Air_Pollution_Handbook (1)

Air Pollution:
An Introduction to Its Causes,

Effects, and Solutions
2021.1
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea

National Council on Climate and Air Quality of the Republic of Korea
The views, opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this publication are strictly those of the authors. They do
not necessarily reflect the official views of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs (MOFA) or the National Council on Climate and Air Quality
(NCCA) of the Republic of Korea.
Air Pollution: An Introduction to Its Causes, Effects, and Solutions
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea

National Council on Climate and Air Quality of the Republic of Korea
This publication was written by Laura Hyesung Yang, Jiwon Kim, and Dha Hyun Ahn
(Yonsei University), with substantive inputs from Sangmin Nam, Minkyung Hong
(UNESCAP), and Jhoon Kim (Yonsei University). The authors appreciate Yeora Chae
(KEI), Ho-Jin Lim (KNU), and Chang-Keun Song (UNIST) for their review of the
draft and valuable comments.
This publication was prepared to support the International Day of Clean Air for blue
skies, proposed by the Government of the Republic of Korea and designated by the UN
General Assembly Resolution 74/212.
Contents
Introduction 12
Chapter 1
Current Air Pollution Situation and Trend 16
1. Trend of Global Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution 16
2. Annual Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution by Regions/Countries 16
3. Global Air Pollution Exposure Level 18
Chapter 2
What are the Most Common Air Pollutants? 22
1. Types of Pollutants: Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants 22
2. Main Pollutants and Their Properties 23
Chapter 3
Factors Responsible for Air Pollution: What Causes Air Pollution? 42
1. Natural Sources 42
2. Mobile Sources 44
3. Stationary Sources 46
4. Area Sources 48
Chapter 4
Effects of Air Pollution. What Are the Consequences? 52
1. Effects on Health 52
2. Effects on Agriculture 55
3. Effects on Environment 56
4. Effects on Economy 58
5. Long-term Effects on the Planet 59
6. Effects on Sustainable Development Goals 61
Chapter 5
What is Indoor Air Pollution? 68
1. Indoor Air Pollutants and Typical Sources 68
2. Effects of Indoor Air Pollution 69
3. Intervention to Indoor Air Pollution 70
Chapter 6
How is Air Pollution Assessed, Monitored, Managed, 74
and Controlled?
1. Communication of Air Pollution Level with the Public 74
2. Example of AQI 75
3. Ambient Air Pollutants: Analysis and Measurement 78
4. Air Pollution Monitoring and Surveillance 79
5. Air Quality Management System and Process 83
6. WHO Air Quality Guidelines 84
Chapter 7
What Actions are Required? 88
1. Key Actions by Sectors 88
2. Key Actions by Stakeholders 92
Chapter 8
What are Regional and Global Cooperation Mechanisms? 98
1. Regional Cooperation Mechanisms 98
2. Global Cooperation Mechanisms 101
Chapter 9
Resources 104
1. Policy-related Reports 104
2. Health-related Reports 105
3. Climate-related Reports 105
4. Useful Websites 106
References 110
Figures
1.1. Age-Standardized Global Death Rate from Air Pollution per 100,000
Population since 1990.
1.2A. Age-Standardized Death Attributable to Ambient and Indoor Air
Pollution (death rate per 100,000 population) as of 2018.
1.2B. Age-Standardized Death Attributable to Ambient and Indoor Air
Pollution (death rate per 100,000 population) shown in global map
as of 2017.
1.2C. Age-standardized Number of Death (per 100,000 individual) in 1990
versus 2017.
1.3. Population-weighted Mean Exposure to PM2.5 Concentration in a
Spatial Map, 2016.
1.4. Proportion of Population Exposed to PM2.5 Concentration Level
Exceeding WHO’s Guideline as of 2016.
2.1. Global PM2.5 Composition.
4.1. Global Number of Deaths Categorized and Ranked by Risk Factor as
of 2017 as Provided by Global Burden of Diseases from IHME.
4.2. Observed Change in Surface Temperature between 1901 and 2012.
4.3. Radiative Forcing of Different Air Pollutants.
4.4. Air Pollution and SDGs.
5.1. Household Air Pollution and Its Health Effects.
8.1. EANET Monitoring Sites.
Tables
4.1. Air Pollutants and Their Respective Health Complications 6.1. US EPA
Air Quality Index
6.2. WHO Air Quality Guidelines
Box
2.1. Europe’s Exemplary Initiative for Controlling Ammonia Emission 2.2.

How to Avoid Carbon Monoxide Poisoning?
2.3. Definitions of Aerosols, Particles, Haze, and Smog
4.1. Mongolia Voluntary National Report 2019
6.1. Five Ways to Limit Breathing Polluted Air
6.2. How is AQI Calculated?
6.3. Examples of LEO and GEO Satellite Remote Sensing Instruments to
Monitor Air Quality
7.1. Beijing Vehicle Emission Control
7.2 Twenty-Five Clean Air Measures for Asia and the Pacific
7.3. Public Opinion Matters
7.4. China’s Plan to Reduce Air Pollution
7.5 The Republic of Korea’s Comprehensive Management Plan on PM
7.6. Actions on Air Quality: Policies and Programmes for Improving Air
Quality around the World
8.1. Eight Protocols of CLRTAP Convention
8.2. ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AATHP ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

AE Angstrom exponent
AOD aerosol optical depth
AQG Air Quality Guidelines
AQHI Air Quality Health Index
AQI Air Quality Index
AQMS Air Quality Management System
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BC black carbon
CAI Comprehensive Air-quality Index
CCAC Clean Air and Climate Coalition
CH4 methane
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
EEA European Environmental Agency
EMEP European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GEMS Geostationary Environment Monitoring Spectrometer GEO
Geostationary Earth Orbit
GHGs greenhouse gases
H2O water
HFCs hydrofluorocarbons
HNO3 nitric acid
IHME Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
LEO Low Earth Orbit
LRTAP Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution
MODIS Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
N2 atmospheric nitrogen
N2O nitrous oxide
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NEACAP North-East Asia Clean Air Partnership
NEASPEC North-East Asian Subregional Programme for Environmental
Cooperation
NF3 Nitrogen trifluoride
NH3 ammonia
0
NH3 unionized ammonia
NH4+ ionized ammonia
NMVOC nonmethane volatile organic compounds
NO nitric oxide
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOX nitrogen oxides
O3 ozone
OC organic carbon
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OH hydroxyl radical
PFCs perfluorocarbons
PM particulate matter
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants
PSI Pollutant Standards Index
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SF6 hexafluoride
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SO42- sulfate
SO32- sulfite
SOX sulfur oxides
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
USD US Dollar
UV ultraviolet
VOC volatile organic compounds
WHO World Health Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WTP Willingness-to-pay
Introduction

Introduction
Air pollution is the world’s largest environmental threat to human

health and one of the major preventable causes of death and disease.
According to WHO, the ambient and household air pollution together
account for 7 million premature deaths globally every year, making it
more deadly than a combination of malaria, tuberculosis, and AIDS. In
particular, an estimated 4.2 million people die prematurely around the
world due to ambient air pollution, mostly from heart disease, stroke,
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and acute respiratory
infections in children. It disproportionately affects women, children, and
the elderly in developing nations, who are frequently exposed to ambient
and indoor air pollution.
Source: UN Photo/Kibae Park
12
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in December 2019
Introduction
adopted the Resolution 74/212 that designates September 7 as the
International Day of Clean Air for blue skies to raise awareness at all
levels – individual, community, corporate, and government – that clean
air is vital for health, productivity, the economy, and the environment.
The Resolution underlines the importance and necessity to promote
and facilitate actions to improve air quality. To this end, it stresses the
need to strengthen international cooperation at the global, regional,
and subregional levels in various areas related to improving air quality,
including the collection and utilization of data, joint research and
development, as well as the sharing of best practices.
The International Day of Clean Air for blue skies was advocated by
the Republic of Korea. The Resolution to hold the International Day
of Clean Air for blue skies is a follow-up of the previous resolutions
that were adopted by the United Nations Environment Assembly in
its Resolution 3/8 of December 6, 2017, World Health Assembly in its
Resolution 68.8 of May 26, 2015, and the United Nations Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) in its Resolution
75/4 of May 31, 2019 that emphasize the significance of addressing the
health impact of air pollution and strengthening international cooperation
to tackle air pollution challenges.
Against this backdrop, this Handbook was prepared as a reference for

the International Day of Clean Air for blue skies. The official theme for
the first International Day in 2020 is “Clean Air for All” with the goal of
enhancing global solidarity and political momentum for actions against air
pollution and climate change. The Handbook provides a guide to different
stakeholders to join the collaborative efforts to address air pollution and
contribute to the observance of this International Day.
13
Chapter 1
Current Air Pollution Situation
and Trend
1 Trend of Global Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution

2 Annual Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution by Regions/Countries
3 Global Air Pollution Exposure Level

Chapter 1
Current Air Pollution Situation and Trend
1 Trend of Global Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution
Air pollution is generally caused by gas-phase pollutants (e.g.,

ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and etc.) and
particulate matter especially particles less than 2.5 in diameter (PM2.5).
In recent decades, the global death attributable to air pollution has shown
a decreasing trend, mainly because of the reduced indoor air pollution,
while outdoor particulate matter and ozone pollution are exhibiting minor
changes.
Figure 1.1. Age-Standardized Global Death Rate from Air Pollution per 100,000 Population
since 1990. [Data Source: IHME, Global Burden of Disease (2017), Graph Source:
Ritchie, H. (2017)]
2 Annual Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution by

Regions/Countries
By region, Africa exhibits the highest deaths per 100,000 people from
16
the ambient and household air pollution, combined with 180.9 deaths
annually, followed by South-East Asia with 165.8 deaths. Europe and the
Americas experience much fewer deaths from air pollution with 29.7 and
36.3 deaths per 100,000 people respectively.
Chapter 1
Figure 1.2A. Age-Standardized Death Attributable to Ambient and Indoor Air Pollution
(death rate per 100,000 population) as of 2016. (Data Source: WHO, 2018)
Figure 1.2B. Age-Standardized Death Attributable to Ambient and Indoor Air Pollution
(death rate per 100,000 population) shown on global map as of 2017. [Data
Source: IHME, Global Burden of Disease, Graph Source: Ritchie, H. (2017)]
The figure below exhibits the change in death rate in 1990 as

compared to the death rate in 2017 attributable to air pollution. If the
17
country is placed on the line, this indicates no change in the death rate
between two time periods. If the country is placed above the line, the
country experienced a decrease in mortality rate in 2017 as compared
to the past. More specifically, at the country level, middle-to-high
income countries like Australia, China, Germany, and the United States
experienced a smaller number of deaths in 2017 than in 1990. On the
other hand, there were more deaths in developing countries like India,
Nepal, and South America during the same period.
Figure 1.2C. Age-standardized Number of Death (per 100,000 individual) in 1990 versus
2017. [Data Source: IHME, Global Burden of Disease, Graph Source: Ritchie, H.
(2017)]
3 Global Air Pollution Exposure Level
The exposure to air pollution is particularly high for people living in

Asia and Africa as compared to people residing in America and Europe.
For instance, the exposure level of PM2.5 annual average in East Asia
and Pacific regions is 43 g/m3 and Sub-Saharan Africa is 67 g/m3
respectively. On the other hand, the annual average PM2.5 exposure in
North America is 9 g/m3 and that of the European Union is 14 g/m3.
Therefore, the exposure level can be 7 orders of magnitude higher for the
population in Africa as compared to people in North America. Moreover,
18
95% of the world population is currently exposed to PM2.5 higher than 10
/m3, which is the recommended standard by the WHO to reduce deaths
attributable to air pollution by 15%. 95% of the world population not only
includes people in Asia and Africa but also people in Europe and South
America.
Chapter 1
Figure 1.3. Population-weighted Mean Exposure to PM2.5 Concentration in a Spatial Map,
2016. [Data Source: World Bank (2016), Graph Source: Ritchie, H. (2017)]
Figure 1.4. Proportion of Population Exposed to PM2.5 Concentration Level Exceeding

WHO’s Guideline as of 2016. [Source of Data: World Bank (2016), Graph Source:
Ritchie, H. (2019)]
19
Chapter 2
What are the Most Common
Air Pollutants?
1 Types of Pollutants: Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
2 Main Pollutants and Their Properties

Chapter 2
What are the Most Common Air

Pollutants?
1 Types of Pollutants: Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
Air pollutants can

be broadly divided into
two categories based on
the source: primary air
pollutants and secondary
air pollutants. Primary
air pollutants are air
pollutants that are directly
emitted from sources
like factories, cars, etc.
Examples include carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH 4), volatile organic
c o m p o u n d s ( V O C s) ,
a m m o n i a ( N H 3) , a n d
sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), Source: US EPA
and nitric oxide (NO). Secondary air pollutants are air pollutants that
are generated in the atmosphere through a series of chemical reactions.
Examples include particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), nitric acid (HNO3),
sulfate (SO42-), sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Pollutants such as PM and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) are both primary and secondary pollutants.
22
2 Main Pollutants and Their Properties
Ammonia (NH3)
Definition and Properties of Ammonia. NH3 is a colorless toxic gas

with a strong odor that can irritate the eyes and respiratory system
when exposed at high levels. Once released, ammonia gas reacts
with other air pollutants like nitrogen oxides or sulfur dioxide, and
further contributes to the formation of secondary small particles (e.g.,
Chapter 2
ammonium sulfate, and ammonium nitrate) with a diameter that is
smaller than 2.5 (PM2.5). It is an often-overlooked important ingredient
of smog, which is a deadly combination of smoke and fog. This makes
What are the Most Common Air Pollutants?

NH3 a primary pollutant that can lead to a generation of secondary
air pollutants. It is harder to track NH3 with monitoring instruments
than other pollutants because it readily combines with other chemical
compounds that are present in the ambient air. Due to the difficulty
in monitoring and tracking ammonia, the regulations are not properly
established in many parts of the world.
Sources of Ammonia. Livestock agriculture, such as animal urine,

manures, and the utilization of nitrogen fertilizer, is the major source
of NH3 that accounts for 80 to 95% of ammonia emission in developed
countries. NH3 emissions are projected to rise as the demand for
chemical fertilizer is continuously increasing. Other sources of NH3
include vehicles via catalytic converters, sewage works, industrial and
combustion processes, and wildfires.
23
Source: Desai and Caudra/Science
Impacts of Ammonia on the Ecosystem. In the aquatic environment,

NH3 exists either in an ionized (NH4+) or unionized form (NH30). The
unionized form is toxic in the water environment, while the ionized
form is toxic when present inside the fish’s body. NH30 can easily enter
the fish’s body, transform into the ionized form, cause stress on the
fish’s cells, and prevent its growth. If NH30 is present at a higher level
in an aquatic environment, it can even kill fish with increased toxicity.
Ammonium-based fertilizers (e.g. ammonium nitrate fertilizer) also
induce soil acidification since ammonium undergoes transformation
to nitrate (a chemical process called nitrification) in soil and such
process releases hydrogen ion (H+) that reduces the pH of the soil
and acidifies the soil. Moreover, a run-off of NH3 from agriculture
can cause eutrophication, a rich nutrient in water that creates algae or
aquatic plant bloom that consumes dissolved oxygen in the water that
ultimately suffocates aquatic lives. In Europe, NH3 is expected to be
the greatest source of secondary PM, acidification, and eutrophication.
Impacts of Ammonia on Health. NH3 can also have an adverse impact

on health for being corrosive. Exposure to a high concentration of NH3
24
can lead to ammonia poisoning. Also, secondary PM generated from
NH3 can cause asthma, bronchitis, and heart complications.
Europe’s Exemplary Initiative for Controlling Ammonia

Box 2.1.
Emission
The United Nations Economic Commission for

Europe (ECE) Ammonia Abatement Expert
Chapter 2
Group. The ECE formed an expert group on
Ammonia Abatement to guide for reducing
ammonia through good agricultural practice.
Such initiative started to help meet the

Gothenburg Protocol, which aimed to
decrease four major pollutants (i.e. sulfur and
nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds,
and ammonia) in 2010 to the 2020-time
frame. The “Framework Code for Good
Agricultural Practice for Reducing Ammonia Emission” is the official
document provided by UNECE, which contains the scientific-based
recommendations to reduce the ammonia level. The European
Environment Agency (EEA) member countries (EEA-33) achieved the
reduction of agricultural emission by 25% in 2011, as compared to 1990.
Read the Framework Code for Good Agricultural Practice for Reducing
Ammonia Emission:
https://www.unece.org/index.php?id=41358
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Definition and Properties of Carbon Monoxide. CO is a poisonous,

colorless, and odorless flammable gas. CO is slow to react with
the ambient air with other chemical compounds, and it stays in the
atmosphere for a long time, from 0.1 to 5 years. CO is a man-made
primary pollutant and also an ingredient for forming ground-level
ozone.
25
Sources of Carbon Monoxide. Incomplete combustion generates
CO. The major global sources of CO are biomass burning (e.g.,

vegetation fire emissions) and vehicle exhaust created from fuel
burning. Other sources include burning carbon-containing fuels like
wood, coal, natural gas, and kerosene. The incomplete combustion is
more common for high surface-to-volume ratio devices such as small
engines since they cause rapid quench. CO is thus generated by vehicle
exhaust, small engine devices like lawnmowers, and heating systems
such as fireplaces, oil burners, and fire. Industrial processes, solid waste
burning processes, and smoking tobacco also release CO.
Impact of Carbon Monoxide on Health. When CO enters the bloodstream,

it replaces oxygen in the red cells, reduces the amount of oxygen delivered
to essential organs (e.g. heart and brain), which cause severe tissue
damage, dizziness, confusion, chest pain, and blurred vision. Exposure to
a significantly high-level of CO can even lead to a loss of consciousness
and death. When the CO concentration is low in the ambient air with a
low level of exposure, if exposed for a prolonged time, it can also result
in neurological damage. For people with underlying health complications,
short-term exposure to CO can lead to angina that causes chest pain from a
reduced amount of oxygen in the blood.
Box 2.2. How to Prevent Carbon Monoxide Poisoning?
Install a carbon monoxide detector in an indoor environment (e.g.

garage, home, restaurant, etc.)
Receive a regular (e.g. annual) check-up on the carbon monoxide
detector from a technician
Do not leave operating motor vehicle inside a confined area (e.g. garage)
for a prolonged time
Never operate gasoline-powered engines in the confined area (e.g.
garage, basement, or enclosed place)
Keep debris off the ventilation line as it can interfere with the ventilation
process
26
Ground-level Ozone (O3)
Definition and Properties of Ozone. O3 is a highly reactive gas in the

atmosphere composed of three oxygen atoms. Its color varies from
transparent to light blue. There are two types of ozone, which are
stratospheric O3 and tropospheric (ground-level) O3. Stratospheric O3
is “good” ozone and ground-level O3 is “bad” ozone. The stratospheric
ozone layer in the stratosphere is beneficial to human health by serving
Chapter 2
as a shield through absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which is
detrimental to people’s health. However, the ground-level O3 in the
troposphere is harmful as it readily reacts with other molecules in the
atmosphere and hurts people’s health and ecosystem. The ground-level

O3 is an important constituent of smog along with PM. The lifetime of
O3 is on the order of several weeks, which allows long-range transport
of this air pollutant.
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA
Sources of Ground-level Ozone. Ground-level O3 is classified as a

secondary air pollutant. It is formed through a complex photochemical
reaction among CO, NMVOC, NOX, CH4, and sunlight. The ground-
level O3 concentration is particularly higher during the hot summer
season as sunlight plays a vital role in driving the O3 formation. Its
27
concentration peaks in the middle to late afternoon of a day when the
sunlight is the most intensive. Such a formation mechanism of ground-

level O3 makes it more difficult to control compared to other primary
air pollutants as its control requires collective control measures on its
precursors such as VOCs and NOX.
Source: UNEP, 2019
Impacts of Ground-level Ozone on the Ecosystem. Ground-level O3 is

a highly reactive and active oxidizing agent that harms vegetation and
the ecosystem as a whole. It affects an agricultural yield by injuring
the horticultural crops visibly, thereby incurring economic loss for
farmers. It can harm local crops by causing reddening and necrosis,
a cell injury that can ultimately kill the living tissue. Furthermore,
ground-level O3 not only reduces the photosynthesis rate but also
terminates the growth and accelerates the leaf aging of crop species
that further reduces crop yield. Ground-level O3 can also influence
the vitality and health of the forest. It can cause visible leaves-related
symptoms and decline the growth of plants through interference with
28
the photosynthesis process. Such detrimental effects on individual
plants can lead to the biodiversity of the ecosystem. Additionally,
ground-level O3 can disturb plants’ uptake of atmospheric carbon or a
process known as “carbon fixation,” which is a method of converting
inorganic carbon to organic carbon that can act as a building block for
essential activities.
Impacts of Ground-level Ozone on Health. When a person breathes
Chapter 2
in O3, it tightens the airway muscle, which can lead to immediate
difficulty in breathing and make people wheeze and cough. For people
with underlying lung diseases, ground-level O3 can trigger aggravated
asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which can

lead to hospital admittance. It also increases susceptibility to respiratory
inflammation and pulmonary infections. Exposure to ground-level O3
for longer than eight hours (e.g. days, months, and years) has more
serious health implications for different age groups. While it decreases
lung functionality among newborn babies, it increases the chance of
developing asthma among children. Lastly, for any age group, chronic
exposure to O3 can lead to premature death.
Sources: A LA, EPA, and Scientific Magazine: Epidemiology, Environmental Health

Perspective
29
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Definition and Properties of Nitrogen Oxides. NOx is a group of

compounds that is toxic, irritating, and highly reactive with other
molecules that exist in the atmosphere. Nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) constitute a NOx family (NOx = NO + NO2).
NO, and NO2 cycle between each other when ozone is present within
a minute through a chemical reaction during the day. For instance,
NO reacts to O3, which creates NO2. NO2 is typically used as an
indicator of NOx as it causes more health complications than NO. NO
is colorless and NO2 exhibits red to brown color with a pungent smell.
Although NOx itself is a primary pollutant, it is a major ingredient
of two important secondary pollutants, namely ground-level O 3
and secondary PM. The formation of O3 entails the breakdown of
NO2 with UV light, which yields NO and oxygen atom (O). O3 is
generated following the reaction of oxygen atom with atmospheric
oxygen (O2). The lifetime of NOx ranges from hours to days, and its
lifetime depends on the concentration of hydroxyl radical (OH) and
photolysis rate since the formation of nitric acid (HNO3) through the
reaction of OH with NO2 is the most common removal mechanism of
NOx in the atmosphere.
Sources of Nitrogen Oxides. NOx predominantly originates from

anthropogenic sources and is emitted by high-temperature combustion
such as during fuel burning (e.g. gas, oil, coal, etc.). In tropical regions,
biomass burning also emits a high level of NOx. In urban areas, the
single greatest source of NOx is from the transportation sector (e.g.
automobiles, aircraft, ships). There are also natural sources of NOx,
including atmospheric lightning, biological activities (i.e. nitrogen
cycling) in soil, and a chemical process that converts NH3 to NOx. The
greatest sources of soil emission are the regions with heavily applied
nitrogen fertilizer for agricultural purposes.
30
Chapter 2
Source: UNICEF/Mungunkhishig Batbaatar

Impacts of Nitrogen Oxides on the Ecosystem. NOx can transform into
nitrate aerosols in the atmosphere via a series of chemical reactions.
Such nitrate aerosol increases the aerosol uptake of water and aerosol’s
ability to scatter light that creates a haze event, obscuring a clear view of
the sky. NOx is a major ingredient of photochemical smog with VOC and
sunlight, which also decreases people’s welfare. Once NOx is released
into the atmosphere, it easily reacts with water to form nitric acid. Nitric
acid can mix with water and snow into acid rain to precipitate. The
transformation of NOx to nitrate can induce nutrient over-enrichment in
the aquatic environment, which is known as “eutrophication.” When an
excess nutrient is available in an aquatic system, it triggers the blooming
of plants and algae and hypoxia (i.e. oxygen depletion), creating
unfavorable living conditions for marine animals.
Impacts of Nitrogen Oxides on Health. NO2 is mainly associated with a

high risk of respiratory problems. Once NO2 penetrates through the lung,
it inflames the organ and decreases immunity, which triggers symptoms
like bronchitis, coughing, flu, and cold. NO2 can be fatal for people
with asthma and COPD as it sets off to a more intense asthma attack.
Prolonged exposure to NO2 can also increase the likelihood of developing
asthma, especially for children since they have a faster breathing rate for
body weight compared to adults. Other studies indicate that infants and
31
children who are exposed to NO2 for a long time can have smaller lungs
when they reach maturity than those who did not.
Box 2.3. Definitions of Aerosols, Particles, Haze, and Smog
Aerosols: Tiny particles dispersed/suspended in a gaseous environment.

Particle: An aerosol particle may consist of a single continuous unit of solid
or liquid containing many molecules held together by intermolecular
forces and primarily larger than molecular dimensions (>0.001
); a particle may also consist of two or more such unit structures held
together by interparticle adhesive forces such that it behaves as a single
unit in suspension or on deposit.
Haze: An aerosol that impedes vision and may consist of a combination of
water droplets, pollutants, and dust; The particle diameter is less than 1 .
S mog: A term derived from smoke and fog, applied to extensive
contamination by aerosols; now sometimes used loosely for any
contamination of the air.
Source: Seinfeld and Pandis, 2016
Particulate Matter (PM)
Source: US EPA
Definition and Properties of Particulate Matter. PM refers to a

suspended solid or liquid in gas. It can be both primary and secondary
32
pollutants. The primary PM consists of a mixture of organic, inorganic
salts, mineral dust, and black carbon. The common constituents of
the secondary PM include organic and inorganic compounds (e.g.
sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, and chloride), with varying compositions,
depending on whether it is in an urban or rural location. PM can be
classified as PM10 and PM2.5 depending on the size. PM10 are particles,
with diameters smaller or equal to 10 micrometers, and PM2.5 are fine
particles, with diameters smaller or equal to 2.5 micrometers. As PM2.5
Chapter 2
penetrates through the lung more effectively than PM10, they pose a
greater threat to public health. The global population-weighted PM2.5
is composed about 30% from inorganic compounds, mainly of sulfate-
nitrate-ammonium (SNA), 32% of organic mass, and 38% from

primary components such as black carbon, mineral dust, and sea salt.
This indicates that about two thirds of PM2.5 is composed of secondary
pollutants, while the rest is from primary pollutants. Depending on the
proportion, meteorological condition, and development condition of
location’s precursor gases (e.g. SOx, NOx, NH3), PM2.5 composition
varies, requiring a different tackling strategy for each region.
Figure 2.1. Global PM2.5 Composition. [Source: Modified from Figure 2. PM2.5 Mass (inner
circle, m-3) and Composition Mass Fraction (filled colours) in Graydon Snider et
al. (2016). Variation in Global Chemical Composition of PM2.5: Emerging Results
from SPARTAN.]
33
Sources of Particulate Matter. There are both natural and
anthropogenic sources of PM. The sources of primary particulate

matter include dust from roadways or construction sites, forest
wildfire, sea spray, and volcanic eruption. They are emitted directly
into the atmosphere. On the other hand, the formation of secondary
PM requires precursors such as NH3, SOx, NOx, and VOCs. These
precursors go through a series of chemical reactions to create
secondary particulate matters. They are emitted from industry (e.g.
combustion), transportation sector (e.g. automobile, aircraft, ship),
residential sector (e.g. heating, cooking, personal care products,
cleaning products), as well as the agricultural sector (e.g. N fertilizer,
animal manure). It is more difficult to control the secondary particulate
matter than the primary particulate matter as it requires holistic control
measures to keep precursors at low levels.
Source: UNEP
34
Impact of Particulate Matter on Health. PM2.5 can cause airway
damage. Once inhaled, PM2.5 deposits pulmonary alveoli and enters
the lung cells. Then it induces oxidative stress onto the cell, impairing
or even killing the cell. This can lead to inflammation of the airway
and a decline in lung functionality. Also, chronic exposure to PM2.5
puts excessive oxidative stress on lung cells that can increase the
susceptibility to lung infection, leading to the development of asthma,
chronic bronchitis, and COPD. Prolonged exposure can ultimately
Chapter 2
increase the risk of lung cancer. Indeed, PM was categorized as a
carcinogen for lung cancer by the WHO’s International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) in 2013. Moreover, PM 2.5 can exert
oxidative stress on the central nervous system, particularly the

hypothalamus, which can damage the cardiac autonomic nervous
system and lead to abnormal heart rate variability. Such dysfunction
in heart rate variability can also increase the risk of cardiovascular
diseases. There is evidence that PM2.5 is especially detrimental to
infants by triggering premature births and lower birth weight.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Methane (CH 4) and

Non-methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs)
Definition of the Properties of Methane. CH4 is an odorless, colorless,

and flammable gas that is a plentiful form of hydrocarbon found in the
atmosphere. It is a greenhouse gas that is involved in the formation
of ground-level O3. It exhibits a continuously increasing trend with
an annual growth rate of 6 ppb yr-1. The CH4 is removed from the
atmosphere by reacting with hydroxyl radical (OH).
35
Source: UNEP
Sources of Methane. About two-thirds of the CH 4 emission is

attributable to anthropogenic activities and the rest are from natural
sources. The largest natural source of CH 4 is natural wetlands.
Anthropogenic sources of methane include agricultural activities such
as rice paddies, and domestic animals’ enteric fermentation (a digestive
process of breaking down intake food and releasing carbon dioxide
(CO2) and methane), biomass burning, solid waste removal, and fossil
fuel production. Agricultural activity is the single greatest contributor
to the anthropogenic sources of CH4.
Definition of Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds. NMVOCs

are carbon-based compounds with high vapor pressure that evaporates
36
easily at room temperature, excluding CO, CO2, and CH4. NMVOCs
have a distinctive odor depending on the sources like the smell of
gasoline, alcohol, or fresh paint. NMVOCs are also a key material
needed for the O3 formation along with NOx and they contribute to the
formation of secondary PM.
Sources of Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds. About 90%

of the NMVOC emission is biogenic, and only the remaining 10% is
Chapter 2
anthropogenic. As terrestrial vegetation is the single greatest source
of NMVOCs globally, trees constantly emit VOCs (i.e. isoprene and
terpenes) during the process of photosynthesis. Anthropogenic sources
include paint, adhesives, carpets, cosmetics, fragrances, deodorants,

cleaning products, biocides, paints, refrigerant, usage of fossil fuel, and
biomass burning.
Source: UNEP
Impact of Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds on Health.

NMVOCs affect the senses (i.e. disturbing odor) and irritation in
eyes. Constant exposure to NMVOCs can lead to breathlessness and a
reduction in lung functionality. Another set of studies found that long-
term exposure can lead to a malfunction in the central nervous system.
In the case of toxic VOCs (i.e. formaldehyde from tobacco smoke),
they can cause cancer.
37
Sulfur Oxides (SOx)
Definition and Properties of Sulfur Oxides. SO x are a group of

compounds that are composed of sulfur and oxygen. They are a highly
soluble colorless gas with a distinctive pungent smell and taste. The
most commonly used indicator for SOx family is sulfur dioxide (SO2),
which has an average lifetime of 2 days in the ambient air and can
transform into other forms of SOx family through a series of chemical
reactions. Although SOx itself is a primary pollutant, it also acts as
a precursor to secondary PM by forming sulfate particles through
chemical reactions with other compounds.
Sources of Sulfur Oxides. The largest anthropogenic source of SO2

emissions is fossil fuel combustion. The stationary fuel combustion, such
as coal combustion in power plants, is the single greatest source of SO2.
The SO2 emission from fuel-burning differs depending on the percentage
of sulfur content in fuel, and coal has high content of sulfur as compared to
natural gas, gasoline, or oil. Since the major source is the stationary source,
it is easier to control sulfur oxides emission as compared to other air
pollutants. Other smaller sources of SO2 include the transportation sector
(e.g. ship, automobile, truck). There are also natural sources of SO2 like
bacterial activity in the soil and volcanic eruption.
Source: UNEP
38
Impact of Sulfur Oxides on the Ecosystem. Exposure to a high
concentration of SO2 is detrimental to vegetation. SO2 first enters the
foliage through the stomata, a gas exchange site for plants. The plant
rapidly absorbs SO2 through stomata and the accumulation of sulfite
(SO32-) takes place. This sulfite compound then interferes with the
plant’s essential metabolic processes causing injury to the plant. Also,
SO2 is known to decrease the photosynthesis rate of plants, hindering
the growth of the plant. Similar to NO2, SO2 is an important ingredient
Chapter 2
in acid rain. In the atmosphere, SO2 goes through a chemical reaction
and forms sulfuric acid which forms acidic precipitation. Furthermore,
SO 2 forms sulfate particles that can form a hazy environment,
obscuring one’s visibility.

Impact of Sulfur Oxides on Health. Even a short-term exposure (10
minutes) to the elevated level of SO 2 can be an irritant for eyes,
nose, throat, and airway, causing people to cough, wheeze, and feel
discomfort while breathing with tightness in the chest. Also, asthmatic
individuals can experience an exacerbated asthma attack. SO2 is mainly
associated with respiratory (e.g. asthma and COPD) and cardiovascular
complications. In addition, SOx can transform to sulfate through
chemical reactions in the atmosphere, which becomes an important
constituent of PM2.5 that causes more health complications related to
the penetration of fine particulate matter.
39
Chapter 3
Factors Responsible for Air Pollution:
What Causes Air Pollution?
1 Natural Sources
2 Mobile Sources
3 Stationary Sources
4 Area Sources

Chapter 3
Factors Responsible for Air Pollution:

What Causes Air Pollution?
Air pollution can be broadly categorized into the following four

sources depending on where it is emitted: natural, mobile, stationary, and
area sources.
Sources: National Park Service, US Department of the Interior
1 Natural Sources
Overview of Natural Sources. Natural sources of air pollution

are generated naturally instead of being attributed to human activity.
Examples of natural sources include suspended dust, sea spray, forest
fires, volcanic eruption, bacterial activity, lightening, and vegetation.
42
Source: UN News
Chapter 3
Emission of Natural Sources.
CO: The oxidation process of CH4 and NMVOC takes place in the
atmosphere, and they form CO in the atmosphere. Also, volcanic
Factors Responsible for Air Pollution: What Causes Air Pollution?

activity and wildfire emit carbon monoxide as they entail incomplete
combustion.
GHGs: About one-third of CH4 is from a natural source like emission

from the natural wetlands. Volcanic activity also emits CO2 from the
erupted and unerupted magma. About 0.26 gigatons of CO2 are emitted
from volcanic activity as compared to 35 gigatons of CO2, which
are emitted from anthropogenic activity. Wildfire emits a wide-range
of GHGs (e.g. CO2, CH4, N2O) from the incomplete combustion of
vegetation and as a by-product of combustion.
OX: Lightning forms NO in the atmosphere as it undergoes a rapid

N
temperature change from hot to cold forming NO from N2 and O2. It
accounts for about 10% of the global NOX budget. NO then converts
to NO2 through oxidation in the atmosphere. Another important natural
source of NOX is soil microbial processes, which are accountable
for about 25% of global NOX emission. Microbes in soil undergo
nitrification and denitrification processes, both of which release NO as
a by-product.
43
NMVOCs: NMVOCs play an important role in photochemistry as
one of the ingredients to form tropospheric O 3. Natural emission

from vegetation is the single largest emitter of NMVOCs. Biogenic
emissions (e.g. woods, crops, and shrub) account for 90% of the
total NMVOC emission globally. Among NMVOCs, isoprene is
the greatest emission rate that is released during the photosynthesis
process of mostly deciduous vegetation. An increase in temperature
also triggers more isoprene emissions. Another important NMVOC is
monoterpenes, which are emitted throughout the day and night from
plants.
M: Natural sources generate both primary and secondary PM.

P
Primary sources include mineral dust from wind erosion and sea spray,
which are directly ejected from the ocean, black carbon from wildfire,
sulfate aerosol formed from marine and volcanic emission, as well as
organic aerosol emitted from biogenic sources like vegetation. The
secondary PM includes sulfate aerosol formed from the oxidation of
SOX and nitrate aerosol generated from NOX oxidation.
SOX: The single greatest natural source of SO X is from volcanic

activity.
2 Mobile Sources
Overview of Mobiles Sources. The mobile sources are defined as the

emission of air pollutants from anything that “mobilizes.” Mobile sources
are typically divided into two sectors, namely “on-road” and “non-
road.” The examples of on-road are cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles
that operate on-road, while those of non-road are aircraft, trains, marine
vessels, equipment used in construction, and small engines such as
lawnmowers.
44
Chapter 3
Source: UN Photo/Nasim Fekrat
Emission from Mobiles Sources.
C O: CO is formed during an incomplete combustion process.

Mobile sources, including both on-road (e.g. cars, trucks, buses,
and motorcycles) and off-road (lawnmowers, boats, ships, aircraft),
are responsible for emitting the majority of CO. According to the
U.S. EPA, in urban areas, for instance, 95 percent of CO emission is
attributable to vehicle exhaust.
HGs: According to the IPCC, the transportation sector (on-road

G
and non-road combined) accounted for 14 percent of the 2010 global
greenhouse gas emission. It is attributable to the fact that CO2 is the
major by-product of the burning of petroleum-based fuels (e.g. gasoline
and diesel).
NOX: The combustion process of gasoline and diesel fuels in mobile
45
sources releases NOX to the atmosphere. In the urban city, mobile and
stationary sources are responsible for the majority of NOX emissions.

Indeed, the urban-suburban has a boundary-layer NOX mixing ratio
of 10-1000 ppb, whereas the remote rural area has 0.2-10 ppb. It
represents that the fossil fuel combustion process is the major source of
NOX.
NMVOCs: A mobile source emits the NMVOCs through tailpipe

emissions, refueling process, and evaporative loss process. Examples
of evaporative loss processes include gasoline vapors release resulting
from temperature change, hot soak, losses during running, and
permeation. Among these NMVOCs include air toxics (e.g. benzene,
acetaldehyde, aldehyde, butadiene, etc.).
P M: Both primary and secondary PMs are emitted from mobile

sources. The primary PM includes diesel PM that originates from
diesel engine emissions and black carbon from fossil fuel combustion.
NOX and SOX that are released to the atmosphere due to mobile sources
undergo chemical reactions to form nitrate and sulfate, which constitute
fine PM.
OX: Mobile sources are responsible for SOX emission as it requires the
S
combustion of fuel for mobile objects to operate. In particular, diesel
combustion emits more SOX than gasoline (< 300ppm) by containing
more sulfur content (0.1%).
3 Stationary Sources
Overview of Stationary Sources. Stationary sources refer to non-

moving, point sources that emit a significant amount of air pollution from
one location. Examples of stationary sources include power stations, oil
refineries, boilers, and industrial plants.
46
Chapter 3
Source: UN

Emission from Stationary Sources.
CO: As the incomplete combustion of carbon fuel emits CO, power

plants (e.g. coal-, gas-, and oil-fired) are the key source of CO
emission. Other industrial processes, including petroleum refinery,
metal production, and chemical production, also emit CO.
GHGs: According to the IPCC, the industry (e.g. burning of fossil fuels
at facilities), production of electricity and heat (e.g. coal, natural gas,
and oil burning), and other energy production processes (e.g. refining,
processing, and transporting of energy) combined accounted for 56%
of the global greenhouse gas emission in 2010. The production of
electricity and heat is the single largest contributor to GHGs emissions
by accounting for 25%.
NOX: Fuel combustion in stationary sources accounts for the greatest

portion of NOX emission. There are two mechanisms in which NOX
is produced in the combustion process, namely fuel NOX and thermal
47
NOX. Fuel NOX is caused when nitrogen in fuel is burnt and thermal
NOX is attributable to the high-temperature oxidation process that

converts the atmospheric N2 to NOX.
NMVOCs: NMVOCs are disposed from various means, including

solvent use (e.g. dry cleaning, painting, metal degreasing, printing
industry, glues, and adhesives industry, wood preservation, industrial
use of solvents), chemical industry (e.g. inorganic and organic chemical
industries), refineries (processes), fuel extraction and distribution (e.g.
extraction, loading and distribution of gaseous or liquid fuels), gasoline
distribution (e.g. service stations, storage, transporting, depositing),
stationary combustion (e.g. power and industrial combustion), as
well as waste treatment and disposal of other industrial sources.
Some of these sources release toxic air such as benzene, propanol,
formaldehyde, which put public health in a vulnerable position.
PM: Combustion of fossil fuel from stationary sources emits black

carbon and organic aerosol. Moreover, the oxidation of NOX and SOX
forms nitrate and sulfate aerosol species that can constitute secondary
PM.
SOX: Fossil fuel combustion is a major contributor to SOX. Of the

fossil fuel combustion, about 90% is originated from the burning of
coal in a stationary source (e.g. power plants and kilns). Compared to
natural gas (trace amount) and oil (0.1-1%), coal (0.5-4%) contains
significantly high sulfur content, which emits a greater amount of SOX.
4 Area Sources
Overview of Area Sources. An individual area source emits a smaller

amount of air pollution at a height closer to the ground than stationary
sources. It should be noted that collectively, area sources generate a
significant amount of air pollution, which plays a key role in determining
48
the local air quality. Area sources of air pollution can be exemplified
by road traffic, household or building heating, agricultural activities.
Air pollution can also be generated from daily lives such as solvent use,
pesticide use, domestic heating, and cooking.
Emission from Area Sources.
NH3: Agricultural sector is the single greatest source of NH3. Animal

manure and NH3-based fertilizers, in particular, emit a considerable
amount of ammonia.
CO: Road traffic is a major source of CO in the ambient air. The
Chapter 3
cooking and burning fuel at household/building that entails combustion
at high-temperature also releases CO.

HGs: According to the IPCC, buildings, agriculture, forestry, and
G
other land use account for 30 percent of GHGs emissions in 2010. The
building emission includes fuel-burning for heating and cooking for
domestic usage. The agricultural, forestry and other land-use sectors
include raising livestock and deforestation.
NOX: Area sources of NOX include road traffic and residential oil and
gas combustion used for heating and cooking appliances. Also, in
the areas where N fertilizer is heavily used for agricultural purposes,
the soil emits significant NOX to the atmosphere. For instance, in the
California Central Valley region where substantial agriculture activity
takes place, agriculture is the major source of NOX.
NMVOCs: Everyday lives lead to the emission of NMVOCs. Area

sources of NMVOCs include light industries such as nail salons, dry
cleaning agents, personal care products, cleaning products, furnishings,
adhesives, domestic painting, printing, and cooking activity.
PM: Paved and unpaved roads generate primary PM. Secondary PM
49
can be also formed by sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium, which are
created during the oxidation processes of SOX, NOX, and NH3.
SOX: SOX is emitted from household fuel combustion for heating and
cooking as commonly used fuel contains sulfur.
50
Chapter 4
Effects of Air Pollution.
What Are the Consequences?
1 Effects on Health
2 Effects on Agriculture
3 Effects on Environment
4 Effects on Economy
5 Long-term Effects on the Planet
6 Effects on Sustainable Development Goals

Chapter 4
Effects of Air Pollution.

What Are the Consequences?
1 Effects on Health
According to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME),

outdoor and indoor air pollution combined was the 4th leading risk factor
to the number of deaths across all age groups in 2017, causing 4.9 million
premature deaths annually.
Figure 4.1. Global Number of Deaths Categorized and Ranked by Risk Factor as of 2017 as
Provided by Global Burden of Diseases from IHME.
(Graph Source: Ritchie, 2018)
The estimate of WHO is slightly higher than that of the IHME.

According to WHO, household air pollution accounts for some 3.8
million premature deaths and outdoor air pollution causes an estimated
52
4.2 million premature deaths, together accounting for 7 million deaths
every year globally. Low-income and middle-income countries are more
heavily affected by air pollution by accounting for 90% of 4.2 million
deaths (outdoor air pollution). As children with developing lungs, people
with pre-existing health complications, and the elderly are more heavily
affected by air pollution than other populations, more care is needed to
protect those groups of people in the event of high air pollution. The
WHO also summarizes how much the proportion of each disease is
attributable to outdoor air pollution.
Lung cancer (deaths & disease): 9%

Acute Lower respiratory infection (deaths & disease): 17%
Stroke (deaths): 24%
Ischemic heart disease (deaths & disease): 25%
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (deaths & disease): 43%
Chapter 4
Effects of Air Pollution. What Are the Consequences?
Source: WHO
53
Specifically, exposure to air pollutants is known to increase admission
to hospitals and the mortality rate. Depending on the exposure level and
the type of air pollutant, varying short-term (e.g. nausea, skin irritation) to
long-term (e.g. cancer) health complications can arise.
Table 4.1. Air Pollutants and Their Respective Health Complications
Air
Organ Health Complication
Pollutant
Asthma
Nose irritation, throat irritation, eye
irritation
SO2, NO2 Lung inflammation: coughing,
wheezing, mucous secretion
For asthmatic individuals:
bronchoconstriction, dyspnea
Respiratory
System
Asthma
Lung inflammation
Reduction in lung functionality
PM, O3
Lung cancer
Worse lung inflammation for individuals
with pre-existing lung diseases
Binding to hemoglobin and interfering

with oxygen transfer ultimately
CO affecting brain and heart functionality
Cardiovascular Confusion, lack of concentration, slow
System reflexes
PM Blood coagulation
Increase in ischemic stroke

Nervous System PM
Increase in stroke mortality
54
2 Effects on Agriculture
Food security and crop productivity are strongly linked, and previous
studies have shown that air pollutants like ground-level O3 and PM can
impact crop productivity, but in different ways.
Ground-level O3 Effect on Crop Productivity. The ground-level

O3 adversely affects crop productivity by hindering the gas exchange,
inflicting damage to plant tissues, and interfering with its growth.
Exposure to O3 can lead to about 7-12 percent of the reduction in wheat,
3-5 percent of maize, and 6-16% of soy production. The sensitivity of
the crop to ozone varies as wheat and soybean are more sensitive to
ozone, followed by potato, rice, and maize. Barley is negligibly affected
by ozone. In the case of Europe, a study in 2000 found that the ozone
can incur 6.7 billion euros loss due to its negative impact on 23 crops.
Chapter 4
The level of negative effect on crop productivity is greater for countries
with high levels of ground-level O3 than those with lower levels of
ground-level O3 by requiring more stringent measures to O3 precursors to
minimize its impact.
Source: FAO/Xavier Bouan
PM Effect on Crop Productivity. Reduction in shortwave light

reaching the surface and an increase in the diffuse fraction are the two
55
competing effects of PM on the light. As PM can absorb and scatter light,
it decreases the amount of shortwave light reaching the surface. However,

its scattering can enhance the diffuse fraction of light. An increase in
diffuse fraction helps the light to reach the lower levels of the plant,
distributing the light more efficiently for plants. A previous study found
that the diffuse fraction effect outweighs the incoming radiation loss,
which enhances crop productivity by PM. It identified PM as increasing
the production of wheat by 16.4 percent, maize by 11.5 percent, and rice
by 8.9 percent.
Due to such offsetting effects of O3 and PM on crop productivity,

more precautions should be taken in establishing the air pollutant control
strategy for food security.
3 Effects on Environment
Acid rain. Acid rain is defined as acidic precipitation (e.g. snow, rain,
or fog). It can create an acidic environment that can ultimately become
uninhabitable for plants, animals, and fish. Acid rain can also influence
the urban environment by making erosion of buildings or sculptures. The
cause of the acid rain is air pollutants such as SOX and NOX, which are
emitted from the burning of fossil fuel or vehicle emission. It is crucial to
control the SOX and NOX emission to tackle the acid rain problem.
Eutrophication. Eutrophication is a phenomenon when the body

of water is loaded with nutrients (e.g., phosphorus and nitrogen) which
leads to the growth of plants and algae. Such a bloom of plants and
algae depletes an oxygen level in water that makes the environment
uninhabitable to marine species. Air pollutants can act as a source of
eutrophication. For example, NOX from mobile vehicles and industrial
sources released to the atmosphere can ultimately deposit in water,
causing eutrophication. Also, the manures and fertilizers containing NH3
56
can induce soil acidification and the subsequent run-off to the water
system can cause eutrophication.
Source: UNEP NOWPAP
Chapter 4
Haze. Haze is a phenomenon in which the opacity of the atmosphere
increases when fine solid/aqueous particles suspended in the atmosphere
scatter or absorb light, which can be either white or brown. It is caused by
anthropogenic activities generating air pollutants such as transportation

and industry, as well as natural emission from dust or wildfires. Haze
can result in the impairment of visibility, which can be dangerous for the
transportation sector and also interfere with site-visits and aesthetics.
Source: WMO/Alfred Lee
57
4 Effects on Economy
Overview of Air Pollution Impact on Economy. According to the

OECD’s report on the relationship between outdoor air pollution and
the economy, the global healthcare cost generated from the outdoor air
pollution is predicted to reach 176 billion US dollars (USD) by 2060,
compared to 21 billion USD in 2015. Also, premature deaths attributable
to outdoor air pollution are predicted to be 6 to 9 million people by 2060,
compared to 3 million people in 2010. About an eightfold increase in
global healthcare expenditure is expected due to the global rising trend
of air pollution emission from economic growth and increasing energy
demand worldwide.
Market Costs Associated with Air Pollution. There are three major
market costs linked to air pollution, namely health spending, labor
productivity, and crop yield. Exacerbated air pollution conditions will
increase hospital admission, which will increase health expenditure and
decrease labor productivity. Air pollutants such as O3 decrease the crop
yield, which all have adverse impacts on the economy. The OECD expects
the combined market cost from health spending, labor productivity, and
crop yield to take up 1.0% of global GDP by 2060 compared to 0.3% in
2015 due to the globally increased air pollution trend.
Non-market Costs Associated with Air Pollution (Welfare Costs). The

non-market costs are costs that cannot be readily observed as monetary
values but affect the quality of life. The willing-to-pay (WTP) is the
maximum amount of money that one will pay to procure the desired
product or service, and it is used to convert the non-markets costs
into monetary values. According to the OECD report (“The economic
consequences of outdoor air pollution”), there are two major non-
market costs associated with air pollution. The first factor is a decrease
in the quality of life due to illnesses associated with air pollution such
as hospital admission, pain, and inability to continue regular activity
(morbidity). The OECD report predicts that the global WTP for morbidity
58
will increase to 2.2 trillion USD by 2060, compared to 280 billion USD
in 2015. The second factor is an increase in premature deaths caused by
air pollution. The WTP is much higher for premature death as compared
to the morbidity since the global WTP for premature death is expected
to reach 18-25 trillion USD by 2060 as compared to 3.2 trillion USD in
2015. Such a six-fold to eightfold increase in WTP between those two-
time frames is attributed to a projected increase in premature deaths. The
OECD report used the value of statistical life (VSL) metric to calculate
the WTP and adjusted each country by its income to calculate the global
average WTP. More details about WTP related to air pollution can be
found in the OECD report.
5 Long-term Effects on the Planet
Chapter 4
Effects on Climate Change. The UNFCCC defines the climate change
as the “change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is

in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time
periods.” According to the IPCC, an expansion in GHGs since the industrial
revolution has induced significant climate change and average warming of
0.85℃ between 1880 and 2012.
Figure 4.2. Observed Change in Surface Temperature between 1901 and 2012. [Graphic
Source: IPCC (2013) WG1AR5 Figure SPM.1]
59
The GHGs trap the terrestrial radiation from leaving the atmosphere,
which leads to higher temperatures. The IPCC categories greenhouse

gases as the well-mixed greenhouse gases (e.g., CO2, CH4, F gases (CFCs,
HFCs), and N2O) and short-lived climate pollutants (e.g., CO, tropospheric
O3, NMVOC, Black carbon and NOX). The UNFCCC mandates countries
to report emissions and removal processes for seven GHGs (i.e. CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, and NF3) and four additional indirect greenhouse
gases (i.e. CO, NMVOCs, NOX, and SO2).
In addition to the GHGs, aerosols and their precursors (e.g. mineral

dust, sulfate, nitrate, organic carbon (OC), black carbon (BC)) play
an essential role in climate change. The total aerosols present in the
atmosphere also have a net cooling effect. More specifically, aerosols
such as mineral dust, sulfate, nitrate, and OC cool the earth, whereas BC
absorbs radiation and results in increased temperature.
Figure 4.3. Radiative Forcing of Different Air Pollutants. (Source: IPCC)
60
6 Effects on Sustainable Development Goals
Reduction in air pollution can Emissions from the combustion of

boost healthy families, save fossil fuels, mixed with precipitation,
medical expenses, and enhance resulting in acid rain, which poses a
Global partnerships to address Good environmental threat to forests and ecosystems.
productivity. air pollution can bring positive governance reduces
outcomes to the planet and environmental burdens
well-being. and injustices.
The deposition of air pollutants on the

water can bring harmful effects on its
Food production is increasingly quality and life underwater, which can
threatened by air pollution. By lead to eutrophication and acidification
affecting soil quality and crop of freshwater bodies.
yields, air pollution worsens food
quality and security.
Combustion of fossil fuels has

a negative influence on climate
Chapter 4
change by putting air, food, and
water in danger and posing a threat
Air pollution threatens human to human health.
health by causing respiratory
infection and cardiovascular
Air Pollution
disease. It leads to the increased
population morbidity and mortality,
more so in urban areas.

Responsible production and
consumption can help reduce
harmful chemicals that are released
into the air.
A clean and healthy school

environment enables quality education
and directly improves children’s health.
It can also contribute to the growth of
healthy adults as skilled and productive
members of society.
Urban areas contribute largely to

air pollution, and it risks the public’s
health. Making cities sustainable
can improve air quality.
Women are disproportionately

exposed to indoor air pollution
because of household responsibilities.
Cleaner air quality and better health
enable gender equality.
Indoor air pollution from Ambient and indoor air
burning biomass and fossil pollution negatively affect the Environmental governance
fuels for heating, cooking, working environment and its and actions reduce the
and lighting is responsible for safety. Reduction air pollution disproportionate burden of air
3.8 million premature deaths contributes to productivity and pollution on vulnerable groups.
each year. Electricity from economic benefits.
renewable energy rather than
fossil fuel will bring public
health benefits by reducing
air pollution.
Pollutants from open fires and Reduction in energy consumption
combustion of fossil fuels, combined with and improvement of sustainable
precipitation, results in harmful rain that and public transportation can
can compromise water quality. progressively reduce air pollution.
Figure 4.4. Air Pollution and SDGs
61
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), consisting of 17
goals and 169 targets, are closely interconnected – an action in one area
will influence outcomes in others. Although there is no headline Goal
on air pollution in the SDGs, air pollution is closely linked to each one
of them in terms of its causes and effects. For example, air pollution is
derived from excess use of energy (7) and development of industry (9)
and transport (11), which ultimately damages our ecosystem and brings
harmful impacts on education (4), food (2), and health (3). It is important
to enhance cooperation mechanisms between the air pollution and SDGs
frameworks to tackle air pollution and achieve sustainable development
together.
For example, the Mongolia Voluntary National Report 2019, which

focuses on air pollution, analyzes the impacts of air pollution on the SDGs
in terms of four different categories – health, education, income, and the
environment.
Impacts on Health. In Ulaanbaatar, it is predicted that one in ten

deaths is attributed to air pollution. Among the primary causes of people’s
morbidity are respiratory, intestinal, cardiovascular, and mental disorders
at the country level. It is found that young children and youth are the most
vulnerable groups, who are in danger of being left behind. The infant and
under-five mortality rate linked to air pollution has also risen in Mongolia.
Apart from the basic consumption expenditures such as food and housing,
as many as 90 percent of all households spend 10 percent of their “other”
expenditures on health services due to the increased cases of respiratory
disease.
Impacts on Education. Children in Ulaanbaatar suffer from high

levels of particulate matter PM2.5 in school classrooms, which influences
negatively on students’ health and impairing learning. Despite some
interventions, there is a need for long-lasting effect on reducing air
pollution levels. It is vital to increase general awareness and knowledge
62
on air pollution to familiarize with measures to counter or mitigate air
pollution. Such awareness should be increased particularly among poorer
groups and young people.
Impacts on Income. As fuel is crucial to overcome the long and

harsh winters in Mongolia, it remains as a huge economic burden for
Ulaanbaatar’s ger households, who spend around 20 percent of their
average monthly income on fuel. The cost of air pollution takes up 18
to 28 percent of the city’s GDP, compared to the 8 to 13 percent of the
national GDP for the entire country. To reduce indoor air pollution,
public institutions also share the high cost as 75 to 78 percent of current
expenditures for kindergartens is spent on heating. It is important to
increase positive economic gains by opening up the economic base for
Mongolia.
Chapter 4
Impacts on the Environment. Despite many existing studies on
air pollution, more qualitative insights on air pollution and its broader
environment linkages are necessary. Mongolia is both a contributor and

a victim of global warming and climate change. The Risk Index showed
that the country ranked 8th among 10 countries with highest risk of being
impacted by global climate change. The increased average temperature,
overall decline in precipitation levels, and the frequency of natural
disasters not only destroy people’s livelihoods, but also lead to an adverse
consequence for the society and the economy in general.
63
Box 4.1. Mongolia Voluntary National Report 2019
The Mongolia Voluntary National Report 2019 features the air pollution
issue as “a complicated and multifaceted global problem that would benefit
from cross-sectoral coordination and multi-stakeholder partnerships
through a sustainable development lens” to create effective solutions. Air
pollution is an increasingly urgent development challenge in Mongolia
that influences public health and productivity, while incurring a significant
amount of costs for the economy.
The Mongolian government has taken several actions to enhance

construction standards, bring in clean technologies, and reconstruct ger
areas as part of its efforts to counter air pollution. The report identifies the
weak policy coherence and coordination, poor policy implementation,
insufficient capacities, and a lack of efficient participation and knowledge
of stakeholders as the major challenges. It broadly recommends reinforcing
the consistency of policies and actions to prevent air pollution, ensuring
the coordination of institutions, advancing the roles of the actors, and
promoting stakeholder participation and knowledge.
64
Chapter 4 Effects of Air Pollution. What Are the Consequences?
65
Source: Mongolia Voluntary National Report 2019
Chapter 5
What is Indoor Air Pollution?
1 Indoor Air Pollutants and Typical Sources

2 Effects of Indoor Air Pollution
3 Intervention to Indoor Air Pollution

Chapter 5
1 Indoor Air Pollutants and Typical Sources
Sources of Indoor Air

Pollution. In developing
countries, solid fuels (i.e.
biomass and coal) used
for cooking and heating is
the greatest source of
indoor air pollution.
According to WHO, about
3 billion people still rely
on inefficient fuels (e.g.
coal, wood, animal dung,
crop waste, and open
fires) to cook, and heating
Source: BreatheLife households. Solid fuel is
any solid material that can release energy when burnt. Biomass is an
organic matter such as crops, garbage, wood, agricultural residues,
briquettes, and alcohol fuel. Burning of solid fuels can result in PM10
concentration (24-hours mean) ranging from 300 to 3,000 g/m3, which is
far higher than WHO’s air quality guideline of daily PM10 concentration
of 50 /m 3 . Among other sources of indoor air pollution are
environmental tobacco smoke, construction materials (e.g. concrete and
stone), building materials (e.g. plywood and particleboard), furnishings
(e.g. carpets and draperies), adhesives, cleaning products, and personal
care products (e.g. lotion and cosmetics).
68
Emission of Indoor Air Pollution. The combustion of solid fuels
emits CO, NOX, SOX, PM, and harmful NMVOCs such as aldehydes
and benzene. The burning of tobacco also emits CO, NOX, air toxic like
nicotine, and other harmful NMVOCs. Moreover, building materials,
furnishings, and personal products, consumer products, and adhesives
release unhealthy NMVOC (e.g. formaldehyde), which discharges at a
higher level for newer products. Construction and building products such
as tiles, pipe insulation, and concrete also contain asbestos fibers. Lastly,
construction materials like concrete and stone and soil release radon,
which is a radioactive particle that penetrates through people’s lungs.
Chapter 5
Source: WHO/Ajay Pillarisetti
2 Effects of Indoor Air pollution
Health Effect. Smoke from the burning of solid fuels and biomass
in households poses a serious threat to people’s health, especially for
developing countries that use less efficient fuels. According to WHO,
about 3.8 million people die prematurely from indoor air pollution
generated by inefficient fuel usage (e.g. solid fuels, kerosene, coal, and
69
biomass burning). For children under 5 years old, indoor air pollution is
more fatal as half of the deaths caused by pneumonia are attributable to

PM pollution from the household. The proportion of each disease among
3.8 premature million deaths is as follows:
Pneumonia: 27%
Stroke: 18%
Ischaemic heart disease: 27%
COPD: 20%
Lung cancer: 8%
Figure 5.1. Household Air Pollution and Its Health Effects.

[Graphic Source: Towards a Pollution-Free Planet (2017)]
3 Intervention to Indoor Air Pollution
There are three interventions that can be taken to reduce exposure to

indoor air pollution. First and foremost, reducing poverty in developing
70
countries is the most effective measure to reduce indoor air pollution as
indoor air pollution from the usage of solid fuel is intricately related to
poverty. The implementation of the following interventions at a personal
level could be difficult for low-income families calling for a need for
intervention at policy-level.
Source Removal/Substitution. The first intervention method is to

remove or substitute the source of air pollution. This involves substituting
high pollution emitting fuel with an alternative fuel.
Usage of Alternative Fuel. One way of controlling indoor air

pollution is to use alternative fuels with higher fuel efficiency such as
kerosene, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), low-smoke fuels, and electricity.
Substituting solid fuel with cleaner and more efficient fuel can
dramatically improve the indoor air quality situation. For instance, in the
rural setting of India, using kerosene for cooking resulted in exposure to
particulate matter concentration of 132 /m3, as opposed to particulate
matter concentration as high as 1,300 /m3 for using wood and 1,500
Chapter 5
/m3 for using dung. Just by substituting for cleaner fuel decreased the
exposure by 10 orders of magnitude. Compared to LPG and kerosene,
substitution with electricity requires the building of infrastructure, so for
developing countries, LPG and kerosene are more viable options for fuel

substitution.
Improvement of the Living Environment. Another way of improving

indoor air pollution conditions is to modify the living environment to
reduce the exposure of people indoors.
Improved Ventilation. The living conditions for people can be

improved by having a design component in the building or household to
allow for the recirculation of air from indoor to outdoor. This could be
done by having hoods near the source of air pollution (e.g. kitchen) or
building chimneys for air pollution flowing outdoors. Moreover, simply
71
having more windows can allow such air exchange of indoor and outdoor
environments.
Change of the Kitchen Design. A physical way of reducing indoor

air pollution exposure is to design the household such that the kitchen
is separated from the other parts of the house, so that family members
outside of the kitchen are less exposed to indoor air pollution. This control
strategy will not be the most effective measure for the cook. Another
method of improving the kitchen design is to design the stove to come up
to the waistline so that the cook can avoid the direct exposure that they
will experience if they had to lean over to the fire.
Air Cleaning Devices. More mechanical solutions to air pollution

exist, but this may not be financially viable for low-income households.
This involves having air pollution control devices such as gas absorbers
or electrostatic precipitators. A gas absorber is effective in removing
hazardous gas from the environment, and electrostatic precipitators can
remove fine particles from the household.
Change of User Behaviors. The last method to reduce the chance

of exposure to indoor air pollution is through modifying behaviors in the
household. The first method is to continue the maintenance of stoves,
hoods, and chimneys to operate at optimal conditions. The second method
is to physically distance children away from the source of air pollution and
smoke generated from air pollution. Moreover, keeping the environment
well-ventilated (e.g., opening a window and operating a hood if available)
while cooking can decrease the indoor concentration of air pollutants.
72
Chapter 6
How is Air Pollution Assessed,
Monitored, Managed, and Controlled?
1 Communication of Air Pollution Level with the Public

2 Example of AQI
3 Ambient Air Pollutants: Analysis and Measurement
4 Air Pollution Monitoring and Surveillance
5 Air Quality Management System and Process
6 WHO Air Quality Guidelines

Chapter 6
How is Air Pollution Assessed, Monitored,

Managed, and Controlled?
1 Communication of Air Pollution Level with the Public
Overview of Air Quality Index. The Air Quality Index (AQI) is one
of dimensionless values that exhibits the air pollution level of the day.
AQI is used to communicating with the public about daily air quality so
that people can make the most prudent decision about outdoor activity. It
allows countries to have different names for AQI and ways of calculating
AQI depending on their ambient air quality standards in each country.
For instance, the AQI index for Canada, Singapore, and the Republic
of Korea is called the “Air Quality Health Index (AQHI),” “Pollutant
Standards Index (PSI),” and the “Comprehensive Air-Quality Index
(CAI)” respectively. The commonality of these different AQIs is that they
are calculated from different air pollutants that are associated with health
complications, which are called “target pollutants” in this Handbook.
Target Pollutants and Values. AQI concerns air pollutants that pose
a threat to public health. The target pollutants in AQI can differ in each
country depending on the type of pollutants that are being regulated by
national ambient air quality standards. Commonly, countries use SO2, O3,
NO2, CO, PM10, and PM2.5 to calculate AQI. Depending on the country,
the range of AQI can vary. It is common that the higher AQI value is
indicative of a higher level of air pollution.
Health Implications. AQI is generally categorized into four

categories: “good,” “moderate,” “unhealthy,” and “hazardous.” Some
countries divide this category further into “unhealthy for sensitive groups”
74
and “unhealthy for everyone” as AQI value increases. Such categorization
Chapter 6
is possible as pollutants that determine AQI have direct health
implications. Acute exposure to PM can cause respiratory inflammation,
heart complication, and, ultimately, lung cancer. O3 is linked to asthma
and various lung complications. NO2 is associated with a reduction in
How is Air Pollution Assessed, Monitored, Managed, and Controlled?

lung function and causes bronchitis for asthmatic children. In addition,
SO2 affects the respiratory system and results in irritation in the eyes and
lungs.
Box 6.1. Five Ways to Limit Breathing Polluted Air
The World Health Organization (WHO) lists five different ways to restrict
breathing polluted air:
1. Limit walking on busy streets during rush hour – and if you have a
young child with you, try to lift them up above the level of vehicle
exhausts
2. Limit spending time at specific hotspots of traffic such as cars stopped
at traffic lights
3. When you’re doing physical activity outdoors, try exercising in less
polluted areas
4. Limit the use of cars in highly polluted days
5. Don’t burn waste as the smoke results in damage to our health
Source: WHO
2 Example of AQI
US EPA’s AQI. US EPA’s AQI is classified into six categories with

0 being the best air quality and 500 being the worst air quality. AQI
corresponding to 100 is equivalent to air quality meeting the standards
of national ambient air quality. Air quality below 100 is satisfactory for
public health, while above 100 is unhealthy for sensitive groups. Values
above 200 are unsafe for everyone. The AQI value is calculated for all
targeted pollutants (e.g. O3, PM2.5, PM10, CO, SO2, and NO2) following
75
the common equation, and the highest AQI amongst five pollutants are
reported to the public.
Table 6.1. US EPA Air Quality Index
Air Quality Index
AQI Category Index

Description of Air Quality
and Color Value
Good
0 to 50 None
(Green)
Moderate 51 to Unusually sensitive people should

(Yellow) 100 reduce prolonged or heavy exertion
Unhealthy
for Sensitive Sensitive groups should reduce
101-150
Groups prolonged or heavy exertion
(Orange)
Sensitive groups should avoid

Unhealthy prolonged or heavy exertion;
151-200
(Red) general public should reduce
prolonged or heavy exertion
Sensitive groups should avoid all

Very Unhealthy physical activity outdoors; general
201-300
(Purple) public should avoid prolonged or
heavy exertion
Hazardous Everyone should avoid all physical

301-500
(Maroon) activity outdoors
Source: US EPA, 2012
76
Box 6.2. How is AQI Calculated?
Chapter 6
Adopted from the US EPA Technical Report on AQI (2018)
1. Truncate the concentration of the pollutant of interest (ozone: 3 decimal places,
PM2.5: 1 decimal place, PM10: integer, CO: 1 decimal place, SO2: integer, NO2:

integer), which becomes the truncated concentration of pollution (CP).
2. Refer to Table A to see which category the pollutant of interest falls under and
define the high and low break point concentrations, as well as corresponding AQI
values (BPHi , IHi , BPLo , and ILo).
3. Calculate AQI for the pollutant of interest following the equation below.
4. Repeat this process for all pollutants of interest. The highest AQI value becomes
the AQI of the day.
where Ip = Index for pollutant p

Cp= the truncated concentration of pollutant p
BPHi = the concentration breakpoint that is greater than or equal to Cp
BPLo = the concentration breakpoint that is less than or equal to Cp
IHi = the AQI value corresponding to BPHi
ILo = the AQI value corresponding to BPLo
Table A. Breakpoint Table for AQI

O3 O3 CO SO2 NO2
PM2.5 () PM10 )
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppb) (ppb) AQI Category
24-hour 24-hour
8-hour 1-hour 8-hour 1-hour 1-hour
0.000 - 0.054 0.0 – 12.0 0 - 54 0.0 - 4.4 0 - 35 0 - 53 0-50 Good
0.055-0.070 - 12.1- 35.4 55 – 154 4.5 – 9.4 36-75 54 – 100 51-100 Moderate
0.071-0.085 0.125 - 0.164 35.5 – 55.4 155 - 254 9.5 - 12.4 76 - 185 101 - 360 101-150 USG
0.086 - 0.105 0.165 - 0.204 55.5 - 150.4 255 - 354 12.5 - 15.4 (186 - 304) 361 - 649 151-200 Unhealthy
Very
0.106 - 0.200 0.205 - 0.404 150.5 - 250.4 355 - 424 15.5 - 30.4 (305 - 604) 650 - 1249 201-300
unhealthy
0.405 - 0.504 250.5 - 350.4 425 - 504 30.5 - 40.4 (605 - 804) 1250 - 1649 301-400 Hazardous
0.505 - 0.604 350.5 - 500.4 505 - 604 40.5 - 50.4 (805 - 1004) 1650 - 2049 401-500 Hazardous
Example: Let 8-hour O3 value be 0.0785ppm

1. Truncate the concentration to 3 decimal points ( Cp= 0.078).
2. According to Table A, 0.078 falls under 0.071 – 0.085 category.
PBHi = 0.085, IHi = 150, PBLo = 0.071, ILo = 101
3. Now that all the symbols are defined, use equation above to calculate Ip.
150−101
0.085−0.071 (0.078 − 0.071) + 101 = 126
4. AQI equal to 126 corresponds to USG (unhealthy for sensitive group), orange code.
77
3 Ambient Air Pollutants: Analysis and Measurement
Expressed Concentration of Measured Air Pollutants. Gaseous air

pollutants (e.g. NOx, CO, O3, SO2) are typically expressed as a mixing
ratio like parts per million (ppm, 10-6) or parts per billion (ppb, 10-9). The
pollutants in the particulate phase (e.g., PM10, and PM2.5) are expressed as
mass concentration like micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3). The mixing
ratio such as ppm or ppb can be easily converted to mass concentration,
mass per volume. It should be noted that different countries use different
units for the same air pollutant. These concentration values are often
converted to AQI.
Sampling Methods. There are three categories of sampling methods

to measure the air pollutants in the ambient air: passive versus active
sampling, integrated versus continuous monitoring, and personal versus
area monitoring. Firstly, passive versus active sampling uses diffusion-
based methods to collect pollutants and is commonly used for gaseous
compounds collection (e.g., NOx, O3, NMVOC, etc.). Passive sampling
requires no pump, cheaper than active sampling, and more flexible in
placing as it requires no power supply. The active sampling, however,
uses pumping devices that pull in air through. It is used for particle
collection. Secondly, the integrated monitoring collects the pollutant of
interest onto the filter or adhering material, which then can be averaged
over the collection time, while the continuous monitoring measures the
air pollutants and recording it instantaneously over the collection time.
It is more costly and more concentrated in urban sites. Thirdly, area
monitoring is the use of air monitoring equipment at given locations
which is used to represent individual exposure for a population. Personal
monitoring occurs when monitoring equipment is placed on an individual
to estimate each individual’s exposure to a given agent.
78
4 Air Pollution Monitoring and Surveillance
Chapter 6
Importance of Air Pollution Monitoring and Surveillance. Air
pollution monitoring refers to the process of measuring ambient air
pollution data for a consistent time. Well-established ambient air quality

monitoring is key to managing and improving air quality. The monitoring
data provides information to the public with a warning if needed and can
be used to calculate the air pollution trend in a selected region. They are
also important data for modeling work. Since each type of monitoring
method has its own strengths and weaknesses, the integration of different
monitoring methods can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of
air quality.
Monitoring Method 1: Ground-based Monitoring System.
Overview of Ground-based Monitoring System. Thousands of air

quality monitoring stations are established in countries to monitor the
air quality at hourly levels. Many countries continuously monitor and
measure pollutants like O3, NO2, CO, SO2, PM10, and PM2.5 by using
ground-based monitoring stations. These monitoring stations have
stationary instruments that utilize passive and active sampling.
Source: UNEP
Cost-effective monitoring device developed by EPA to track down the sources of air pollutants
near the industrial area. (Source: US EPA)
79
Three Types of Operational Monitoring Stations. The operational
stations can be broadly categorized into three types depending on

what/where is being measured. The first type is near the urban and
population center to monitor the ambient air quality of urban settings,
industrial areas, and residential areas. The second type is roadsides
to measure the vehicle’s exhaust. The third type is the background
station located in unpolluted areas far from the population to serve as a
background measurement.
Strengths and Weaknesses of a Ground-based Monitoring System. The

advantage of the ground-based monitoring stations is that they allow
for the characterization and collection of a variety of pollutants at
hourly levels. The limitation of the ground-based monitoring system is
that the observational coverage is limited to local areas because of the
coarse spatial resolution. It also requires a network of instruments to
obtain regional data as one data point is a point measurement. Another
limitation is that it is difficult to figure out the vertical structure because
it is limited to near the surface.
Monitoring Method 2: Airborne-based Monitoring System

through Deployment of Aircraft.
Overview of Airborne-based Monitoring System. Ground-based

monitoring systems cannot access information about the vertical
distribution of air pollutants. To overcome this, the aircraft is deployed
to measure the vertical profile of different air pollutants. The sensors
and inlets out of the aircraft can measure a variety of air pollutants such
as SO2, NOx, CO, O3, and PM.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Airborne-based Monitoring System. The

aircraft measurement of air pollution provides a vertical distribution
of air pollutants. However, the aircraft campaign has limited temporal
coverage since it does not allow for continuous, every day-to-day
measurement. The spatial coverage is limited to the aircraft pathway
80
and the meteorological conditions have to be favorable for aircraft to be
Chapter 6
deployed.
M onitoring Method 3: Space-based Monitoring System

Using Satellite Remote Sensing
Source: UN ©JAXA
Overview of Space-based Monitoring System. Another monitoring

method of air pollution is the use of satellite remote sensing
instruments. There are two types of satellites, which are the Low-
Earth Orbit (LEO) and the Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites.
The LEO satellites allow for wider geographical coverage by moving
constantly but provide less frequent observation for one location. Since
the GEO satellites are fixed in one location, their spatial coverage is
not as extensive as LEO. Nonetheless, it provides more data points
for a fixed location. Unlike the ground-based and airborne-based
monitoring systems, space-based monitoring can provide information
about the global distribution of air pollutants. The measurements of
aerosol properties (e.g. aerosol optical depth (AOD) and angstrom
exponent (AE)) have been possible through satellite remote sensing
81
with a limited characterization of gases. However, recent technology
has made it possible to characterize O3, NOx, NMVOCs.
Examples of LEO and GEO Satellite Remote Sensing

Box 6.3.
Instruments to Monitor Air Quality
Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)

Description: Deployed on NASA’s Earth Observation System (EOS)
satellites known as Terra and Aqua satellites
Type: LEO
Spatial Resolution/coverage: 1 km or less depending on band/global
Temporal Resolution: A global view of the entire Earth every 1 to 2 days
Air Pollution-related data: aerosols (e.g. AOD)
Geostationary Environment Monitoring Spectrometer (GEMS)

Description: Deployed on the Geostationary Korea Multi-Purpose
Satellite (GEO-KOMPSAT-2B) launched in 2020 by the Republic of Korea
Type: GEO
Spatial Resolution/coverage: 7km 8km for gas and 3.5 km 8km for
aerosols/Asia
Temporal Resolution: 1 hour
Air Pollution-related data: Columnar measurement of tropospheric O3,
aerosols, NO2, SO2, NMVOCs (e.g. formaldehyde, glyoxal)
Similarly, TEMPO and Sentinel-4 will be launched to monitor the U.S.
and Europe respectively.
Source: KNMI/IASB/ESA/SAO
82
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Space-based Monitoring System.
Chapter 6
The satellite sensing has wide geographical coverage by monitoring
air pollutants that travel across the boundary from local to regional to
a global scale. However, it is weaker in characterizing air pollutants’
composition in fine detail as compared to the ground-based monitoring

systems. It is also averaged vertically, which makes it harder to
distinguish the surface-level pollutant from the upper-level pollutant
concentrations. On the whole, the temporal coverage of satellite sensor
measurements is more limited than the ground-based monitoring devices.
5 Air Quality Management System and Process
Air Quality Management System (AQMS).

While it is important to manage major sources of pollution,
controlling a single source of pollution does not prevent all air pollution.
To improve the air quality at local, regional, and national levels, an
integrated and holistic air quality management system (AQMS) is needed
to prevent future air pollution, reduce the current level of air pollution,
and minimize the adverse effect of air pollution on people and the
environment. The AQMS is required in regions where air quality poses a
threat to public health and ecosystem and those that show potential to be
degraded by air pollution. Major constraints to the AQMS can be a lack
of scientific understanding, politics, and economy. The AQMS can exist
at different levels of authorities from local, regional to national level. It
is composed of legislation, implementation, and assessment of control
effectiveness. To successfully establish the AQMS, three categories of
set standards are needed: 1) emission standards at design, construction,
and operational levels; 2) emission standards of equipment and product
(e.g., raw materials, fuels); and 3) ambient air quality standards. These
standards are set through legislation and implemented by the respective
agencies. Air quality managers and government agencies can assess
whether they meet the standards.
83
Source: US EPA
Air Quality Management Process. The first stage of AQMS is to

assess the current ambient air quality status along with emission factors
from different sources. The second stage is to compare such a current
status with existing standards and guidelines set by the local, regional,
and national authorities. The third stage is to predict a future trend of air
quality. The last stage is to come up with control strategies, implement,
and revise the strategies through periodic evaluation to meet the standards
set by different authorities.
6 WHO Air Quality Guidelines
Overview of WHO Air Quality Guidelines (AQG). Each country has

a different threshold of air pollutants depending on its national policy
and available resources. The national guidelines have become a matrix
to control key air pollutants. WHO AQG is an international guideline-
based on the health effects of exposure to five air pollutants, namely NO2,
O3, SO2 PM2.5, and PM10. It does not have any binding power, but its
84
reasoning is based on the consensus of globally credible experts across
Chapter 6
different disciplines, which gives the highest credibility. WHO AQG can
be particularly useful for setting air quality standards for countries that
lack the infrastructure needed to go through their health and scientific
investigations into air pollution’s impact on public health. It should be

noted that threshold values provided by the WHO AQG do not guarantee
the complete protection of people’s health against air pollution. These
threshold values are a balanced value that is agreed between health experts
and the feasibility of implementing policies. For many low-middle income
countries, it is not feasible to achieve the AQG goals immediately. The
WHO proposed the interim target values that help countries to gradually
reduce air pollutants to ultimately achieve them.
Table 6.2. WHO Air Quality Guidelines
Air Pollutant Averaging Period AQG (g/m3 )

1 year 10
PM2.5
24-hour 25
1 year 20
PM10
24-hour 50
O3 8-hour 100
1 year 40
NO2
1-hour 200
24-hour 20
SO2
10-minute 500
Source: WHO
85
Chapter 7
What Actions are Required?
1 Key Actions by Sectors

2 Key Actions by Stakeholders

Chapter 7
1 Key Actions by Sectors
Source: UN
Transportation Sector. The transportation sector can implement

control strategies on individual vehicles or transport systems to reduce
emissions. Firstly, air pollution emissions can be lowered by improving
the traffic system (e.g. extra traffic signals and bus lanes). Secondly,
different modes of transportation (e.g. bike and public transportation) other
than passenger driving can help reduce air pollution. Thirdly, monetary
policies that provide incentives for getting rid of older vehicles and
increasing taxation for highly polluting fuels like diesel fuel can improve
air quality. Fourthly, policies aimed towards the reduction of vehicle
level emissions such as setting stringent emission standards and requiring
regular inspection and maintenance by law can decrease the transport
88
sector emission. Fifthly, technology to control individual vehicles such as
requiring vehicles to install control devices can enhance the quality of air.
Lastly, air pollution emission can be lessened by promoting more efficient
alternative fuels like biofuels and electricity through economic incentives.
Chapter 7
Box 7.1. Beijing Vehicle Emission Control
Beijing strengthened vehicle emission control, improved traffic

management, and provided monetary incentives to cut down emissions
from vehicles. Such combined efforts led to a reduction of NOx level by 55%
and PM2.5 level by 81% during the 20 years from the transportation sector.
Source: UNEP
Residential Sector. Several measures can be taken in the residential

sector to reduce air pollution. Firstly, restricting the burning of solid fuel
(e.g. wood, charcoal, coal, and biomass, etc.) for households can decrease
air pollution generated from the residential sector. Secondly, a transition
to cleaner fuels (e.g. biogas, electricity, and liquefied petroleum gas) can
improve the air quality situation in an indoor environment. This strategy
can be most effective for improving indoor air quality for households that
previously relied on biomass burning. Governments can aid such fuel
substitution with cleaner energy through economic subsidies. Thirdly,
residents can install cooking and heating stoves with high efficiency
to reduce air pollution generated. Fourthly, having more windows or
89
installing hoods can improve the circulation of air from inside to outside
that can prevent air pollutants accumulating indoor. Fifthly, the kitchen can
be physically separated from the rest of the households to prevent family
members from being exposed to high levels of air pollution.
Box. 7.2. Twenty-Five Clean Air Measures for Asia and the Pacific
The Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), UNEP, and the Asia Pacific Clean
Air Partnership in 2019 published the report called “Air Pollution in Asia and
the Pacific: Science-based Solutions.” It outlines the following twenty-five
clean air measures for achieving safe air quality levels for 1 billion people by
2030 in the region:
1. Strengthen emission standards for road
vehicles
2. Regularly maintain and inspect vehicles
3. Mainstream electric vehicles
4. Provide better mobility options
5. Control dust from construction and roads
6. Reduce emissions from international shipping
7. Improve post-combustion control
8. Strengthen industrial process emissions
standards
9. Introduce efficient brick kilns technology
10. Control volatile organic compounds from oil and gas production
11. Improve solvent use and refinery controls
12. Use environmentally-friendly refrigerants
13. Provide clean cooking and heating options
14. Strictly enforce bans on household waste burning
15. Provide incentives for improved energy efficiency in households
16. Increase renewable electricity generation
17. Improve energy efficiency for industry
18. Recover coal mining gas
19. Improve livestock manure management
20. Strengthen management of nitrogen fertilizer application
21. Better management of agricultural crop residues
22. Prevent forest and peatland fires
23. Promote more efficient rice production practices
24. Stop biogas leakage from wastewater treatment
25. Improve solid waste management
90
Energy Sector. The major source of air pollution in the energy sector
is the combustion of fossil fuel used in power generation. There are a
number of ways to reduce air pollution emission from power plants.
Firstly, control technologies such as departiculating, desulfurization,
and denitrification can be retrofitted to existing power plants. These
Chapter 7
technologies help reduce the emission before released to the ambient air.
The government’s economic subsidies could aid in the installation of
these control devices. Secondly, since coal-fired power plants emit more

air pollutants, air pollution can be ameliorated by closing down coal-fired
power plants and transitioning to cleaner sources of energy such as natural
gas. Thirdly, energy from the power sector can be saved by promoting
large units and retiring high-emission small units. Fourthly, an investment
to renewable sources of energy (e.g. geothermal, hydroelectric, solar,
and wind) can benefit the air quality in the long-run. Fifthly, setting
more stringent emission standards for power generation units can help to
decrease air pollution emissions.
Industrial Sector. In the industrial sector, there are various ways in

which air quality can be improved. Firstly, the industry sector can first
and foremost increase energy efficiency. This is especially important for
industries that use intensive levels of energy like oil refining and chemical
industries. Secondly, the government can set regulations and provide
subsidies for high-pollution industries to either close down or implement
the end-of-pipe technology, which can help reduce the level of emission
from those industries. Thirdly, mandating industrial sectors to implement
such end-of-pipe technology (i.e. scrubbers) through regulation is another
way of improving air quality. Fourthly, having a stringent air pollutant
emission level for industries can lower the amount of air pollution being
emitted into the atmosphere.
Agricultural Sector. There are multiple actions that the agricultural

sector can take to reduce air pollution. First of all, the government can
prohibit the open burning of agricultural residues. Secondly, the reduction
91
in ammonia emission, which is essential for the agricultural sector, can be
achieved by controlling mineral fertilizer. Many mineral fertilizers contain

significant amounts of nitrogen and urea which is particularly known
to convert immediately into ammonia. One way of controlling it is by
using urease inhibitors. Thirdly, ammonia emissions can also be reduced
by using ammonium nitrate fertilizer instead of urea fertilizer. Fourthly,
livestock farming entails a great amount of manure (i.e. animal dung),
which is a significant source of air pollution. Better management methods
for manure can improve air quality. The quickest measure is to dispose of
the manure beneath the surface and prevent manure from being directly
exposed to the atmosphere. A more technologically advanced method is
incorporating manure directly into slurry. Fifthly, the deeper injection of
manure underneath the surface can bring about better air quality.
2 Key Actions by Stakeholders
Citizens. There are several day-to-day life choices that people can
make to help improve air quality. First of all, it is important to conserve
energy at home, work, and in vehicles. People can refrain from excessive
heating or cooling and set to a moderate temperature. Secondly, people can
use alternatives to driving such as using public transportation like buses
and subways, riding bikes or walking, or doing a carpool if other modes
of transportation are not available. Thirdly, using eco-friendly products
(i.e. paints, cleaning products, personal care products) can help reduce the
release of VOCs to the atmosphere. Fourthly, if one possesses a car, boat,
or other devices with engines, keeping regular inspection to check the
status of the car and maintenance can help implement necessary control
devices that help reduce vehicle emission. Fifthly, people can refrain
from burning biomass at home, including burning wood at a fireplace and
burning waste or leaves in the backyard. Sixthly, they can buy energy-
efficient equipment and products for buildings and households. Seventhly,
asking or petitioning local officials for data on local air quality, as well as
92
controlling highly polluting facilities, can bring about changes. Eighthly,
it is an efficient way to organize trash clean-up and tree planning activities
as a community and refrain from overly consuming products. Finally,
fueling the vehicle at times of lower temperature (i.e. evening instead of
noon) can be helpful.
Chapter 7
Box 7.3. Public Opinion Matters

Increasing access to air pollution information through mobile phone
applications for air pollution information
Increasing voices of citizens for calling actions
Source: UN Photo/J Bleibtreu
Government. The role of the government is crucial for controlling air

pollution as it sets the national ambient air quality standards and various
economical subsidies program. There are actions that the government
can take to improve the air quality from a local, regional to a national
scale. The most important step to consider is incorporating the WHO
Air Quality Guideline into the policymaking process, for example, by
93
strengthening the national ambient air quality standards and management
system to fully protect the public’s health from air pollution. Updating
the policy with the newest findings is also vital. The second way is to
set up a detailed emission inventory of key targeted pollutants for each
sector and implement a well-organized monitoring system to track the
emission. These measures can help identify the major sources of emission
and be controlled if necessary. Thirdly, the government can implement
comprehensive air quality monitoring and measuring systems at local,
regional, and national levels. This system data can be used to inform the
public, annual air quality assessment report, and health assessment studies
to protect people from the adverse effects of air pollution. Fourthly, the
government can develop control strategies at different geographical
scales from local, regional to a national scale, and strengthen cooperation
among these three scales to best to tackle the air pollution problem. The
promotion of cooperation with neighboring countries and across the
globe is also an essential step to mitigate the transboundary impacts of air
pollution. Moreover, the government can invest more money in renewable
energy that emits less air pollutants. Lastly, interdisciplinary research and
education opportunities should be promoted by the government.
94
Box 7.4. China’s Plan to Reduce Air Pollution
China launched a bold plan to reduce air pollution in 2013 and reduced
PM2.5 and SO2 by 42% and 68% respectively in 74 major cities by 2018.
Chapter 7
An evaluation report by the Chinese Ministry of Ecology and Environment
summarized the impacts of policy measures on air pollution as follows:
1. Rule of Law: Improvement of legal framework, combining

administrative and judicial efforts, and strengthened law enforcement

2. Science and Technology Support: Revising air quality standards,
improving air quality monitoring network, improving pollution source
inventory and analysis, and identifying causes of severe air pollution
and solutions in each city
3. Comprehensive Emission Cuts: Upgrading industrial standards and
companies, industrial restructuring, optimizing energy structure,
pollution control of “fuel, road, vehicle,” and treatment of non-point
source pollution
4. Management Innovation: Management system reform, innovative
enforcement methods, carrying through responsibilities by provincial,
city and country governments, response to severe pollution by
forecasting and emergency response, improved economic policies,
and open environmental information
5. Social Participation: Easier information access, public interest
litigation, public awareness, reporting environmental complaints, and
engaging in decision making
Source: China Air Quality Improvement Report: 2013-2018, Ministry of Ecology and
Environment, China, 2019
95
Box 7.5. The Republic of Korea’s Comprehensive Management Plan on PM
The Republic of Korea aims to reach PM2.5 concentration to 16g/m3 by 2024,

which is a 35% reduction of PM2.5 concentration as compared to that of
2016 (26g/m3 ) through the following 15 major actions:
1. Implement Total Air Pollution Load Management System nationwide

2 . Reinforce inspection and control on emission by industrial enterprises
3. Encourage scrappage of old diesel vehicles and expand the supply of
low-emission vehicles
4. Reinforce the management standards for ships and ports
5. Reinforce the management of old construction equipment
6. Reduce PM emission from coal-based power stations
7. Transition to cleaner energy for power stations
8. Reinforce the management of emission from livestock waste
9. Expand the supply of low-NOx boiler
10. Implement a reinforced PM reduction management system during
high PM episodes
11. Improve the management of indoor air quality
12. Promote East-Asia cooperation on PM reduction
13. Promote and expand the practical cooperation mechanism
14. Support the businesses to develop PM reduction technology
15. Meet the social agreement through active participation of citizens
Actions on Air Quality: Policies and Programmes for Improving

Box 7.6.
Air Quality around the World
This publication offers an overview of the

progress being made to choose and perform
major actions that can substantially improve air
quality.
Read in full:
http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7677
96
Chapter 8
What are Regional and Global
Cooperation Mechanisms?
1 Regional Cooperation Mechanisms

2 Global Cooperation Mechanisms

Chapter 8
What are Regional and Global

Cooperation Mechanisms?
1 Regional Cooperation Mechanisms
Regional cooperation of air pollution is important as air pollutants

are transported across the borders and affect the air quality of neighboring
countries. The nature of these air pollutants increases the need for
a collective measure to control air pollution. Regional cooperation
mechanisms generally entail the promotion of sharing and standardization
of monitoring data, provision of collective measures to control targeted
air pollutants, smooth exchange of data, stronger scientific cooperation
among experts in different countries, as well as the preparation for
collective health and environmental assessment reports. Some examples of
regional cooperation mechanisms include the Convention on Long-range
Transboundary Air Pollution, ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze
Pollution, Acid Deposition Network in East Asia, and the North-East Asia
Clean Air Partnership.
The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution

(CLRTAP) was signed in 1979 as the first international treaty to deal
with air pollution on a broad regional basis. Since then, the Parties to the
Convention adopted eight protocols to guide the reduction of air pollutants
including sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds,
heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, ground-level ozone and
particulate matter. The Parties include 51 countries, namely the member
States of UNECE.
98
Box 8.1. Eight Protocols of the CLRTAP Convention
The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication, and Ground-

level Ozone:
Set up a national emission limitation from 2010 to 2020 for SO2, NOX, VOC, and NH3
Mandated the Parties to report annual emission inventory and provide emission
projection
Amended the following in 2012:
Extended the reduction commitment beyond 2020
Made an agreement to include PM (including BC) emission reduction
Created mandatory emission values for different activities (Annexes VI and XI)
Chapter 8
Established solvent management plans for activities (Annex VI)
Introduced flexibility to include new Parties (e.g. Eastern and South-East Europe,
the Caucasus and Central Asia)
The 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
What are Regional and Global Cooperation Mechanisms?

Focused on 16 substances (e.g. 11 pesticides, 2 industrial chemicals, and 3 contaminants)
Aimed to get rid of discharges and emissions of those 16 substances
Amended in 2009: Introduced 7 new substances, and made changes to annexes
The 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals:
Targeted three heavy metals of cadmium, lead and mercury
Amended in 2012: Introduced flexibility to add new countries and added more
stringency in controlling heavy metal emissions
The 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions:
Set sulphur emission limitations until 2010 and beyond
The 1991 Geneva Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic
Compounds or their Transboundary Fluxes:
Aimed to reduce VOCs with three options to meet the emission reduction target
Amended in 1996: Advised on control technology (Annex III) from off-road
transportation means
The 1988 Sofia Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their
Transboundary Fluxes:
Aimed to reduce NOX emission
Amended in 1996: Amended the technical annex on control technologies to off-
road transportation means
The 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their
Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30%:
Reduced sulphur emission by 30%
Further addressed in 1994 and 1999 protocols
The 1984 Geneva Protocol on Long-term Financing of the Cooperative Programme for
Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe
(EMEP):
Served as an instrument for international cost-sharing of monitoring programme
composed of three components
99
The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
(AATHP) was adopted in 2002 to reduce haze pollution, which is

mainly caused by land clearing for agricultural uses in South-East
Asia. The Agreement facilitates development and implementation
of measures, system monitoring, assessing, and warning, promotion
of knowledge and technology exchange, response to member States
affected by transboundary haze pollution, as well as the adoption of
legal, administrative and other relevant measures. Its members include 10
ASEAN member States and the ASEAN Secretariat serves as the interim
Coordinating Centre for Transboundary Haze Pollution Control (ACC).
The Agreement is also supported by the ASEAN Task Force on Peatlands
and ASEAN Haze Fund.
Box 8.2. ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution
Read in full:
http://haze.asean.org/2019/08/asean-agreement-
on- transboundary-haze-pollution-reprint-2019/
The Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia (EANET)

was established in 2001 as an intergovernmental initiative to create a
common understanding of the state of acid deposition problems caused by
sulfuric and nitric acids. Key activities include acid deposition monitoring,
compilation, evaluation, storage and provision of data, promotion of
quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) activities, implementation
of technical support and capacity building activities, and the promotion
of research and studies related to acid deposition problems. Its members
include 13 countries in South-East Asia and North-East Asia. The
Secretariat is hosted by UNEP Asia and the Pacific Office.
100
Chapter 8
What are Regional and Global Cooperation Mechanisms?
Figure 8.1. EANET Monitoring Sites (Source: EANET)
The North-East Asia Clean Air Partnership (NEACAP) was

launched in 2018 by member States of the North-East Asian Subregional
Programme for Environmental Cooperation (NEASPEC), which had
carried out technical projects on transboundary air pollution since mid-
1990s, to promote cooperation on science, policy, and technical aspects
of air pollution, and enhance information and experience exchange.
Key activities include exchanging relevant emission information and
data of target pollutants including particulate matter and ozone and their
precursors, coordinating with relevant mechanisms and synthesize their
results, and proposing potential technical and policy measures to tackle
air pollution. Members include six North-East Asian countries. The
Secretariat is hosted by UNESCAP East and North-East Asia Office.
2 Global Cooperation Mechanisms
In recent years, extending from regional cooperation, there is an

increasing call for collective inter-regional and global actions from
101
various international forums. The UN Environment Assembly Resolution
3/8 adopted in 2017 addressed the member States to strengthen

cooperation across governments and with UNEP to respond to air
pollution globally. WHO held the first Global Conference on Air Pollution
and Health from October 30 to November 30, 2018, to discuss how to
save lives through global actions that lead to the improvement of air
quality and climate change.
First WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution (2018) (Source: WHO)
Based on 40 years’ experience in facilitating regional cooperation,

CLRTAP also expands its global outreach. The 38th session of the
CLRTAP Executive Body in December 2018 held a special session,
“Global Event on Clear Air” to promote global cooperation towards clean
air. Non-members of UNECE, namely Argentina, Brazil, Ghana, India,
Mexico, Mongolia, Pakistan, and the Republic of Korea, attended this
global event.
Following this Global Event, the 39th session in 2019 decided to

establish a forum for international cooperation on air pollution. The
objective of this forum is to involve both ECE and non-ECE countries, as
well as organizations to facilitate international exchange of information
and mutual learning on both the scientific/technical and policy levels.
102
Chapter 9
Resources
1 Policy-related Reports
2 Health-related Reports
3 Climate-related Reports
4 Useful Websites

Chapter 9
Resources
1 Policy-related Reports
Mongolia Voluntary National Review Report 2019. Government of

Mongolia.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/
23342MONGOLIA_VOLUNTARY_NATIONAL_REVIEW_
REPORT_2019.pdf

UNECE. (2020). Annual Report 2019

UNEP. (2019). A Review of 20 Years’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing.
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya

UNEP. (2016). Actions on Air Quality – Policies and Programmes for
Improving Air Quality Around the World

UNEP. (2019). Air Pollution in Asia and the Pacific: Science-based
Solutions, United Nations Environment Programme

UNEP. (2017). Towards a Pollution-Free Planet Background Report.
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya

WHO. (2014). WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Household
Fuel Combustion. World Health Organization.
104

W HO Regional Office for Europe. (2016). Action Plan for the
Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases in the WHO
European Region 2016–2025. Copenhagen, Denmark.

WHO Regional Office for Europe. (2015). Residential Heating with
Wood and Coal: Health Impacts and Policy Options in Europe and
North America. Copenhagen, Denmark.
2 Health-related Reports
IHME. (2019). State of Global Air 2019: A Special Report on Global
Chapter 9
Exposure to Air Pollution and Its Disease Burden.

W HO. (2016). Ambient Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of
Resources
Exposure and Burden of Disease

WHO. (2018). Burden of Disease of Household Air Pollution for 2016.
Geneva, Switzerland.

WHO. (2018). Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution from Particulate
Matter for 2016. Summary of Results. Geneva, Switzerland.

WHO Regional Office for Europe. (2016). Health Risk Assessment of
Air Pollution – General Principles. Copenhagen. Denmark.
3 Climate-related Reports
IPCC (2018). Global Warming of 1.5°C. Geneva, Switzerland: World

Meteorological Organization.
105
4 Useful Websites

BreatheLife. (2020). BreatheLife – A Global Campaign for Clean Air.
BreatheLife. https://breathelife2030.org/

UN. (2020). International Day of Clean Air for blue skies 7 September.
United Nations.
https://www.un.org/en/observances/clean-air-day

UN. (2020). World Environment Day 5 June. United Nations.
https://www.un.org/en/observances/environment-day

UNEP. (2019). Air. UN Environment Programme.
https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/air

UNEP. (2020). UNEP Executive Director Letter on International Day
of Clean Air for blue skies. United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
https://www.ccacoalition.org/en/resources/unep-executive-director-
letter-international-day-clean-air-blue-skies

UNEP. (2020). Time for Nature – WED 2020 PSA. UN Environment
Programme.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC9V3x9HelwEk3Z6EknB_1Cg

UNGA. (2020). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 19
December 2019. United Nations General Assembly.
https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/74/212

US EPA. (2020). Air Topics | US EPA. United States Environmental
Protection Agency.
https://www.epa.gov/environmental-topics/air-topics
106
WHO. (2020). Air Pollution. World Health Organization.

https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1

WHO. (2018). Air Pollution and Health: How Will Our Children
Continue to Breathe? World Health Organization.
https://bit.ly/339ZZ4L

WHO. (2018). Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. Retrieved August
03, 2020, from https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health

WHO. (2018). Household Air Pollution and Health. Retrieved August
Chapter 9
03, 2020, from https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
household-air-pollution-and-health
Resources

WHO. (2020). 10 Ways You Can Fight Air Pollution. World Health
Organization.
https://www.who.int/airpollution/news-and-events/how-air-pollution-
is-destroying-our-health/10-ways-you-can-fight-air-pollution
107
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129
Air Pollution:
An Introduction to Its Causes, Effects, and Solutions
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Air Pollution:

An Introduction to Its Causes,

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea

Air Pollution: An Introduction to Its Causes, Effects, and Solutions

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Korea

2.1. Europe’s Exemplary Initiative for Controlling Ammonia Emission 2.2.

AATHP ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

Air Pollution: An Introduction to Its Causes, Effects, and Solutions

Air pollution is the world’s largest environmental threat to human

Source: UN Photo/Kibae Park

Against this backdrop, this Handbook was prepared as a reference for

1 Trend of Global Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution

Air Pollution: An Introduction to Its Causes, Effects, and Solutions

Current Air Pollution Situation and Trend

1 Trend of Global Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution

Air pollution is generally caused by gas-phase pollutants (e.g.,

2 Annual Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution by

The figure below exhibits the change in death rate in 1990 as

3 Global Air Pollution Exposure Level

The exposure to air pollution is particularly high for people living in

Figure 1.4. Proportion of Population Exposed to PM2.5 Concentration Level Exceeding

Air Pollution: An Introduction to Its Causes, Effects, and Solutions

What are the Most Common Air

1 Types of Pollutants: Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants

Air pollutants can

Definition and Properties of Ammonia. NH3 is a colorless toxic gas

What are the Most Common Air Pollutants?

Sources of Ammonia. Livestock agriculture, such as animal urine,

Source: Desai and Caudra/Science

Impacts of Ammonia on the Ecosystem. In the aquatic environment,

Impacts of Ammonia on Health. NH3 can also have an adverse impact

Europe’s Exemplary Initiative for Controlling Ammonia

The United Nations Economic Commission for

What are the Most Common Air Pollutants?

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Definition and Properties of Carbon Monoxide. CO is a poisonous,

CO. The major global sources of CO are biomass burning (e.g.,

Impact of Carbon Monoxide on Health. When CO enters the bloodstream,

Box 2.2. How to Prevent Carbon Monoxide Poisoning?

Install a carbon monoxide detector in an indoor environment (e.g.

Definition and Properties of Ozone. O3 is a highly reactive gas in the

What are the Most Common Air Pollutants?

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA

Sources of Ground-level Ozone. Ground-level O3 is classified as a

sunlight is the most intensive. Such a formation mechanism of ground-

Source: UNEP, 2019

Impacts of Ground-level Ozone on the Ecosystem. Ground-level O3 is

Impacts of Ground-level Ozone on Health. When a person breathes

What are the Most Common Air Pollutants?

Sources: A LA, EPA, and Scientific Magazine: Epidemiology, Environmental Health

Definition and Properties of Nitrogen Oxides. NOx is a group of

Sources of Nitrogen Oxides. NOx predominantly originates from

What are the Most Common Air Pollutants?

Impacts of Nitrogen Oxides on Health. NO2 is mainly associated with a

when they reach maturity than those who did not.

Box 2.3. Definitions of Aerosols, Particles, Haze, and Smog

Aerosols: Tiny particles dispersed/suspended in a gaseous environment.

Source: Seinfeld and Pandis, 2016

Particulate Matter (PM)

Definition and Properties of Particulate Matter. PM refers to a

2.1. Europe’s Exemplary Initiative for Controlling Ammonia Emission 2.2.

AATHP ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

2 Annual Death Rate Attributable to Air Pollution by

Figure 1.4. Proportion of Population Exposed to PM2.5 Concentration Level Exceeding

Install a carbon monoxide detector in an indoor environment (e.g.

Sources: A LA, EPA, and Scientific Magazine: Epidemiology, Environmental Health

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Methane (CH 4) and

Factors Responsible for Air Pollution: What Causes Air Pollution?

GHGs: About one-third of CH4 is from a natural source like emission

OX: Lightning forms NO in the atmosphere as it undergoes a rapid

M: Natural sources generate both primary and secondary PM.

SOX: The single greatest natural source of SO X is from volcanic

C O: CO is formed during an incomplete combustion process.

HGs: According to the IPCC, the transportation sector (on-road

NOX: The combustion process of gasoline and diesel fuels in mobile

NMVOCs: A mobile source emits the NMVOCs through tailpipe

P M: Both primary and secondary PMs are emitted from mobile

Factors Responsible for Air Pollution: What Causes Air Pollution?

CO: As the incomplete combustion of carbon fuel emits CO, power

NOX: Fuel combustion in stationary sources accounts for the greatest

NMVOCs: NMVOCs are disposed from various means, including

PM: Combustion of fossil fuel from stationary sources emits black

SOX: Fossil fuel combustion is a major contributor to SOX. Of the

NH3: Agricultural sector is the single greatest source of NH3. Animal

CO: Road traffic is a major source of CO in the ambient air. The

Factors Responsible for Air Pollution: What Causes Air Pollution?

NMVOCs: Everyday lives lead to the emission of NMVOCs. Area

PM: Paved and unpaved roads generate primary PM. Secondary PM

Binding to hemoglobin and interfering

Increase in ischemic stroke