na Venus: [[Japan]] se Akatsuki. Dit het in op 7 Desember 2015 in 'n wentelbaan gegaan.
In April 2006 het die [[ESA]] se Venus Express in 'n wentelbaan om Venus gegaan. Dit het waarnemings sonder presedent van Venus se atmosfeer verskaf. Die ESA het dit tot in Januarie 2015 in sy wentelbaan gehou.<ref name=Howell_2014/> In 2010 het die eerste suksesvolle interplanetêre sonseilruimtetuig, IKAROS, na Venus gevlieg vir 'n verbyvlug. Teen 2023 was daar net een aktiewe sending na Venus: [[Japan]] se Akatsuki. Dit het in op 7 Desember 2015 in 'n wentelbaan gegaan.


== Verwysings ==
==Verwysings==
{{Verwysings|3
'''Besig; sal later regkom'''
|verwysings=
{{Verwysings|3}}

<ref name=Walker_2017>{{cite web
| title=Viewing Venus in Broad Daylight
| first=John | last=Walker
| work=Fourmilab Switzerland
| access-date=19 April 2017 | archive-date=29 March 2017
| url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/venus_daytime/
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329024632/https://www.fourmilab.ch/images/venus_daytime/
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Lawrence_2005>{{cite web
| title=In Search of the Venusian Shadow
| last=Lawrence | first=Pete | date=2005
| website=Digitalsky.org.uk | access-date=13 June 2012
| url=http://www.digitalsky.org.uk/venus/shadow-of-venus.html
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611003523/http://www.digitalsky.org.uk/venus/shadow-of-venus.html
| archive-date=11 June 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="Mallama_and_Hilton">{{cite journal
| title=Computing apparent planetary magnitudes for The Astronomical Almanac
| first1=Anthony | last1=Mallama | first2=James L. | last2=Hilton
| journal=Astronomy and Computing
| volume=25 | pages=10–24 | date=October 2018
| doi=10.1016/j.ascom.2018.08.002 | s2cid=69912809
| bibcode=2018A&C....25...10M | arxiv=1808.01973 }}</ref>

<ref name="Hashimoto_et_al_2008">{{cite journal
| title=Felsic highland crust on Venus suggested by Galileo Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer data
| last1=Hashimoto | first1=George L.
| last2=Roos-Serote | first2=Maarten | last3=Sugita | first3=Seiji
| last4=Gilmore | first4=Martha S. | last5=Kamp | first5=Lucas W.
| last6=Carlson | first6=Robert W. | last7=Baines | first7=Kevin H.
| journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
| publisher=Advancing Earth and Space Science
| volume=113 | issue=E5 | date=31 December 2008
| bibcode=2008JGRE..113.0B24H | s2cid=45474562
| doi=10.1029/2008JE003134 | doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Shiga_2007>{{cite web
| title=Did Venus's ancient oceans incubate life?
| first=David | last=Shiga
| work=New Scientist | date=10 October 2007
| url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12769-did-venuss-ancient-oceans-incubate-life.html
| access-date=17 September 2017 |archive-date=24 March 2009
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324134332/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12769-did-venuss-ancient-oceans-incubate-life.html
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Jakosky">{{cite book
| title=The New Solar System
| last=Jakosky |first=Bruce M.
| chapter=Atmospheres of the Terrestrial Planets
| editor1-last=Beatty | editor1-first=J. Kelly
| editor2-last=Petersen | editor2-first=Carolyn Collins
| editor3-last=Chaikin | editor3-first=Andrew
| edition=4th | date=1999 | pages=175–200
| location=Boston |publisher=Sky Publishing
| isbn=978-0-933346-86-4 |oclc=39464951}}</ref>

<ref name=NASA_2019>{{Cite web
| title=Moons
| website=NASA Solar System Exploration
| url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/overview
| access-date=2019-08-26 | archive-date=19 October 2019
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019012033/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/overview/
| url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name= "Lopes_Gregg_2004">{{cite book
|title=Volcanic worlds: exploring the Solar System's volcanoes
| last1=Lopes | first1=Rosaly M. C. | last2=Gregg | first2=Tracy K. P.
| date=2004 | page=61 | publisher=Springer Publishing
| isbn=978-3-540-00431-8 }}</ref>

<ref name=Darling_Venus>{{cite encyclopedia
| title=Venus | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Science
| last=Darling |first=David
| location=Dundee, Scotland
| url=https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/V/Venus.html
| access-date=24 March 2022 | archive-date=31 October 2021
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031035229/https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/V/Venus.html
}}</ref>

<ref name="SolarSystemEncyclopedia">{{cite book
| title=Encyclopedia of the Solar System
| last=Taylor | first=Fredric W.
| chapter=Venus: Atmosphere | date=2014
| publisher=Elsevier Science & Technology
| location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-12-415845-0
| editor1-last=Tilman | editor1-first=Spohn
| editor2-last=Breuer | editor2-first=Doris
| editor3-last=Johnson | editor3-first=T. V.
| access-date=12 January 2016 | archive-date=29 September 2021
| chapter-url=http://literati.credoreference.com/content/entry/estsolar/venus_atmosphere/0
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929074421/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/estsolar/venus_atmosphere/0
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=CWRU_2006>{{cite web
| title=Venus | date=13 September 2006
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<ref name=Gilmore_et_al_2017>{{Cite journal
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| volume=61 | pages=574–579 | year=1771
| doi=10.1098/rstl.1771.0054 | s2cid=186212060
| url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k55866b/f617.chemindefer
| access-date=8 January 2008 |archive-date=9 May 2019
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509181354/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k55866b/f617.chemindefer
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Woolley_1969>{{cite journal
| title=Captain Cook and the Transit of Venus of 1769
| first=Richard | last=Woolley
| journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
| volume=24 | issue=1 | pages=19–32 | year=1969
| doi=10.1098/rsnr.1969.0004 | issn=0035-9149
| jstor=530738 | s2cid=59314888 }}</ref>

<ref name=Goldstein_Carpenter_1963>{{cite journal
| title=Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements
| last1=Goldstein | first1=R. M. | last2=Carpenter | first2=R. L.
| journal=Science
| volume=139 | issue=3558 | pages=910–911 | year=1963
| doi=10.1126/science.139.3558.910 | pmid=17743054
| bibcode=1963Sci...139..910G | s2cid=21133097 }}</ref>

<ref name="mitchell_1">{{cite web
|title=Inventing The Interplanetary Probe
| first=Don | last=Mitchell | date=2003
| work=The Soviet Exploration of Venus
| url=http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_OKB1.htm
| access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-date=12 October 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012053708/http://mentallandscape.com/V_OKB1.htm
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Mayer_et_al_1958>{{cite journal
| title=Observations of Venus at 3.15-cm Wave Length
| last1=Mayer | first1=C. H. | last2=McCullough | first2=T. P.
| last3=Sloanaker | first3=R. M.
| journal=The Astrophysical Journal
| date=January 1958 | volume=127 | page=1
| bibcode=1958ApJ...127....1M | doi=10.1086/146433 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=NASA_1962>{{cite report
| title=Mariner-Venus 1962 Final Project Report
| author=Jet Propulsion Laboratory
| publisher=NASA | date=1962 | version=SP-59
| url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19660005413_1966005413.pdf
| access-date=7 July 2017 | archive-date=11 February 2014
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211144532/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19660005413_1966005413.pdf
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="mitchell_2">{{cite web
| title=Plumbing the Atmosphere of Venus
| first=Don | last=Mitchell | date=2003
| work=The Soviet Exploration of Venus
| url=http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Lavochkin1.htm
| access-date=27 December 2007 | archive-date=30 September 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930201301/http://mentallandscape.com/V_Lavochkin1.htm
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=COSPAR_Group_VII_1969>{{cite conference
| title=Report on the Activities of the COSPAR Working Group VII
| page=94 | date=11–24 May 1969 | location=Prague, Czechoslovakia
| book-title=Preliminary Report, COSPAR Twelfth Plenary Meeting and Tenth International Space Science Symposium
| publisher=National Academy of Sciences }}</ref>

<ref name=Time_1971>{{cite magazine
| title=Science: Onward from Venus
| date=8 February 1971
| magazine=Time
| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909834,00.html
| access-date=2 January 2013 | archive-date=21 December 2008
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221214000/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909834,00.html
}}</ref>

<ref name=Colin_Hall_1977>{{cite journal
| title=The Pioneer Venus Program
| last1=Colin | first1=L. | last2=Hall | first2=C.
| volume=20 | issue=3 | pages=283–306 | date=1977
| journal=Space Science Reviews
| bibcode=1977SSRv...20..283C | doi=10.1007/BF02186467
| s2cid=122107496 }}</ref>

<ref name=Williams_2005>{{cite web
| title=Pioneer Venus Project Information
| first=David R. | last=Williams | date=6 January 2005
| publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
| url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/pioneer_venus.html
| access-date=19 July 2009 |archive-date=15 May 2019
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515084212/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/pioneer_venus.html
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Greeley_Batson_2007>{{cite book
| last1=Greeley | first1=Ronald
| last2=Batson | first2=Raymond M.
| title=Planetary Mapping
| page=47 | date=2007 | isbn=978-0-521-03373-2
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ztodv66A1VsC&pg=PA47
| access-date=19 July 2009 |archive-date=29 September 2021
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929074424/https://books.google.com/books?id=ztodv66A1VsC&pg=PA47
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Howell_2014>{{cite web
| title=Venus Express Out Of Gas; Mission Concludes, Spacecraft On Death Watch
| last=Howell | first=Elizabeth
| website=Universe Today | date=December 16, 2014
| url=https://www.universetoday.com/117312/venus-express-out-of-gas-mission-concludes-spacecraft-on-death-watch/
| access-date=April 22, 2021 | archive-date=22 April 2021
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422084103/https://www.universetoday.com/117312/venus-express-out-of-gas-mission-concludes-spacecraft-on-death-watch/
| url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Campbell_et_al_1976>{{cite journal
| title=New radar image of Venus
| last1=Campbell | first1=D. B. | last2=Dyce | first2=R. B.
| last3=Pettengill | first3=G. H.
| journal=Science | year=1976
| volume=193 | issue=4258 | pages=1123–1124
| doi=10.1126/science.193.4258.1123 | pmid=17792750
| bibcode=1976Sci...193.1123C | s2cid=32590584 }}</ref>

}}


== Eksterne skakels ==
== Eksterne skakels ==

Wysiging soos op 16:26, 17 November 2023

Hierdie artikel handel oor die planeet Venus. Vir ander betekenisse van die naam, sien Venus (dubbelsinnig).
Venus   ♀
Die planeet Venus
Venus, soos waargeneem deur die Mariner 10-wenteltuig.
Wentelbaaneienskappe
Epog J2000
Afelium 108 942 109 km
0.728 231 28 AE
Perihelium 107 476 259 km
0.718 432 70 AE
Halwe lengteas 108 208 930 km
0.723 332 AE
Wentelperiode 224.700 69 dae
0.615 197 0 jare
1,92 Venus solar dae
Sinodiese periode 583.92 dae[1][2]
Gem. omwentelingspoed 35,02 km/s
Baanhelling 3,394 71° (tot Ekliptika)
3,86° (tot die son se ewenaar)
2.19° (tot onveranderbare vlakte)[3]
Lengteligging van stygende nodus 76.670 69°
Periheliumhoek 54.852 29°
Natuurlike satelliete 0
Fisiese eienskappe
Radius by ewenaar 6 051,8 ± 1,0 km
(0,949 9 Aardes)
Oppervlakte 4,60×108 km2
(0,902 Aardes)
Volume 9,38×1011 km3
(0.866 Aardes)
Massa 4,868 5×1024 kg
(0,815 Aardes)
Gem. digtheid 5,204 g/cm3
Oppervlak-
aantrekkingskrag
8,87 m/s2
0,904 g
Ontsnapping-
snelheid
10,46 km/s
Sideriese
rotasieperiode
243,018 5 dae
Rotasiespoed
by ewenaar
6,52 km/h
1,81 m/s
Ashelling 177,3°[1]
Regte styging van noordpool 18 h 11 min 2 s
272,76°[4]
Deklinasie 67,16°
0,67 (geometries)[5]
0,90 (Bond)[5]
Oppervlak-temp.
   Kelvin
   Celsius
mingem.maks
735 K[1][6][7]
460 °C
Skynmagnitude −4,9[8][9] tot −3,8[10]
Hoekgrootte 9,7"–66,0"[1]
Atmosfeer
Oppervlakdruk 93 bar
9,3 MPa
Samestelling ~96,5% Koolstofdioksied

~3,5% Stikstof
0,015% Swaweldioksied
0,007% Argon
0,002% Waterdamp
0,001 7% Stikstofmonoksied
0,001 2% Helium
0,000 7% Neon
spore van Koolstofsulfied
spore van Waterstofchloried

spore van Waterstoffluoried


Venus is die tweede planeet van die Son af. Dit is 'n rotsplaneet met die digste atmosfeer van al die rotsplanete in die Sonnestelsel en die enigste een met 'n massa en grootte van naby dié van sy buurman die Aarde. Dit wentel nader aan die Son as die Aarde en lyk van die Aarde af altyd of dit naby die Son is, as óf die "oggendster" óf die "aandster". Hoewel dieselfde vir Mercurius geld, lyk Venus baie prominenter, want dit is die helderste voorwerp in ons naglug buiten die Son en die Maan.[11][12] Dit is selfs helderder as enige ster. Omdat hy so helder is, is Venus histories 'n algemene en belangrike voorwerp vir mense, beide in hulle kultuur en in sterrekunde.

Venus het 'n swak magnetosfeer en 'n uiters dik atmosfeer van koolstofdioksied wat, tesame met sy planeetwye wolkkombers van swaelsuur, 'n uiterse kweekhuiseffek veroorsaak. Dit lei tot 'n gemiddelde oppervlaktemperatuur van 737 K (464 °C) en 'n verpletterende druk van 92 keer dié van die Aarde by seevlak. Dit verander die lug in 'n oorkritieke vloeistof, terwyl die druk, temperatuur en straling by hoogtes van 50 km bo die oppervlak baie soos die Aarde s'n is.

Toestande wat dalk gunstig vir lewe op Venus is, is in sy wolklae geïdentifiseer: Onlangse navorsing het aanduidings, maar nie oortuigende bewyse nie, gevind vir lewe op die planeet. Venus kon vroeg in sy geskiedenis vloeibare oppervlakwater gehad het, moontlik genoeg om oseane te vorm, maar 'n wegholkweekhuiseffek het eindelik alle water laat verdamp, en dit is toe deur die sonwind die ruimte ingedra.[13][14][15]

Venus het vermoedelik 'n kern, mantel en kors, waarvan laasgenoemde interne hitte deur vulkanisme vrystel. Dit hervorm die oppervlak deur dit te hernu in plaas van deur plaattektoniek. Op 26 Oktober 2023 is die resultate van 'n studie egter bekend gemaak waarvolgens Venus in antieke tye plaattektoniek en gunstiger omstadighede vir lewe kon gehad het.[16][17] Venus is een van twee planete in die Sonnestelsel wat nie natuurlike satelliete, of mane, het nie.[18]

Venus se rotasie is deur die sterk strome en sleuring van sy atmosfeer verlangsaam en omgekeer in 'n retrograde beweging. Dié rotasie – tesame met die 224,7 aarddae wat dit Venus neem om 'n volle omwenteling om die Son te voltooi ('n Venusjaar) en 'n Venusdag van 117 aarddae – lei daartoe dat 'n Venusjaar net minder as twee Venusdae lank is. Venus en die Aarde se wentelbane is die naaste aan mekaar van die al die planete: Hulle sinodiese periode (die tyd tussen konjunksies) is 1,6 jaar.

In 1961 het Venus die teiken van Wenera 1, die eerste interplanetêre vlug in die mens se geskiedenis, geword. Daarna het ander noodsaaklike interplanetêre eerstes gevolg, soos die eerste sagte landing op 'n ander planeet (Wenera 7, 1970). Dié tuie het dit duidelik gemaak dat 'n uiterse kweekhuiseffek onleefbare oppervlaktoestande geskep het, 'n feit wat die mens meer geleer het in sy voorspellings van aardverwarming.[19][20]

Dié bewyse het die mens laat afsien van wetenskapsfiksie-idees dat Venus bewoonbaar is of selfs bewoon word. Tog is voorstelle vir nog vlugte gedoen, óf as verbyvlugte óf vir 'n swaartekragslinger vir vlugte na Mars óf om Venus se atmosfeer binne te gaan en op veilige afstande bo die oppervlak te bly waar toestande meer met dié op Aarde ooreenstem.

Fisiese eienskappe

Venus se grootte in vergelyking met dié van die ander rotsplanete (van links: Mercurius, Venus, Aarde en Mars; volgens hulle afstand van die Son af).

Venus is een van vier aardplanete in die Sonnestelsel, wat beteken hulle het 'n rotsagtige oppervlak soos die Aarde. Sy grootte en massa stem baie ooreen met dié van die Aarde en dit word dikwels beskryf as die Aarde se "suster" of "tweeling".[21] Venus is feitlik sferies vanweë sy stadige rotasie.[22] Dit het 'n deursnee van 12 103,6 km – net 638,4 km kleiner as die Aarde s'n – en sy massa is 81,5% dié van die Aarde.

Toestande op Venus se oppervlak verskil drasties van dié op die Aarde s'n omdat sy digte atmosfeer uit 96,5% koolstofdioksied bestaan; die grootste deel van die ander 3,5% is stikstof.[23] Die oppervlakdruk is 9,3 megapascal (93 bar) en die gemiddelde oppervlaktemperatuur 737 K (464 °C), ver bo die kritieke punt van enige van die komponente. Dit maak die oppervlakatmosfeer 'n oorkritieke vloeistof van hoofsaaklik oorkritieke koolstofdioksied en die res oorkritieke stikstof.

Atmosfeer en klimaat

Die wolkstruktuur van Venus se atmosfeer, moontlik danksy ultravioletfotografie.

Venus het 'n digte atmosfeer van sowat 96,5% koolstofdioksied en 3,5% stikstof – albei kom as 'n oorkritieke vloeistof op die planeet se oppervlak voor met 'n digtheid van 6,5% dié van water[24] en spore van ander gasse soos swaeldioksied.[25]

Die atmosfeer se massa is 92 keer dié van die Aarde, terwyl die druk op sy oppervlak sowat 93 keer dié van die Aarde is: 'n druk gelyk aan dié van sowat 1 km onder die Aarde se oseane. Die digtheid op die oppervlak is 65 kg/m3, 6,5% dié van water[24] of 50 keer so dig as die Aarde se atmosfeer by 293 K (20 °C) by seevlak. Die atmosfeer met sy groot hoeveelheid CO2 skep die sterkste kweekhuiseffek in die Sonnestelsel en oppervlaktemperature van sowat 735 K (462 °C).[6][26] Venus se oppervlak is dus warmer as dié van Mercurius met sy minimum oppervlaktemperatuur van 53 K (-220 °C) en sy maksimum van 700 K (427 °C),[27][28] al is Venus byna twee keer so ver van die Son af as Mercurius en kry dit net 25% van Mercurius se sonuitstraling. Vanweë Venus se wegholkweekhuiseffek het wetenskaplikes soos Carl Sagan dit as 'n waarskuwing geïdentifiseer vir klimaatsverandering op Aarde.[19][20]

Venus se temperatuur[29]
Tipe Oppervlak-
temperatuur
Maksimum 482 °C
Normaal 453 °C
Minimum 438 °C

Venus se atmosfeer is ryk aan oer-edelgasse in vergelyking met dié van die Aarde.[30] Dit dui daarop dat Venus vroeg in sy evolusie van die Aarde afgewyk het. 'n Ongewone groot komeetbotsing[31] of die akkresie van 'n primêre atmosfeer van die sonnewel met 'n groter massa[32] is al voorgestel om die voorkoms van dié edelgasse te verduidelik.

Studies dui daarop dat Venus sa atmosfeer miljarde jare gelede baie meer soos die vroeë Aarde s'n gelyk het en dat daar aansienlike hoeveelhede vloeibare water op sy oppervlak kon gewees het.[33][34][35] Ná 'n tydperk van 600 miljoen tot miljarde jare[36] kon die groter wordende ligsterkte van die Son en moontlik groot vulkaniese uitbarstings gelei het tot die verdamping van dié water en die vernietiging van die atmosfeer.[37] 'n Wegholkweekhuiseffek het ontstaan toe 'n kritieke vlak van kweekhuisgasse (insluitende water) tot die atmosfeer gevoeg is.[38]

Hoewel die toestande op Venus enige aardagtige lewe wat voor dié tydperk kon bestaan het, onmoontlik maak, is daar spekulasie dat lewe in Venus se boonste wolklae voorkom, by 50 km van die oppervlak of hoër, waar die toestande die meeste soos die Aarde s'n is in die Sonnestelsel.[39] Temperature wissel hier tussen 303 en 353 K (30 en 80 °C) en die druk en straling is dieselfde as op die aarde se oppervlak, maar met suurwolke en die baie CO2 in die lug.[40][41][42]

Die beweerde waarneming van 'n absorpsielyn van fosfien in Venus se atmosfeer, met geen bekende pad vir abiotiese produksie nie, het in September 2020 gelei tot spekulasies dat lewe tans in die atmosfeer kan bestaan.[43][44] Latere navorsing het die spektroskopiese teken wat as fosfien vertolk is, aan swaeldioksied toegeskryf,[45] of bevind dat daar geen absorpsielyn is nie.[46][47]

Soorte wolklae op Venus, sowel as temperatuur- en drukveranderings volgens hoogte in die atmosfeer.

Hittetraagheid en die oordrag van hitte deur winde in die laer atmosfeer bring mee dat Venus se oppervlaktemperatuur nie baie verskil tussen die halfrond wat na die Son wys en die een wat wegwys nie, ondanks Venus se stadige rotasie. Winde op die oppervlak is stadig en waai teen net 'n paar kilometer per uur, maar vanweë die hoë digtheid van die atmosfeer naby die oppervlak oefen hulle 'n aansienlike groot krag uit teen enige versperrings, en vervoer stof en klippies oor die oppervlak. Dit alleen sou dit moeilik vir iemand maak om daar te loop, selfs sonder die hitte, druk en gebrek aan suurstof.[48]

Bo die digte laag CO2 is dik wolke, wat hoofsaaklik uit swaelsuur bestaan. Ook sowat 1% ysterchloried kom in die wolke voor.[49][50] Ander moontlike komponente van die wolkdeeltjies is ystersulfaat, aluminiumchloried en fosforpentoksied. Wolke by verskillende hoogtes het verskillende samestellings en deeltjiegroottes.[49] Die wolke weerkaats, nes 'n dik wolkkombers oor die Aarde,[51] sowat 70% van die sonlig wat daarop val terug die ruimte in.[52] Omdat hulle die hele planeet bedek, voorkom hulle dat Venus se oppervlak gesien kan word.

Die permanente wolkbedekking beteken dat hoewel Venus nader as die Aarde aan die Son is, dit minder sonlig op die grond kry: Net 10% van die sonlig bereik die oppervlak.[53] Sterk winde van 300 km/h waai hoog in die wolke en beweeg omtrent elke vier tot vyf aarddae om die planeet.[54] Winde op Venus waai tot 60 keer so vinnig as wat sy rotasie is, terwyl die Aarde se vinnigste winde net 10-20% sy rotasiespoed is.[55]

Ook die temperatuur by Venus se ewenaar en pole is taamlik dieselfde.[56][57] Venus se klein ashelling van minder as 3°, in vergelyking met die 23° van die Aarde, sorg ook vir klein seisoenale temperatuurverskille.[58] Hoogte is een van die min faktore wat Venus se temperature beïnvloed. Die hoogste punt op Venus, Maxwell Montes, is dus die koelste plek op die planeet, met 'n temperatuur van sowat 655 K (380 °C) en 'n atmosfeerdruk van sowat 4,5 MPa (45 bar).[59][60]

Geografie

'n Kleurgekodeerde hoogtekaart van Venus, met die hoër terrae-"kontinente" in geel.

Venus se oppervlak was 'n onderwerp van spekulasie totdat sommige van sy geheime in die 20ste eeu deur planetologie onthul is. Weneralandingstuie het in 1975 en 1982 foto's teruggestuur van 'n oppervlak bedek met sediment en relatief hoekige klippe.[61] In 1990-'91 het die Magellanruimtetuig die oppervlak in besonderhede gekarteer. Die grond wys tekens van uitgebreide vulkanisme, en die swael in die atmosfeer kan daarop dui dat daar onlangs uitbarstings was.[62][63]

Sowat 80% van Venus se oppervlak is bedek met gladde vulkaanvlaktes. Sowat 70% is vlaktes met riwwe en 10% gladde of lobvormige vlaktes.[64]

Die res is twee hoogland-"kontinente", een in die noordelike halfrond en die ander net suid van die ewenaar. Die noordelike kontinent is genoem na Isjtar, die Babiloniese godin van die liefde, en is omtrent twee keer so groot soos Australië. Maxwell Montes, die hoogste berg op die planeet, is op Ishtar Terra geleë. Sy piek steek 11 km bo Venus se oppervlak uit.[65] Die suidelike kontinent is Aphrodite Terra, genoem na Afrodite, die Griekse godin van die liefde; dit is die grootste een van die twee en omtrent so groot soos Suid-Amerika.[66]

Hoekom daar geen tekens van lawavloei naby enige van die sigbare kalderas is nie bly 'n raaisel. Die planeet het min slagkraters en dit wys die oppervlak is redelik jonk: 300 miljoen tot 600 miljoen jaar oud.[67][68]

Lêer:USSR Venera 10 Venus ground 1975 colorized by Don P. Mitchell.png
'n Verbeterde, gekleurde oppervlakkaart van Venus (Wenera 10, 1975).

Venus het 'n paar unieke oppervlakeienskappe benewens die slagkraters, berge en valleie wat gewoonlik op rotsplanete aangetref word. Onder hulle is vulkaanverskynsels met plat bokante, bekend as "farra", wat amper soos pannekoeke lyk en in grootte wissel van 20 tot 50 km breed en van 100 tot 1 000 m hoog; steragtige breukverskynsels, wat "novas" genoem word; verskynsels met beide straalvormige en konsentriese breuke wat soos spinnerakke lyk; en "koronas", ronde ringvormige breuke wat soms deur 'n laagte omring word. Dié eienskappe het 'n vulkaniese oorsprong.[69]

Die meeste oppervlakverskynsels op Venus is na geskiedkundige of mitologiese vroue genoem.[70] Uitsonderings is Maxwell Montes, wat na die Skotse teoretiese fisikus James Clerk Maxwell genoem is, en die hooglandstreke Alpha Regio, Beta Regio en Ovda Regio. Laasgenoemde drie het name gekry voordat die huidige stelsel aanvaar is deur die Internasionale Sterrekundige Vereniging, wat planetêre name reguleer.[71]

Sekere eienskappe van Venus, soos die tektoniese verskynsels wat "tessera-terreine" genoem word, vereis die teenwoordigheid van wateroseane en plaattektoniek, wat aandui bewoonbare toestande met groot waterliggame het vroeër in 'n stadium op Venus voorgekom.[72] Die aard van tessera-terreine is egter glad nie seker nie.[73]

Die resultate van studies wat op 26 Oktober 2023 aangekondig is, stel vir die eerste keer voor dat dit lyk of Venus in antieke tye plaattektoniek kon gehad en dus lewensvorme kon onderhou het.[16][17]

Vulkanisme

'n Radarmosaïek van twee pannekoekkoepels in Venus se Eistla-streek. Hulle is 65 km breed en minder as 1 km hoog.

'n Groot deel van Venus se oppervlak is skynbaar deur vulkanisme gevorm. Die planeet het 'n paar keer soveel vulkane as die Aarde: 167 groot vulkane is meer as 100 km breed. Die enigste vulkaankompleks van dié grootte op Aarde is die Groot Eiland van Hawaii.[69]:154 Meer as 85 000 vulkane op Venus is geïdentifiseer en gekarteer.[74][75] Dit is nie omdat Venus vulkanies aktiewer as die Aarde is nie, maar omdat sy kors ouer is en nie aan dieselfde erosieprosesse onderworpe is nie. Die Aarde se oseaankors word voortdurend by die grense van die tektoniese plate deur subduksie hersirkuleer en is gemiddeld sowat 100 miljoen jaar oud.[76] Venus se oppervlak deerenteen word geraam op 300 miljoen tot 600 miljoen jaar oud.[67][69]

Verskeie bewyse toon vulkanisme vind steeds op Venus plaas. Konsentrasies van swaeldioksied in die boonste aftmosfeer het tussen 1978 en 1986 met 'n faktor van 10 gedaal, in 2006 gestyg en daarna weer 10-voudig afgeneem.[77] Dit beteken vlakke is verskeie kere deur groot vulkaniese uitbarstings opgestoot.[78][79] Daar is al voorgestel weerlig op Venus kan ontstaan vanweë vulkaniese aktiwiteit. In Januarie 2020 het sterrekundiges bewyse gerapporteer wat aandui Venus is tans vulkanies aktief, veral vanweë die opsporing van olivien, 'n vulkaniese produk wat vinnig op die planeet se oppervlak sal verweer.[80][81]

Dié groot vulkaniese aktiwiteit word aangevuur deur 'n superwarm binnekant, wat volgens modelle verduidelik kan word aan die hand van energieke botsings toe die planeet nog jonk was. Botsings sou 'n veel groter snelheid as op Aarde gehad het, want Venus se wentelspoed is vinniger omdat hy nader aan die Son is en omdat liggame groter wenteleksentrisiteite sou moes gehad het om met die planeet te bots.[82]

In 2008 en 2009 het die Venus Express die eerste keer regstreekse bewyse van deurlopende vulkaanaktiwiteit op die planeet gevind, in die vorm van vier kortstondige infrarooiwarmkolle in die skeurgebied bekend as Ganis Chasma,[83] naby die skildvulkaan Maat Mons. Drie van die kolle is in meer as een opvolgende wenteling waargeneem. Die kolle verteenwoordig vermoedelik lawa wat pas deur vulkaanuitbarstings vrygelaat is.[84][85] Die temperatuur is nie bekend nie, want die grootte van die warmkolle kon nie gemeet word nie; dit was waarskynlik sowat 800 tot 1 100 K (527-827 °C) in vergelyking met die normale temperatuur van 740 K (467 °C).[86] In 2023 het wetenskaplikes weer topografiese foto's van die Maat Mons-streek bestudeer wat deur die Magellanruimtetuig geneem is. Deur middel van rekenaarsimulasies is bepaal die topografie het gedurende 'n tydperk van agt maande verander. Hulle het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat dit deur aktiewe vulkanisme veroorsaak is.[87]

Kraters

Slagkraters op Venus se oppervlak, in vals kleur.

Sowat 1 000 slagkraters is eweredig oor Venus se oppervlak versprei. Op ander liggame met kraters, soos die Aarde en Maan, toon kraters 'n verskeidenheid stadiums van degradasie. Op die Maan word degradasie deur daaropvolgende botsings veroorsaak en op Aarde deur reën- en winderosie. Op Venus is 85% van die kraters in 'n ongerepte toestand. Die hoeveelheid kraters, tesame met hulle goed bewaarde toestand, dui daarop dat die planeet se oppervlak hersikleer is in 'n voorval 300 miljoen tot 600 miljoen jaar gelede,[67][68] gevolg deur 'n afname in vulkanisme.[88]

Terwyl die Aarde se kors in voortdurende beweging is, is Venus vermoedelik nie in staat om so 'n proses te onderhou nie. Sonder plaattektoniek om hitte uit sy mantel te verloor, ondergaan Venus 'n sikliese proses waarin manteltemperature styg totdat dit 'n kritieke vlak bereik wat die kors verswak. Dan, oor 'n tydperk van sowat 100 miljoen jaar, kom subduksie op 'n enorme skaal voor en word die kors hersikleer.[69]

Kraters op Venus wissel van 3 tot 280 km breed. Geen kraters is kleiner as 3 km nie vanweë die invloed van die digte atmosfeer op inkomende voorwerpe. Voorwerpe met minder as 'n sekere kinetiese energie word so deur die atmosfeer vertraag dat hulle nie 'n slagkrater vorm nie.[89] Inkomende projektiele wat kleiner as 50 m breed is, sal in die atmosfeer opbreek en uitbrand voordat hulle die grond bereik.[90]

Interne struktuur

Die gedifferensieerde struktuur van Venus.

Min is bekend oor die interne struktuur van Venus.[91] Die ooreenkoms in die grootte en digtheid tussen Venus en die Aarde dui daarop dat hulle dieselfde interne struktuur het: 'n kern, mantel en kors. Nes met die Aarde die geval is, is Venus se kern waarskynlik minstens gedeeltelik vloeistof, want die twee planete het teen omtrent dieselfde tempo verkoel,[92] hoewel 'n heeltemal soliede kern nie uitgesluit kan word nie.[93]

Die grootste verskil tussen die twee planete is die gebrek aan bewyse van plaattektoniek op Venus, moontlik omdat sy kors te sterk is om te sak sonder water om dit minder viskeus te maak. Dit veroorsaak verminderde hitteverlies en voorkom dat die planeet afkoel. Dit is 'n waarskynlike verduideliking vir 'n gebrek aan 'n intern opgewekte magneetveld.[94] In plaas daarvan kan Venus dalk sy interne hitte verloor in periodieke groot oppervlakvernuwingsvoorvalle.[67]

Magneetveld en kern

In 1967 het Wenera 4 gevind Venus se magneetveld is baie swakker as die Aarde s'n. Die magneetveld word opgewek deur 'n wisselwerking tussen die ionosfeer en die sonwind,[95][96] eerder as deur 'n interne dinamo, soos in die Aarde se kern. Venus se klein magnetosfeer verskaf min beskerming aan die atmosfeer teen son- en kosmiese straling. Dit bereik eers op hoogtes van 54 tot 48 km dieselfde vlakke as op Aarde.[97][98]

Die gebrek aan 'n werklike magneetveld op Venus was verbasend, omdat dit byna net so groot soos die Aarde is en na verwagting 'n dinamo in sy kern gehad het. 'n Dinamo vereis drie dinge: 'n geleidende vloeistof, rotasie en konveksie. Die kern is vermoedelik elektries geleidend en, hoewel sy rotasie dikwels as te stadig beskou word, wys simulasies dit is vinnig genoeg om 'n dinamo te skep.[99][100] Dit dui aan die dinamo is afwesig weens Venus se gebrek aan konveksie in sy kern.

Op Aarde kom konveksie voor in die vloeibare buitenste deel van die kern omdat die onderste deel van die vloeistof baie warmer as die bokant is. Op Venus kon 'n oppervlakvernuwingsvoorval die plaattektoniek laat ophou werk het en gelei het tot 'n verlaagde hittevloed deur die kors. Dié isolasie-effek sou veroorsaak het dat die mantel se temperatuur toeneem en so die hittevloed uit die kern verminder. Geen interne dinamo is dus beskikbaar om 'n magneetveld aan te dryf nie. In plaas daarvan herverhit die hitte van die kern die kors.[101]

Een moontlikheid is dat Venus geen soliede kern het nie,[102] of dat sy kern nie afkoel nie sodat die hele vloeibare deel van die kern min of meer dieselfde temperatuur het. Nog 'n moontlikheid is dat sy kern reeds heeltemal solied is. Die toestand van die kern hang in 'n groot mate af van die konsentrasie swael, wat tans onbekend is.[101]

Die swak magnetosfeer om Venus beteken daar is 'n regstreekse wisselwerking tussen die sonwind en die planeet se buitenste atmosfeer. Hier word ione van waterstof en suurstof geskep deur die dissosiasie van watermolekules van ultravioletstraling. Die sonwind verskaf dan energie wat sommige van dié ione genoeg snelheid gee om uit Venus as swaartekragveld te ontsnap. Dié erosieproses lei tot die bestendige verlies van waterstof-, helium- en suurstofione met 'n klein massa, terwyl molekules met 'n groter massa, soos koolstofdioksied, meer geneig is om agter te bly.

Die atmosferiese erosie deur die sonwind kon gelei het tot die verlies van die meeste van Venus se water in die eerste miljard jaar nadat dit gevorm het.[103] Die planeet kon ook vir die eerste 2 miljard tot 3 miljard jaar van sy bestaan 'n dinamo behou het, sodat die waterverlies meer onlangs voorgekom het.[104]

Wentelbaan en rotasie

Venus is die tweede planeet van die Son af en voltooi 'n wentelbaan in sowat 224 aarddae.

Venus wentel om die Son op 'n afstand van sowat 0,72 AE (108 miljoen km) en voltooi elke 224,7 dae 'n wentelbaan. Hoewel al die planete se wentelbane ovaalvormig is, is Venus s'n die naaste aan rond, met 'n eksentrisiteit van minder as 0,01.[56] Simulasies van die vroeë Sonnestelsel se dinamika wys die eksentrisiteit van Venus se wentelbaan was dalk groter in die verlede, met waardes van tot 0,31.[105]

Alle planete in die Sonnestelsel wentel antikloksgewys om die Son soos van die Aarde se Noordpool af gesien. Die meeste planete roteer ook antikloksgewys om hulle as, maar Venus roteer kloksgewys (in 'n retrograde rigting) een keer elke 243 aarddae: die stadigste rotasie van enige planeet. Omdat die planeet vertraag word deur sy atmosferiese stroming, wissel die lengte van die dag ook met tot 20 minute.[106] Venus se ewenaar roteer teen 6,52 km/h, terwyl die Aarde s'n teen 1 674,4 km/h roteer.[107] Een Venusjaar is sowat 1,92 van die planeet se sinodiese dae (son-dae).[7] Vir 'n waarnemer op Venus sal die Son in die weste opkom en in die ooste ondergaan,[7] hoewel die planeet se ondeursigtige wolke sal keer dat 'n mens op die oppervlak die Son daardeur sien.[108]

Venus het geen natuurlike satelliete, of mane, nie.[109] Dit het verskeie trojane: die kwasisatelliet 2002 VE68[110][111] en nog twee tydelike trojane, 2001 CK32 en 2012 XE133.[112] In die 17de eeu het Giovanni Cassini gerapporteer 'n maan wentel om Venus, en dit is "Neith" genoem. Verskeie ander waarnemings van mane is oor die volgende 200 jaar gedoen, maar daar is vasgestel die meeste was sterre in die omgewing. Die rede dat Venus nie mane het nie kan die uitwerking van sterk songetye wees wat groot satelliete naby die binneste planete kan destabiliseer.[109]

Venus se wentelruimte bevat 'n stofringwolk.[113] Dit kon veroorsaak gewees het deur óf asteroïdes wat agter Venus aanbeweeg het[114] óf interplanetêre stof wat in golwe gemigreer het óf die oorblyfsels van die Sonnestelsel se oorspronklike sirkumstellêre skyf wat die planeetstelsel gevorm het.[115]

Waarneming

Venus, regs in die middel, is van die Aarde af altyd helderder as enige ander planeet of ster. Jupiter is aan die bokant van die foto sigbaar.
Die fases van Venus en veranderings van sy skynbare deursnee.

Met die blote oog is Venus 'n wit punt lig wat helderder as enige ander planeet of ster buiten die Son is.[116] Die planeet se gemiddelde skynbare magnitude is -4,14 met 'n standaardafwyking van 0,31.[117] Die helderste magnitude kom voor tydens die "halffase" sowat 'n maand voor of ná 'n binnekonjunksie. Venus word dowwer tot 'n magnitude van sowat -3 wanneer die Son se lig van agter af skyn.[8] Die planeet is helder genoeg om in die dag te sien,[118] maar is beter sigbaar wanneer die Son laag aan die horison sit of ondergaan. As 'n planeet wat nader aan die Son as die Aarde is, lê dit altyd binne sowat 47° van die Son af.[10]

Venus "steek die Aarde verby" elke 584 dae terwyl dit om die Son wentel.[56] Terwyl dit gebeur, verander dit van die "aandster" in die "oggendster", wat voor sonsopkoms sigbaar is. Hoewel Mercurius, die ander planeet nader aan die Son, dikwels moeilik in die skemerlig te sien is, is dit byna onmoontlik om Venus mis te kyk wanneer dit op sy helderste is. Omdat dit so helder is, word Venus dikwels verkeerdelik aangemeld as 'n "vreemde vlieënde voorwerp".[119]

Fases

Terwyl dit om die Son wentel, gaan Venus, deur 'n teleskoop gesien, deur fases soos die Maan. Die planeet lyk soos 'n klein, "vol" skyf wanneer dit met 'n buitekonjunksie aan die ander kant van die Son is. Dit is as 'n groter "kwartfase" te sien by sy maksimum elongasie van die Son, en dan lyk dit op sy helderste in die naglug. Die planeet het 'n groter "halfvorm" deur teleskope as dit aan die nabykant tussen die Aarde en die Son deurbeweeg. Dit lyk op sy grootste tydens sy "nuwe fase", wanneer dit tussen die Aarde en die Son by 'n binnekonjunksie is. Sy atmosfeer is deur teleskope sigbaar danksy die halo van sonlig wat om dit gebreek word.[10]

Dagligverskynings

Wanneer Venus helder genoeg is, met genoeg hoekafstand van die Son af, is dit maklik helder oordag met die blote oog te sien.[120] Edmund Halley het sy maksimum blote-ooghelderheid in 1716 bereken, toe baie Londenaars ontstel is deur sy verskyning in die daglig. Die Franse keiser Napoleon Bonaparte het eenkeer 'n dagligverskyning van die planeet gesien terwyl hy op 'n onthaal in Luxemburg was.[121] Nog 'n historiese dagligverskyning van die planeet het plaasgevind tydens die inhuldiging van die Amerikaanse president Abraham Lincoln op 4 Maart 1865 in Washington, D.C.[122]

Die oorgang van Venus in 2012, deur 'n teleskoop op 'n wit kaart geprojekteer.

Oorgange

'n Oorgang van Venus is wanneer Venus, soos van die Aarde af gesien, voor die Son verbybeweeg tydens sy binnekonjunksie. Omdat Venus se wentelbaan effens skuins teenoor dié van die Aarde lê, is daar nie 'n oorgang van Venus tydens die meeste binnekonjunksies, wat elke 1,6 jaar plaasvind, nie.

Venus beleef net 'n oorgang bo die Aarde wanneer 'n binnekonjunksie plaasvind tydens sommige dae in Junie of Desember, die tyd wanneer die twee planete se wentelbane in 'n reguit lyn met die Son lê.[123] Dit lei daartoe dat Venus net 'n oorgang beleef in siklusse van 243 jaar elk: elke 8, 105,5, 8 en 121,5 jaar.

Net sewe oorgange van Venus is tot dusver waargeneem, want die voorkoms daarvan is in 1621 deur Johannes Kepler bereken. Kaptein James Cook het in 1768 na Tahiti geseil om die derde waargenome oorgang van Venus te sien, en dit het eindelik gelei tot die verkenning van die ooskus van Australië.[124][125]

Die laaste oorgange van Venus agt jaar uitmekaar was in Junie 2004 en Junie 2012 en die voriges in Desember 1874 en Desember 1882. Die volgende sodanige oorgange sal in Desember 2117 en Desember 2125 voorkom.[126]

Verkenning

Die mens se eerste interplanetêre ruimtevlug was in 1961, toe die Sowjetunie se Wenera 1 na Venus gevlieg het.[127] Dit het egter later op pad soontoe kontak verloor.

Die eerste suksesvolle interplanetêre sending was dus die VSA se Mariner 2-sending na Venus. Dit was op 14 Desember 1962 altesaam 34 833 km bo die oppervlak en het data oor die planeet se atmosfeer versamel.[128][129] Radarwaarnemings van Venus is in die 1960's die eerste keer gedoen en het die eerste inligting verskaf oor die planeet se rotasieperiode.[130]

Die eerste duidelike 180-graad-panorama van Venus, en van enige planeet buiten die Aarde. (Sowjetse Venera 9-landingstuig).

Wenera 3, wat in 1966 gelanseer is, was die mens se eerste ruimte- en landingstuig wat 'n ander hemelliggaam buiten die Maan bereik en daarteen gebots het. Dit kon nie data terugbring nie, want dit het op Venus se oppervlak neergestort.

In 1967 is Wenera 4 gelanseer. Dit het wetenskapeksperimente in Venus se atmosfeer uitgevoer voordat dit ook neergestort het. Wenera 4 het gewys die oppervlaktemperatuur is warmer as wat Mariner 2 bereken het (byna 500 °C), vasgestel die atmosfeer was 95% koolstofdioksied en gevind Venus se atmosfeer was baie digter as wat Wenera se ontwerpers verwag het.[131]

In 'n vroeë voorbeeld van ruimtesamewerking, is die data van Wenera 4 en Mariner 5 van 1967 saaamgevoeg en deur 'n gesamentlike span van Ameria en die Sowjetunie ontleed.[132]

Op 15 Desember 1970 was Wenera 7 die eerste ruimtetuig wat 'n sagte landing op 'n ander planeet uitgevoer en data van daar af na die Aarde teruggestuur het.[133] In 1974 het Mariner 10 verby Venus gevlieg op pad na Mercurius en ultratvioletfoto's van die wolke geneem. Daarop is die buitengewone windsnelhede in Venus se atmosfeer gesien. Dit was die heel eerste swaartekragslinger, 'n metode wat deur latere tuie gebruik sou word.

Radarwaarnemings in die 1970's het vir die eerste keer besonderhede van Venus se oppervlak onthul. Radiogolfpulse is na die planeet gestuur en die eggo's het twee hoogs weerkaatsende gebiede onthul wat "Alpha Regio" en "Beta Regio" genoem is. Die waarnemings het ook 'n helder streek onthul wat op berge dui, en dit is "Maxwell Montes" genoem.[134]

'n Globale topografiese kaart van Venus, met alle landingsplekke aangedui.

In 1975 het die Sowjetse Wenera 9- en Wenera 10-landingstuie die eerste foto's van Venus se oppervlak teruggestuur. Dit was swart-wit-foto's. Nasa het nog data bekom met die Pioneer Venus-projek, wat bestaan het uit twee aparte sendings:[135] die Pioneer Venus-multituig en Pioneer Venus-wenteltuig, wat tussen 1978 en 1992 om Venus gewentel het.[136] In 1982 het Wenera 13 en Wenera 14 die eerste kleurfoto's van die oppervlak geneem. Wenera 15 en Wenera 16 het tussen 1983 en 1984 gedetailleerde kartering van 25% van Venus se oppervlak gedoen, en daarna het die baie suksesvolle Wenera-program tot 'n einde gekom.[137]

In 1985 het die Wega-ruimteprogram met sy Wega 1- en Wega 2-sendings die laaste tuie na Venus vervoer wat die atmosfeer sou binnedring, asook die heel eerste buiteaardse aërobotte.

Tussen 1990 en 1994 het die Magellanruimtetuig om Venus gewentel en die oppervlak gekarteer. Verder het tuie soos Galileo (1990),[138] Cassini–Huygens (1998/'99) en MESSENGER (2006/'07) verbyvlugte van Venus gedoen op pad na ander bestemmings.

In April 2006 het die ESA se Venus Express in 'n wentelbaan om Venus gegaan. Dit het waarnemings sonder presedent van Venus se atmosfeer verskaf. Die ESA het dit tot in Januarie 2015 in sy wentelbaan gehou.[139] In 2010 het die eerste suksesvolle interplanetêre sonseilruimtetuig, IKAROS, na Venus gevlieg vir 'n verbyvlug. Teen 2023 was daar net een aktiewe sending na Venus: Japan se Akatsuki. Dit het in op 7 Desember 2015 in 'n wentelbaan gegaan.

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