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作通型配列：修订间差异

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[[File:MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png|右|缩略图|200x200px|作通型语言的“作格阵线” A/S=P]]
'''[[作格|作]][[通格]]'''[[語言]]（ergative–absolutive，或簡稱'''作格語言'''）是對[[及物動詞]]的[[賓語]]與[[不及物動詞]]的[[動詞變元|變元]]（“[[主語]]”）做同樣對待、即二者之[[格位標記]]相同，并區別於這個[[及物動詞]]的[[施事者]]（agent，“主語”）的語言。
{{Morphosyntactic alignment}}
{{语言类型学}}
'''作通型配列'''（{{lang|en|Ergative–absolutive alignment}}），也称为'''作通格配列'''、'''施通格配列'''、'''作格配列'''、'''施格配列'''或'''能格配列'''，是一類[[配列]]方式，即在[[句法]]或[[词法学|形态]]上，将[[不及物動詞|不及物动词]]的单一变元和及物动词的[[受事]][[论元]]同等对待（'''S=P'''），而区别对待[[及物動詞|及物动词]]的[[施事]]论元（'''A'''）<ref name="comrie89">{{Cite book|title=Language Universals and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and Morphology|last=Comrie|first=Bernard|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1989|isbn=0226114333|location=|pages=}}</ref>{{rp|110}}。作通型配列可以在形态（编码性质）和句法（表现性质）两方面呈现<ref>Rude, Noel. (1983). Ergativity and the active-stative typology in Loma. ''Studies in African Linguistics'' 14 (3): 265-283.</ref><ref>Vydrin, Valentin. (2011). Ergative/Absolutive and Active/Stative alignment in West Africa:The case of Southwestern Mande. ''Studies in Language'' 35 (2): 409-443.</ref>，一方面在[[综合语]]中常藉由[[格 (语法)|格标记]]来表示；另一方面，一些语言的[[句法]]也会呈现作通型配列，但是十分罕见。<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />此外，句法上作通型语言通常不是中心词前置就是中心词后置，且罕见[[主動賓語序|SVO语序]]。<ref>{{Cite web|title=Institut für Linguistik - Startseite|url=https://linguistik.philol.uni-leipzig.de/start/|accessdate=2019-05-21|work=linguistik.philol.uni-leipzig.de|archive-date=2020-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713221225/https://linguistik.philol.uni-leipzig.de/start/|dead-url=no}}</ref>呈现这种配列的语言称为'''作通格语言'''或者'''作格语言'''、'''施格语言'''、'''能格语言'''。[[巴斯克語]]、[[格鲁吉亚语]]、[[玛雅语]]、[[藏语]]，和一些[[印欧语系|印欧语]]如[[库尔德语]]、[[印地语]]等，甚至[[闪米特语族|闪语族]]的[[阿拉姆语]]里面都存在这种配列。有些假说里面[[原始印欧语]]也被划为作通型语言，但仍十分有争议。<ref>{{cite journal|title=Proto-Indo-European Ergativity... Still To Be Discussed|author=|url=|last=Bavant|first=Marc|journal=Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics|accessdate=20 April 2012|issue=4|doi=10.2478/v10010-008-0022-y|others=|year=2008|volume=44|page=|pages=433–447|pmid=}}</ref>
 
==编码性质==
== 作通格語言與主賓格語言 ==
作通格語言維持在及物動詞的賓語和不及物動詞的單一核心變元之間的[[句法]]或[[構詞學|構詞]]等價(比如相同的[[詞序]]或[[格 (語法)|語法格]])，而區別對待及物動詞的施事者。
 
=== 格标记 ===
這對比於[[主賓格語言]]比如[[英語]]，這里及物動詞的施事者和不及物動詞的單一變元（叫做[[主語]]）被同樣對待并保持同這個及物動詞的賓語的區別。
如果一门语言有形态上的格变化，那么谓语中心词的论元一般会如下标记：
 
* 不及物动词的单一核心变元（'''S'''）和及物动词的受事论元（'''P'''）一同标记为[[通格]]（'''S=P'''）；
{| class="nounderlines" border="0" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="4" style="background:transparent;"
* 动词的施事论元（标记为'''A'''）则区别对待，将它标记为[[作格]]。<ref>Friend, Some Syntactic and Morphological Features of Suleimaniye Kurdish, UCLA, 1985</ref>
|- valign="top"
 
|[[File:Ergative alignment.svg|thumb|作通格語言之「作格陣線」A-SO]]||[[File:Accusative alignment.svg|thumb|主賓格語言之「賓格陣線」AS-O]]
=== 动词一致 ===
如果没有形态上的格变化，作通型配列还能通过其他形态手段呈现，如动词的显在[[一致 (語法)|一致]]。例如，[[阿布哈兹语]]和大部分[[玛雅语]]没有形态上的作格标记，但是它们可以通过动词的一致结构来呈现作格。在作通一致的语言里，通格往往不被标记（有些例外，如尼亚斯语和{{TSL|en|Tlapanec language|特拉帕尼科语}}<ref>Donohue, Mark (2008). "Semantic alignment systems: what's what, and what's not". In Donohue, Mark & Søren Wichmann, eds. (2008). ''The Typology of Semantic Alignment''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>），如[[巴斯克語]]<ref name=King>King, Alan R. ''The Basque Language: A Practical Introduction.'' Reno: University of Nevada Press.</ref>：
{| class="infobox" style="float: none; clear: none;"
|1a.
|Martin
| -Ø
|etorri da.
|-
|
|马丁
| -ABS
|到达.PERF
|-
|
|'''S'''
|'''通格'''
|
|-
|
| colspan="3" |马丁已经到了。
|}
{| class="infobox" style="float: none; clear: none;"
|1b.
|Martin
| -ek
|Diego
| -Ø
|ikusi du.
|-
|
|马丁
| -ERG
|迪亚戈
| -ABS
|见.PERF
|-
|
|'''A'''
|'''作格'''
|'''P'''
|'''通格'''
|
|-
|
| colspan="5" |马丁见过迪亚戈。
|}
上例的 ''-Ø'' 是一个{{tsl|en|Null_morpheme|零形式}}，代表不被标记的通格。作格标记在[[辅音]]后作 ''-ek''，而在[[元音]]后作 ''-k''。另外，巴斯克语里面大多数名词短语都需要由一个[[限定词]]限定，一般[[單數 (語法)|单数]]为 ''-a''，[[複數 (語法)|复数]]为 ''-ak''；[[数 (语法)|数]]只能标记在限定词上。于是便有如下变位（以“人”''gizon'' 为例）<ref name="King" />：
 
{| class="wikitable"
這個不同的變元通常符號化為如下:
! align="center" | gizon
!通格
!作格
|-
! rowspan="2" | 单数
| gizon-a
|gizon-ak
|-
|人-DET.SING.ABS
|人-DET.SING.ERG
|-
! rowspan="2" | 复数
| gizon-ak
| gizon-ek
|-
|人-DET.PL.ABS
|人-DET.PL.ERG
|}
 
== 表现性质 ==
* '''O''' = 及物動詞的賓語（object，也符號化為'''P'''（承受者patient）)
作通型配列也可以通过[[句法]]呈现。但是作通型句法配列非常罕见，大多数作通格语言都是形态上而非句法上呈作通型配列。与[[词法学]]一样，句法配列可以放在一个连续统一体上，因此某些句法操作可能会生成[[主宾型配列]]，而其他的则可以生成作通型配列；其程度取决于有多少句法操作将论元 S 和 P 同等对待。
* '''S''' = 不及物動詞的核心變元（subject，argument）
* '''A''' = 及物動詞的施事者（agent）
 
理论上，作通型配列可以在[[语序]]（尤其是论元与动词的前后关系）、[[句法枢纽]]、[[關係子句|关系子句]]、[[主从复句|主從複合]]、[[转换指称]]等方面呈现。
在作格和賓格系統之間的聯系可以圖表表示為:
 
=== 等位省并 ===
{| class="wikitable" cellpadding="5"
一些作通格语言的配列可以通过等位省并体现。如澳洲原住民的[[迪爾巴爾語|迪尔巴尔语]]，省略後句同定论元时，只有论元 S 和 P 可以省略，论元 A 不可以省略。<ref name=":1">Dixon, R. M. W. 1994. ''Ergativity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>
|  
{| class="infobox" style="float: none; clear: none;"
! 作格–通格
|2a.
! 主格–賓格
|ŋuma<sub>i</sub>
| -Ø
| banaga-n<sup>y</sup>u
|yabu
|<nowiki>-ŋgu</nowiki>
|____<sub>i</sub>
|
| bura-n
|-
|
! O
|父亲
| <span style="color:#008000">同</span>
| -ABS
| <span style="color:#800000">異</span>
| 来-PST
|母亲
| -ERG
|
|
| 见-PST
|-
|
! S
|'''S'''
| <span style="color:#008000">同</span>
|'''通格'''
| <span style="color:#008000">同</span>
|
|'''A'''
|'''作格'''
|'''P'''
|'''通格'''
|
|-
|
! A
| colspan="8" |父亲回来了，然后母亲见到了（父亲）。
| <span style="color:#800000">異</span>
|-
| <span style="color:#008000">同</span>
|2b.*
|ŋuma<sub>i</sub>
| -Ø
|banaga-n<sup>y</sup>u
|____<sub>i</sub>
|
|yabu
| -Ø
|bura-n
|-
|
|父亲
| -ABS
|来-PST
|
|
|母亲
| -ABS
|见-PST
|-
|
|'''S'''
|'''通格'''
|
|'''A'''
|'''作格'''
|'''P'''
|'''通格'''
|
|-
|
| colspan="8" |父亲回来了，然后（父亲）见到了母亲。
|}
反之如[[英语]]（[[主宾型配列|主宾型]]），省略後句同定论元时，只有论元 S 和 A 可以省略，论元 P 不可以省略。
{| class="infobox" style="float: none; clear: none;"
|3a.
|Father<sub>i</sub>
| returned
|and
|____<sub>i</sub>
|saw
|mother.
|-
|
|父亲
| 回来-PST
|
|
|见.PST
|母亲
|-
|
|'''S 主格'''
|
|
|'''A 主格'''
|
|'''P 宾格'''
|-
|
| colspan="6" |父亲回来了，然后（父亲）见到了母亲。
|-
|3b.*
|Father<sub>i</sub>
| returned
|and
|mother
|saw
|____<sub>i</sub>.
|-
|
|父亲
|回来-PST
|
|
|见.PST
|
|-
|
|'''S 主格'''
|
|
|'''A 主格'''
|
|'''P 宾格'''
|-
|
| colspan="6" |父亲回来了，然后母亲见到了（父亲）。
|}
但实际上，缺乏形态手段、主要靠语序表达句法功能的语言大部分都属于[[主宾型语言]]，作通型语言极其罕见，迪尔巴尔语算是一个特例。<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title=形态与语序|author=陆丙甫|url=|journal=语文研究|issue=147|doi=|others=罗彬彬|year=2018|volume=2|page=|pmid=}}</ref>如果观察主语的一些普遍特征，会发现有些语言无论在形态学还是句法学上都是完美的主宾格语言，但完美的作通格语言却未曾被发现。<ref name=":1" />
 
==部分作格性==
以英語為例，英語是一種'''主賓格語言'''：
{{main|部份作格性}}
大部分作通型语言都具有[[部份作格性|部分作格性]]（split ergativity），即在某些状況下呈现作通型配列的特性，但在某些状況下，如特定的[[人称]]、[[时态|时]]、[[体 (语法)|体]]等，却呈现主宾型配列等其他配列的特性。[[巴斯克語]]是少有的、在格标记和动词一致上呈现完整作通型配列的语言，不过它在句法配列上则是[[主宾型配列|主宾型]]的。<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iker.cnrs.fr/IMG/pdf/agreementbasque1.pdf|title=The syntax and morphology of Basque|accessdate=2019-05-21|author=|date=|publisher=IKER|archive-date=2020-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519141610/https://www.iker.cnrs.fr/IMG/pdf/agreementbasque1.pdf|dead-url=no}}</ref>
 
==任意作格性==
I (S) traveled; He (S) traveled.(我去旅行；他去旅行)
 
很多作通型语言也具有任意作格性（optional ergativity），即作格标记不会在所有情况下强制出现。但任意作格性并非真正任意，作格显在标记与否受语义和语用影响。任意作格性不像部分作格性那样有规律。<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective|author=McGregor, William|url=|journal=Lingua|issue=120|doi=|others=|year=2010|volume=|page=1610–1636|pmid=}}</ref>
I (A) invited him (O) to go with me; He (A) invited me (O) to go with him.(我邀請他去旅行；他邀請我去旅行)
 
任意作格性会受以下因素影响<ref name=":0" />：
(不及物動詞的核心變元(S) = 及物動詞的施事者(A) )
 
* [[有生性]]，有生的主语更倾向于标记作格
* 动词语义，具有及物性的动词更倾向于标记作格
* 语法结构，尤其是 [<nowiki/>[[时态|时]]-[[体 (语法)|体]]-[[态 (语法)|态]]]
 
一些[[澳大利亚原住民语言]]、[[藏语]]等拥有任意作格性。<ref>McGregor (2010) Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective. ''Lingua'' 120: 1610–1636</ref>
 
==分布==
若'''假設英語是一種作通格語言'''的話(注意:這裡只是為了說明而假設)，就會變成:
[[File:Morphologic-Alignement.png|右|缩略图|各种配列类型在全世界的分布]]
作通型语言大致分布于美索不达米亚、高加索、美洲、青藏高原和澳大利亚等地区。
 
世界各区域作通型语言的例子：<ref name="wals">Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). (2011) "The World Atlas of Language Structures Online". Munich: Max Planck Digital Library. Available online at [http://wals.info/ WALS] {{Wayback|url=http://wals.info/ |date=20110226184610 }}</ref>
Me (S) traveled; Him (S) traveled .
{|
|- valign="top"
|北美洲：
 
* [[奇布恰语系]]（[[中美洲]]）
I (A) invited him (O) to go with me; He (A) invited me (O) to go with him.
*{{Tsl|en|Chinookan_languages|奇努克语}}（[[美国]]）
*[[爱斯基摩－阿留申语系]]（[[加拿大]]、美国）
*{{Tsl|en|Tsimshianic languages|暹西亚语}}（加拿大）
|大洋洲：
 
* 大部分[[澳大利亚原住民语言]]
(不及物動詞的核心變元(S) = 及物動詞的賓語(O) )
* 大部分[[新幾內亞|新几内亚]]的语言
|南美洲：
 
* {{Tsl|en|Guaicuruan languages|圭库鲁语}}（[[巴西]]、[[阿根廷]]等）
*{{Tsl|en|Macro-Jê languages|马克罗-热语系}}（巴西等）
*[[玛雅语]]（[[墨西哥]]）
*{{Tsl|en|Mixe–Zoque languages|弥黑-索科语系}}（墨西哥）
*{{Tsl|en|Panoan languages|帕诺亚语}}（巴西、[[秘鲁]]、[[玻利维亚]]）
|- valign="top"
|欧洲:
 
* [[巴斯克語|巴斯克语]]（[[西班牙]]、[[法国]]）
|非洲：
 
* {{Tsl|en|Päri_language|帕里语}}（[[苏丹]]）<ref>Ergativity, by R. M. W. Dixon, Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, vol. 69, 1994.</ref>
|亚洲：
 
* [[布魯夏斯基語|布鲁夏斯基语]]（[[巴基斯坦]]）
*[[楚科奇语|楚克奇语]]（[[俄罗斯]]）<ref>{{Cite book|title=Language Policy in the Soviet Union|last=Grenoble|first=L.A.|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2006|isbn=0306480832|location=|pages=|url=https://books.google.pl/books?id=WUeWBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=itelmen+language+ergative-absolutive&source=bl&ots=ygxqwTaYxH&sig=x7I6m3od4Ur5yqeb2X1u9PYyKn0&hl=pl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjXpe_dpOPTAhVGKywKHQBBC2oQ6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=itelmen%20language%20ergative-absolutive&f=false|chapter=|access-date=2019-05-21|archive-date=2020-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519141613/https://books.google.pl/books?id=WUeWBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=itelmen+language+ergative-absolutive&source=bl&ots=ygxqwTaYxH&sig=x7I6m3od4Ur5yqeb2X1u9PYyKn0&hl=pl&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjXpe_dpOPTAhVGKywKHQBBC2oQ6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=itelmen%20language%20ergative-absolutive&f=false|dead-url=no}}</ref>
*[[藏语]]（[[中华人民共和国|中国]]）
*[[库尔德语]]（[[中东]]）<ref>{{Cite book|title=Differential Subject Marking|last=|first=|publisher=Springer|year=2007|isbn=1402064977|location=|pages=|editor-last=de Hoop|editor-first=Helen|editor2-last=de Swart|editor2-first=Peter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.utah.edu/~u0587010/Papers_files/zazaki-lightverbs.pdf|title=Archived copy|accessdate=2012-11-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412222337/http://home.utah.edu/~u0587010/Papers_files/zazaki-lightverbs.pdf|archivedate=2013-04-12|deadurl=yes|df=}} (Aniko Csirmaz and Markéta Ceplová, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Zazaki is an ergative language)</ref><ref>http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/744-0605/744-ARKADIEV-0-0.PDF {{Wayback|url=http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/744-0605/744-ARKADIEV-0-0.PDF |date=20200119022248 }} (Zazaki is an ergative language, page 17-18)</ref><ref>https://books.google.com/books?id=UQKCofxuhlMC&pg=PA166 {{Wayback|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQKCofxuhlMC&pg=PA166 |date=20200810163345 }} (zazaki is ergative)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229004264_A_Derivational_Account_for_Sorani_Kurdish_Passives|title=A Derivational Account for Sorani Kurdish Passives|accessdate=10 May 2016|author=Géraldine Walther|date=1 January 2011|work=ResearchGate|archive-date=2019-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605055903/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229004264_A_Derivational_Account_for_Sorani_Kurdish_Passives|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kurdishacademy.org/?q=fa/node/426|title=What Sorani Kurdish Absolute Prepositions Tell Us about Cliticization - Kurdish Academy of Language|accessdate=10 May 2016|work=kurdishacademy.org|archive-date=2013-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728160111/http://www.kurdishacademy.org/?q=fa%2Fnode%2F426|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://linguistlist.org/pubs/papers/browse-papers-action.cfm?PaperID=25500 |title=存档副本 |accessdate=2019-05-21 |archive-date=2020-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718155747/http://linguistlist.org/pubs/papers/browse-papers-action.cfm?PaperID=25500 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/001993/bookpart.pdf|title=Archived copy|accessdate=2012-11-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412222124/http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/001993/bookpart.pdf|archivedate=2013-04-12|deadurl=yes|df=}} (Sorani is ergative, page 255)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/001993/bookpart.pdf|title=Archived copy|accessdate=2012-11-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412222124/http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/001993/bookpart.pdf|archivedate=2013-04-12|deadurl=yes|df=}} (kurmanji is ergative)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/ETD-UT-2009-12-448|title=The acquisition of split-ergativity in Kurmanji Kurdish|accessdate=10 May 2016|work=utexas.edu|archive-date=2016-03-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315030121/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/ETD-UT-2009-12-448|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ling.upenn.edu/nwav/abstracts/nwav36_mahalingappa.pdf |title=存档副本 |accessdate=2019-05-21 |archive-date=2020-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519141658/https://www.ling.upenn.edu/nwav/abstracts/nwav36_mahalingappa.pdf |dead-url=no }}</ref>
*[[高加索诸语言]]
|}
 
==参见==
 
*[[作格]]
注意詞語“主語”因為典型的定義於主格-賓格語言的文法中，在提及「作格通格語言」或一般性討論「構詞句法"配列"(alignment)」的時候是不適合的。
*[[通格]]
*[[格 (语法)]]
*[[配列]]
*[[主宾型配列]]
*[[部份作格性|部分作格性]]
*[[及物動詞|及物性]]
 
==參見参考文献==
{{Reflist|2}}
* [[作格]]
* [[通格]]
* [[部份作格性]]
 
==參考文獻延伸阅读==
{{refbegindiv col|intentcolwidth=yes|225em}}
* Anderson, Stephen. (1976). On the notion of subject in ergative languages. In C. Li. (Ed.), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 1-241–24). New York: Academic Press. {{ISBN 0124473504|0-12-447350-4}}.
* Anderson, Stephen R. (1985). Inflectional morphology. In T. Shopen (Ed.), ''Language typology and syntactic description: Grammatical categories and the lexicon'' (Vol. 3, pp. 150-201150–201). Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. {{ISBN 0521581583|0-521-58158-3}}.
* Comrie, Bernard. (1978). Ergativity. In W. P. Lehmann (Ed.), ''Syntactic typology: Studies in the phenomenology of language'' (pp. 329-394329–394). Austin: University of Texas Press. {{ISBN 0292775458|0-292-77545-8}}.
* Coon, Jessica, Diane Massam and Lisa deMena Travis. (Eds.). (2017). ''The Oxford handbook of ergativity''. Oxford University Press.
* Dixon, R. M. W. (1979). Ergativity. ''Language'', ''55'' (1), 59-138. (Revised as Dixon 1994).
* Dixon, R. M. W. (Ed.) (1987). ''Studies in ergativity''. Amsterdam: North-Holland. {{ISBN 044470275X|0-444-70275-X}}.
*{{Cite book
* Dixon, R. M. W. (1994). ''Ergativity''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521448980.
| title = Searching for Aboriginal Languages: Memoirs of a Field Worker
* Foley, William; & Van Valin, Robert. (1984). ''Functional syntax and universal grammar''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521259568.
| last = Dixon
* Kroeger, Paul. (1993). ''Phrase structure and grammatical relations in Tagalog''. Stanford: CSLI. ISBN 0937073865.
| first = R. M. W.
* Mallinson, Graham; & Blake, Barry J. (1981). Agent and patient marking. ''Language typology: Cross-linguistic studies in syntax'' (Chap. 2, pp. 39-120). North-Holland linguistic series. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
| author-link =
| year = 2011
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tWHiDB9rJ5kC&pg=PA1
| isbn = 978-1-108-02504-1
| ref = harv
| location =
| pages =
| access-date = 2019-05-21
| archive-date = 2020-05-19
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200519141704/https://books.google.com/books?id=tWHiDB9rJ5kC&pg=PA1
| dead-url = no
}}
* Foley, William; & Van Valin, Robert. (1984). ''Functional syntax and universal grammar''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-25956-8}}.
* Iliev, Ivan G. (2007) [https://www.scribd.com/doc/133271099/Ivan-G-Iliev-CASE-AND-VOCATIVENESS On the Nature of Grammatical Case ... (Case and Vocativeness)]{{Wayback|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/133271099/Ivan-G-Iliev-CASE-AND-VOCATIVENESS |date=20160625084306 }}
* Kroeger, Paul. (1993). ''Phrase structure and grammatical relations in Tagalog''. Stanford: CSLI. {{ISBN|0-937073-86-5}}.
* Legate, Julie Anne. (2008). Morphological and Abstract Case. ''Linguistic Inquiry'' 39.1: 55-101.
* Mallinson, Graham; & Blake, Barry J. (1981). Agent and patient marking. ''Language typology: Cross-linguistic studies in syntax'' (Chap. 2, pp. 39–120). North-Holland linguistic series. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
* McGregor, William B. (2010). Optional ergative case marking systems in a typological-semiotic perspective. ''Lingua'' 120: 1610–1636.
* Plank, Frans. (Ed.). (1979). ''Ergativity: Towards a theory of grammatical relations''. London: Academic Press.
* Rude, Noel. (1983). Ergativity and the active-stative typology in Loma. ''Studies in African Linguistics'' 14 (3): 265-283.
* Schachter, Paul. (1976). The subject in Philippine languages: Actor, topic, actor-topic, or none of the above. In C. Li. (Ed.), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 491-518). New York: Academic Press.
* Schachter, Paul. (19771976). Reference-relatedThe andsubject rolein Philippine languages: Actor, topic, actor-relatedtopic, propertiesor none of subjectsthe above. In PC. Cole & JLi. Sadock (EdsEd.), ''SyntaxSubject and semantics: Grammatical relationstopic'' (Vol. 8, pp. 279-306491–518). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0126135088.
* Schachter, Paul. (1977). Reference-related and role-related properties of subjects. In P. Cole & J. Sadock (Eds.), ''Syntax and semantics: Grammatical relations'' (Vol. 8, pp. 279–306). New York: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-613508-8}}.
* Silverstein, Michael. (1976). Hierarchy of Features and Ergativity. In R.M.W. Dixon (ed.) ''Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages'' (pp. 112-171). New Jersey: Humanities Press. ISBN 0391006940. Reprinted in Pieter Muysken and Henk van Riemsdijk (eds.), ''Features and Projections'' (pp. 163-232). Dordrecht: Foris. ISBN 9067651443.
* Silverstein, Michael. (1976). Hierarchy of Features and Ergativity. In R.M.W. Dixon (ed.) ''Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages'' (pp. 112–171). New Jersey: Humanities Press. {{ISBN|0-391-00694-0}}. Reprinted in Pieter Muysken and Henk van Riemsdijk (eds.), ''Features and Projections'' (pp. 163–232). Dordrecht: Foris. {{ISBN|90-6765-144-3}}.
{{refend}}
* Verbeke, Saartje. 2013. ''Alignment and ergativity in new Indo-Aryan languages.'' Berlin: de Gruyter.
*Vydrin, Valentin. (2011). Ergative/Absolutive and Active/Stative alignment in West Africa:The case of Southwestern Mande. ''Studies in Language'' 35 (2): 409-443.
{{div col end}}
 
== 外部連結链接 ==
* [http://recycledknowledge.blogspot.com/2005/05/quick-tutorial-on-ergativity-by-way-of.html "A quick tutorial on ergativity, by way of the Squid-headed one"] {{Wayback|url=http://recycledknowledge.blogspot.com/2005/05/quick-tutorial-on-ergativity-by-way-of.html |date=20201016021606 }}, at Recycled Knowledge (blog), by John Cowan, 2005-05-05.
{{refbegin}}
* [http://specgram.com/CLII.2/10.phlogiston.cartoon.b.html Cartoon Theories of Linguistics: Ergativity] A simplification of the basic idea of ergativity in cartoon form.
* [http://recycledknowledge.blogspot.com/2005/05/quick-tutorial-on-ergativity-by-way-of.html "A quick tutorial on ergativity, by way of the Squid-headed one"], at Recycled Knowledge (blog), by John Cowan, 2005-05-05.
* [http://www.emegir.org/articles/4-ergativitet-i-sumerisk "Ergativity in Sumerian"], an article about ergativity and how it manifests itself in the ancient Sumerian language
{{refend}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:作通型配列}}
[[Category:語言類型學]]
[[Category:语法]]
[[Category:配列]]
[[Category:语言类型学]]
检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/作通型配列”