MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: EET 05203

TOPIC
Lecture 1: Memory Devices
MWABEZA C.L
SEMICONDUCTOR
MEMORY BASICS

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 Introduction
A major advantage of digital over analog systems is the ability
to easily store large quantities of digital information and data
for short or long periods.
This memory capability is what makes digital systems so
versatile and adaptable to many situations.
For example, in a digital computer, the internal main memory
stores instructions that tell the computer what to do under all
possible circumstances so that the computer will do its job with
a minimum amount of human intervention.
Memory is defined as basic unit of a computer where data and
instructions are stored.
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 Units of Binary Data
As a rule, memories store data in units that have from one to
eight bits
1. Bit – Is the smallest unit of binary data
2. Byte – Is a group of 8 bits. In many applications, data are
handled in an 8-bit unit i.e. in bytes.
3. Nibbles – Are units of 4-bits, half of a byte.
4. Word – Is a group of bits or bytes that acts as a single entity
that can be stored in one memory location.

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 Memory Terminologies
1. Memory Cell – Is a device or an electrical circuit used to store a
single bit (0 or 1). E.g. flip-flop, a charged capacitor and a single
spot on a magnetic tape or disk
2. Capacity – Is a way of specifying how many bits can be stored in a
particular memory device or complete memory system.
3. Density - Another term for capacity. When we say that one
memory device has a greater density than another, we mean that it
can store more bits in the same amount of space. It is more dense.
4. Address - A number that identifies the location of a word in
memory. Each word stored in a memory device or system has a
unique address.

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 5. Read Operation - The operation whereby the binary word
stored in a specific memory location (address) is sensed and
then transferred to another device. The read operation is often
called a fetch operation because a word is being fetched from
memory.
6. Write Operation - The operation whereby a new word is
placed into a particular memory location. It is also referred to
as a store operation. Whenever a new word is written into a
memory location, it replaces the word that was previously
stored there.
7. Access Time - A measure of a memory device’s operating
speed. It is the amount of time required to perform a read
operation.
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 8. Volatile Memory - Any type of memory that requires the
application of electrical power in order to store information. If
the electrical power is removed, all information stored in the
memory will be lost. Many semiconductor memories are
volatile, while all magnetic memories are nonvolatile.
9. Random-Access Memory (RAM) - Memory in which the
access time is the same for any address in memory. Most
semiconductor memories are RAMs.
10. Sequential-Access Memory (SAM) - A type of memory in
which the access time is not constant but varies depending on
the address location. A particular stored word is found by
sequencing through all address locations until the desired
address is reached e.g. magnetic tape, video memory, DVDs.
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 11. Read/Write Memory (RWM) - Any memory that can be read
from or written into with equal ease.
12. Read-Only Memory (ROM) - A broad class of semiconductor
memories designed for applications where the ratio of read
operations to write operations is very high. Technically, a
ROM can be written into (programmed) only once, and this
operation is normally performed at the factory. Thereafter,
information can only be read from the memory.
13. Static Memory Devices - Semiconductor memory devices in
which the stored data will remain permanently stored as long
as power is applied, without the need for periodically
rewriting the data into memory.

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14. Dynamic Memory Devices - Semiconductor memory devices in
which the stored data will not remain permanently stored, even with
power applied, unless the data are periodically rewritten into
memory. The latter operation is called a refresh operation.
15. Main Memory - Also referred to as the computer’s working
memory. It stores instructions and data the CPU is currently
working on.
16. Cache Memory - A high-speed block of memory that operates
between the slower main memory and the CPU in order to optimize
the speed of the computer.
17. Auxiliary Memory - Also referred to as mass storage because it
stores massive amounts of information external to the main memory.
It is slower in speed than main memory and is always nonvolatile.

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 The Basic Memory Array
Each storage element in a
memory can retain either a 1
or a 0 and is called a cell.
Memories are made up of
arrays of cells, as illustrated in
the figures (a) – (c) using 64
cells as an example.
Each block in the memory
array represents one storage
cell, and its location can be
identified by specifying a row
and a column.
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 Memory Banks and Ranks
A bank is a section of memory within a single memory array
(chip).
A memory chip may have one or more banks. Memory banks
can be used for storing frequently used information.
Easier and faster access can be achieved by knowing the
section of memory in which the data are stored.
 A rank is a group of chips that make up a memory module
that stores data in units such as words or bytes.

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Simple illustration of memory bank and memory rank

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 Basic Memory Operations
Addressing is the process of accessing a specified location in
memory.
The write operation puts data into a specified address in the
memory, and the read operation copies data out of a specified
address in the memory.
The addressing operation, which is part of both the write and
the read operations, selects the specified memory address.
Data units go into the memory during a write operation and
come out of the memory during a read operation on a set of
lines called the data bus.

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 The Write Operation
 To store a byte of data in the memory, a code held in the
address register is placed on the address bus.
Once the address code is on the bus, the address decoder
decodes the address and selects the specified location in the
memory.
The memory then gets a write command, and the data byte held
in the data register is placed on the data bus and stored in the
selected memory address, thus completing the write operation.
When a new data byte is written into a memory address, the
current data byte stored at that address is overwritten (replaced
with a new data byte).
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Illustration
of the write
operation

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 The Read Operation
A code held in the address register is placed on the address bus.
Once the address code is on the bus, the address decoder decodes
the address and selects the specified location in the memory.
The memory then gets a read command, and a “copy” of the data
byte that is stored in the selected memory address is placed on the
data bus and loaded into the data register, thus completing the read
operation.
When a data byte is read from a memory address, it also remains
stored at that address.
This is called nondestructive read.

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Illustration
of the read
operation

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 MEMORY CATEGORIES
The two major categories of semiconductor memories are the
RAM and the ROM.
RAM (random-access memory) is a type of memory in which
all addresses are accessible in an equal amount of time and can
be selected in any order for a read or write operation.
All RAMs have both read and write capability. Because RAMs
lose stored data when the power is turned off, they are volatile
memories.

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 ROM (read-only memory) is a type of memory in which data
are stored permanently or semi-permanently.
Data can be read from a ROM, but there is no write operation
as in the RAM.
The ROM, like the RAM, is a random-access memory but the
term RAM traditionally means a random-access read/write
memory.
Because ROMs retain stored data even if power is turned off,
they are nonvolatile memories
Several types of RAMs and ROMs will be covered in this topic

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The Random-Access Memory
(RAM)

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 The RAM Family
The two major categories of RAM are the static RAM (SRAM)
and the dynamic RAM (DRAM).
SRAMs generally use latches as storage elements and can
therefore store data indefinitely as long as dc power is applied.
DRAMs use capacitors as storage elements and cannot retain
data very long without the capacitors being recharged by a
process called refreshing.
Both SRAMs and DRAMs will lose stored data when dc power
is removed and, therefore, are classified as volatile memories.

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The RAM family

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 Data can be read much faster from SRAMs than from DRAMs.
However, DRAMs can store much more data than SRAMs for a
given physical size and cost.
This is because the DRAM cell is much simpler and more cells
can be crammed into a given chip area than in the SRAM.

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 Static RAMs
All SRAMs are characterized by latch
memory cells.
As long as dc power is applied to a
static memory cell, it can retain a 1 or
0 state indefinitely.
If power is removed, the stored data
bit is lost.
The cell is selected by an active level
on the Select line and a data bit (1 or
0) is written into the cell by placing it
on the Data in line.
A data bit is read by taking it off the A basic SRAM latch memory cell
Data out line.
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 Static Memory Cell Array
The memory cells in a SRAM are organized in rows and
columns, as illustrated in the next figure for the case of an n × 4
array.
All the cells in a row share the same Row Select line.
Each set of Data in and Data out lines go to each cell in a given
column and are connected to a single data line that serves as
both an input and output (Data I/O) through the data input and
data output buffers.

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Basic
SRAM
array

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 To write a data unit, in this case a nibble (4 bits), into a given
row of cells in the memory array, the Row Select line is taken to
its active state and four data bits are placed on the Data I/O
lines.
The Write line is then taken to its active state, which causes
each data bit to be stored in a selected cell in the associated
column.
To read a data unit, the Read line is taken to its active state,
which causes the four data bits stored in the selected row to
appear on the Data I/O lines.

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 Cache Memory
One of the major applications of SRAMs is in cache memories
in computers.
Cache memory is a relatively small, high-speed memory that
stores the most recently used instructions or data from the
larger but slower main memory.
Overall, a cache memory gets stored information to the
microprocessor much faster than if only high-capacity DRAM is
used.
Cache memory is basically a cost-effective method of
improving system performance without having to resort to the
expense of making all of the memory faster.
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 The concept of cache memory is based on the idea that computer
programs tend to get instructions or data from one area of main
memory before moving to another area.
Basically, the cache controller “guesses” which area of the slow
dynamic memory the CPU (central-processing unit) will need next
and moves it to the cache memory so that it is ready when needed.
If the cache controller guesses right, the data are immediately
available to the microprocessor.
If the cache controller guesses wrong, the CPU must go to the
main memory and wait much longer for the correct instructions or
data.
Fortunately, the cache controller is right most of the time.

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 L1 and L2 Caches
A first-level cache (L1 cache) is usually integrated into the
processor chip and has a very limited storage capacity.
L1 cache is also known as primary cache.
A second-level cache (L2 cache) may also be integrated into the
processor or as a separate memory chip or set of chips external
to the processor; it usually has a larger storage capacity than an
L1 cache.
L2 cache is also known as secondary cache.
Some systems may have higher-level caches (L3, L4, etc.), but
L1 and L2 are the most common.

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Block diagram showing L1 and L2 cache memories in a computer system

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 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Memory Cells
Dynamic memory cells store a data bit in a small capacitor
rather than in a latch.
The advantage of this type of cell is that it is very simple, thus
allowing very large memory arrays to be constructed on a chip
at a lower cost per bit.
The disadvantage is that the storage capacitor cannot hold its
charge over an extended period of time and will lose the stored
data bit unless its charge is refreshed periodically.
To refresh requires additional memory circuitry and
complicates the operation of the DRAM

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 A MOS DRAM cell
The figure shows a typical DRAM cell
consisting of a single MOS transistor
(MOSFET) and a capacitor.
In this type of cell, the transistor acts
as a switch.
The transistor is turned ON by
applying a HIGH on the row line.
The input applied through the column When the row line is taken back
or bit line controls the charging and LOW, the transistor turns off and
discharging of the capacitor depending disconnects the capacitor from
on the bit being stored the bit line, thus “trapping” the
charge (1 or 0) on the capacitor.
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The Read-Only Memory
(ROM)

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 ROM
A ROM contains permanently or semi permanently stored
data, which can be read from the memory but either cannot be
changed at all or cannot be changed without specialized
equipment.
A ROM stores data that are used repeatedly in system
applications, such as tables, conversions, or programmed
instructions for system initialization and operation.
ROMs retain stored data when the power is off and are
therefore nonvolatile memories

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 The ROM Family

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 The ROM Family
The mask ROM is the type in which the data are permanently stored
in the memory during the manufacturing process.
The PROM, or programmable ROM, is the type in which the data are
electrically stored by the user with the aid of specialized equipment.
o Both the mask ROM and the PROM can be of either MOS or bipolar technology.
The EPROM, or erasable PROM, is strictly a MOS device.
The UV EPROM is electrically programmable by the user, but the
stored data must be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light over a period
of several minutes.
The electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM or E2PROM) can be erased
in a few milliseconds.
o The UV EPROM has been largely displaced by the EEPROM.
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 The Mask ROM
The mask ROM is usually referred to simply as a ROM.
It is permanently programmed during the manufacturing
process to provide widely used standard functions, such as
popular conversions, or to provide user-specified functions.
Once the memory is programmed, it cannot be changed.
Most IC ROMs utilize the presence or absence of a transistor
connection at a row/column junction to represent a 1 or a 0.

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 Programmable ROMs
Programmable ROMs (PROMs) are basically the same as mask
ROMs once they have been programmed.
As you have learned, ROMs are a type of programmable logic
device.
The difference is that PROMs come from the manufacturer
unprogrammed and are custom programmed in the field to meet
the user’s needs.
A PROM uses some type of fusing process to store bits, in which
a memory link is burned open or left intact to represent a 0 or a 1.
The fusing process is irreversible; once a PROM is programmed,
it cannot be changed.
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 EPROMs
An EPROM is an erasable PROM.
Unlike an ordinary PROM, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if
an existing program in the memory array is erased first.
An EPROM uses an NMOSFET array with an isolated-gate
structure.
The isolated transistor gate has no electrical connections and
can store an electrical charge for indefinite periods of time.
The data bits in this type of array are represented by the
presence or absence of a stored gate charge. Erasure of a data bit
is a process that removes the gate charge.

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 EEPROMs
An electrically erasable PROM can be both erased and
programmed with electrical pulses.
Since it can be both electrically written into and electrically
erased, the EEPROM can be rapidly programmed and erased
in-circuit for reprogramming.
Two types of EEPROMs are the floating-gate MOS and the
metal nitride-oxide silicon (MNOS).
The application of a voltage on the control gate in the floating-
gate structure permits the storage and removal of charge from
the floating gate.

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 UV EPROMs
You can recognize the UV EPROM device by the UV transparent
window on the package.
The isolated gate in the FET of an ultraviolet EPROM is
“floating” within an oxide insulating material.
The programming process causes electrons to be removed from
the floating gate.
Erasure is done by exposure of the memory array chip to high-
intensity ultraviolet radiation through the UV window on top of
the package.
The positive charge stored on the gate is neutralized after several
minutes to an hour of exposure time.
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The Flash Memory

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 Flash Memories
Flash memories are high-density read/write memories (high-
density translates into large bit storage capacity) that are
nonvolatile, which means that data can be stored indefi-nitely
without power.
The ideal memory has high storage capacity, nonvolatility, in-
system read and write capability, comparatively fast operation,
and cost effectiveness.
The traditional memory technologies such as ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM, SRAM, and DRAM individually exhibit one
or more of these characteristics.
Flash memory has all of the desired characteristics.
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 Flash Memories
High-density means that a large number of cells can be packed
into a given surface area on a chip; that is, the higher the
density, the more bits that can be stored on a given size chip.
This high density is achieved in flash memories with a storage
cell that consists of a single floating-gate MOS transistor.
A data bit is stored as charge or the absence of charge on the
floating gate depending if a 0 or a 1 is stored.

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 Flash vs. ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM
Read-only memories are high-density, nonvolatile devices.
However, once programmed the contents of a ROM can never be
altered. Also, the initial programming is a time-consuming and costly
process.
The EEPROM has a more complex cell structure than either the ROM
or UV EPROM and so the density is not as high, although it can be
reprogrammed without being removed from the system. Because of
its lower density, the cost/bit is higher than ROMs or EPROMs.
Although the UV EPROM is a high-density, nonvolatile memory, it
can be erased only by removing it from the system and using
ultraviolet light. It can be repro-grammed only with specialized
equipment.

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 A flash memory can be reprogrammed easily in the system
because it is essentially a READ/WRITE device.
The density of a flash memory compares with the ROM and
EPROM because both have single-transistor cells.
A flash memory (like a ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM) is
nonvolatile, which allows data to be stored indefinitely with
power off.

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 Flash vs. SRAM
A SRAM requires constant power to retain the stored data. In
many applications, a battery backup is used to prevent data loss
if the main power source is turned off.
However, since battery failure is always a possibility, indefinite
retention of the stored data in a SRAM cannot be guaranteed.
Because the memory cell in a SRAM is basically a flip-flop
consisting of several transistors, the density is relatively low.
A flash memory is also a READ/WRITE memory, but unlike the
SRAM it is nonvolatile.
Also, a flash memory has a much higher density than a SRAM.

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 Flash vs. DRAM
Dynamic random-access memories are volatile high-density
READ/WRITE devices.
DRAMs require not only constant power to retain data but also
that the stored data must be refreshed frequently.
In many applications, backup storage such as hard disk must be
used with a DRAM.
Flash memories exhibit higher densities than DRAMs because a
flash memory cell con-sists of one transistor and does not need
refreshing, whereas a DRAM cell is one transistor plus a capacitor
that has to be refreshed.
Typically, a flash memory consumes much less power than an
equivalent DRAM and can be used as a hard disk replacement in
4 many applications.
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 USB Flash Drive
A USB flash drive consists of a flash
memory connected to a standard USB
connector housed in a small case about the
size of a cigarette lighter.
The USB connector can be plugged into a
port on a personal computer and obtains
power from the computer.
These memories are usually rewritable and
can have a storage capacity up to 512 GB (a
number which is constantly increasing),
with most ranging from 2 GB to 64 GB.
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 USB Flash Drive
The USB flash drive uses a
standard USB A-type
connector for connection to
the computer
Peripherals such as
printers use the USB B-
Basic block diagram type connector, which has
a different shape and
physical pin configuration

Type A USB connector USB icon