Beginning Algebra 9th Edition Tobey Test Bank 1

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MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the
question.

Factor out the largest possible common


factor.
1) 24m 9 - 28m 6 + 16m 3
A) m 3 (24m 6 - 28m 3 +
16) B) No common
factor
C) 4(6m 9 - 7m 6 +
4m 3 ) D) 4m 3 (6m 6 -
7m 3 + 4)
Answer: D

2) 20x + 10
A) 10(2x)
B) 2(10x + 5)
C) 10(2x + 1)
D) 5(4x + 2)
Answer: C

3) 30x4 y + 42xy5
A) xy(30x3 + 42y4 )
B) 6xy(5x3 + 7y4 )
C) 6x(5x 3 y + 7y5 )
D) 6y(5x4 +
7xy4 ) Answer: B

4) 32p + 8q - 8
A) No common
factor
B) 8p(4 + q -
1) C) 8(4p + q)
D) 8(4p + q -
1) Answer: D

5) 21y3 - 9y2 + 15y


A) 3(7y3 - 3y2 +
5y) B) y(21y2 - 9y
+ 15)
C) 3y(7y2 - 3y + 5)
D) 3y(7y3 - 3y2 +
5y) Answer: C

6) 24x7 y8 - 12x4 y5 + 8x2 y2


A) 4x2 (6x5 y8 - 3x2 y5 + 2y2 )
B) 4x2 y2 (6x5 y6 - 3x2 y3 + 2)
C) 4(6x7 y8 - 3x4 y5 + 2x2 y2 )
D) No common
factor
2
Answer: B

3
7) 72x9 y9 - 80x5 y5 - 48x 2 y3
A) 8x2 (9x7 y9 - 10x3 y5 -
6y3 ) B) 8x2 y3 (9x7 y6 -
10x3 y2 - 6)
C) -8x2 y3 (-9x7 y6 - 10x3 y2 +
6) D) 8(9x9 y9 - 10x5 y5 -
6x2 y3 )
Answer: B

8) 36m 9 - 40m 7 + 12m 2


A) 4m 2(9m 7 - 10m 5 + 3)
B) m 2 (36m 7 - 40m 5 + 12)
C) -4m 2 (9m 7 + 10m 5 - 3)
D) 4(9m 9 - 10m 7 + 3m 2 )
Answer: A

9) 60m 7 - 24m 4 + 36m 2


A) 12(5m 7 - 2m 4 + 3m 2 )
B) -m 2 (-60m 5 - 24m 2 -
36) C) m 2 (60m 5 - 24m 2 +
36)
D) 12m 2 (5m 5 - 2m 2 + 3)
Answer: D

10) 144x7 y7 + 64x2 y5 - 80x 5 y2


A) 16x2 (9x5 y7 + 4y5 - 5x3 y2 )
B) x2 y2 (144x5 y5 + 64y3 -
80x3 ) C) 16x2 y2 (9x5 y5 + 4y3 -
5x 3 )
D) 16(9x7 y7 + 4x2 y5 - 5x5 y2 )
Answer: C

11) x(y + 15) + 8(y


+15) A) 15y(x +
8)
B) (xy + 15x) + (8y +
120) C) 8x(y +15)
D) (y +15)(x +
8) Answer: D

12) w(z - 3) - 10(z - 3)


A) (z - 3)(w +
10) B) (z - 3)(w -
10) C) 10w(z - 3)
D) (wz - 3w) - (10z - 30)
Answer: B

4
13) 3a(a - b) + (a -
b) A) 3a(a - b)
B) (3a 2 + 3b) + (a -
b) C) (a - b)(3a + 1)
D) 4a(a -
b) Answer: C

14) pq(p - 8) + (p - 8)
A) (p2 q - 8pq) + (p -
8) B) (p - 8)(pq - 1)
C) pq(p - 8)
D) (p - 8)(pq + 1)
Answer: D

15) 9(y + 2) - x(y + 2)


A) (y + 2)(9 + x)
B) (y + 2)(9 - x)
C) (9y + 18) - (xy +
2x) D) (y - 2)(x - 9)
Answer: B

16) s(t2 - 12) + 7(t2 - 12)


A) (st2 - 12s) + (7t2 -
84) B) 7s(t2 - 12)
C) (t2 - 12)(s +
7) D) (t2 - 12)(s
- 7)
Answer: C

17) m 2 (n - 15) - (n -
15) A) m 2 (n - 15)
B) (n - 15)(m 2 - 1)
C) (m 2 n - 15m 2 ) - (n -
15) D) (n - 15)(m 2 + 1)
Answer: B

Factor by grouping.
18) 2x + 14 + xy + 7y
A) (y + 7)(x + 2)
B) (x + 7)(2 + y)
C) (x + 7y)(2 + y)
D) (y + 7)(2x +
y)
Answer: B

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the needs and interests of mankind. Franklin recognized the value of the
common people and thought to teach them by clothing his ideas in
simplicity.
Companionship is the foundation of humanity and the communion of
human souls, a mutual interchange of acquired ideas (thoughts) and of
traits of understanding which increases the mass of human knowledge
and skill infinitely. If humanity is no empty name, suffering mankind
must rejoice at the advance in medical science. Human society founded
on virtue must stand. The highest and most fruitful wisdom arises from
the (common) people because they have felt need and suffering, they
have been driven here and there, they have tasted the sweet fruit of
trouble and they know how to care for others.
The kinship to the spirit and philosophy pervading Shaftesbury is here
quite evident.

REFERENCES TO SHAFTESBURY

I: 182, 303, 305, 307, 524.


IV: 367.
V: 284, 316, 388, 390, 396, 490.
VII: 113, 236.
VIII: 218, 311, 461.
IX: 306.
X: Note to page 232; 305.
XI: 123, 205; note to page 220.
XV: 199
XVI: 26, 403, 407.
XVII: 154, 249, 274, 326.
XX: 308.
XXII: Note to page 210; note to page 334.
XXIII: 132d, 132, 136, 144, 151; note to page 155; 396.
XXIV: 219.
XXVII: 397.
XXX: 17, 32, 407.
XXXII: 33, 199.

ROUSSEAU AND HERDER


IV, 369: In discussing his ideal book for the development of humanity,
Herder finds that important points would be rules and exhortations for
the development of body and soul; in this he says: ist Rousseau ein
grosser Lehrer.
IV, 371: He will imitate Rousseau zealously; will read him,
contemplate him, nationalize him.
V, 37: Herder agrees with Rousseau in that language is not the result
of convention and agreement.
VI, 250: Reference is made to Rousseau’s Pygmalion.
VII, 65: Herder in his discussion concerning the fall of man quotes
Rousseau with reference to the tree of knowledge and the fall of man.
VII, 74: Herder calls Rousseau one of the greatest lights of his times.
X, 298: Herder says Rousseau’s Confessions and other writings
contain excellent passages for philosophy and natural theology. Many of
these writings have suffered evil repute (übel berüchtigt.)
XV, 248: Herder calls Rousseau a great, wonderful man.
XVI, 26: Herder calls Rousseau a teacher of wisdom and morals.
XVII, 190: Herder speaks of Rousseau as a good man who
exaggerates and who in his phantasy is an idealist for the good.
XVII, 326: Herder says in his own day (bis in unsern Tagen)
Rousseau’s Social Contract has had an effect that its author had scarcely
expected.
XVIII, 359 and 371: Herder says that in his own time (in unserer Zeit),
Rousseau’s Confessions have aroused a great sensation. He quotes from
them.
XVIII, 372: Sein Geist war stolz, seine Grundsätze waren edel, p. 374,
he speaks of Rousseau as a tree having brought forth beautiful fruit and
blossoms.
XXII, 151: Herder approves Rousseau’s views in the introduction to
Nouvelle Héloise, views on poetic language as a natural human art.
XXII, 161: He calls Rousseau one with great ability to express the
thoughts of his heart, and Herder considers this ability peculiar to
Naturmenschen.
XXIII, 272: Herder says much that Rousseau has said in Emile against
the use of La Fontaine’s Fables for youth is right.
XXV, 601: Herder translates from Rousseau’s Consolations.
XXV, 631: Herder has a translation of Rousseau’s “Shepherd Song,”
Consolations, p. 97, No. 53.
XXV, 632: Translation of “Song of Desdemona,” Consolations, p.
125, No. 65.
XXIX, 256: Herder eulogizes Rousseau in the poem Der Mensch.
XXIX, 265: Herder calls upon Rousseau to help him know himself.
XXX, 30: In regretting the fact that the taste and desire for
overrefinement was causing wholesome simplicity to be displaced in
educational methods and life in general, Herder calls attention to
Rousseau and interprets him thus:

Rousseau ruft also ein philosophisches Wehe über unser


Geschlecht, das die Tugend, Menschlichkeit und Wahrheit vom
Altar gestürzt hat, und statt dessen eine lächerlich verkleidete
Puppe des Wohlstandes anbetet. Dieser falsche Anstand hat die
Schöpfung verdorben; denn was sind seine Vasallen?

XXXII, 41: Herder calls Rousseau “our patriotic friend of mankind.”


XXXII, 147: Herder says only Rousseau could dig to the knowledge
of the human heart.

“DER MENSCH”

Line 45 ff.: Herder shows that he is influenced by the eighteenth-


century demand for a return to nature in general and by Rousseau’s
philosophy in particular in a portion of this poem:
1. He prizes the universal and fundamental instincts and longings of
man which show him to be a simple product of nature:

Den Menschen der Natur den keiner je gesehen und jeder in


sich fühlt und jeder wünscht zu sehen ... den sing’ ich.
2. The primitivism of this nature-man is eulogized:

den Menschen ohne Kunst


voll Seele ohne Witz, gut ohne Göttergunst,
voll Menschheit ohne Scham, voll Wahrheit ohne Lügen
ohn’ alle Tugend fromm und glücklich ohn’ Vergnügen—
Den sing’ ich.

Sohn der Natur o Mensch—blühst du in Edens Flur?


halb Pflanze und halb Thier.

3. The feelings are set up as a standard:

blos durch Empfindung wahr, schön durch die Wahrheit nur.


Nicht weniger nicht mehr als Mensch! so ist dein Leben
dir zum Gefühl, zur Ruh, zur Wirksamkeit gegeben.

4. Physical environment is to have free sway in shaping this ideal


man:

wie zeigt sich deine Spur?


im Schnee der Eskimaux wo edelfrei die Wilden
Empfindung und Gesezz nach Jagd und Eis sich bilden.

5. Rousseau is eulogized:

gebar dich Rousseaus Geist? sahn dich verblichne Zeiten?


...
O Rousseau! den die Welt im Vorurtheil verkandt,
das wahre grosse Maas des Menschen in der Hand
wägst du was edel sey wenns gleich das Volk verdammet

The eulogy continues by praising Rousseau’s condemnation of wealth


and pomp and false glory and, finally:

Du Prediger in der Wüste, fühlst dass du edel bist wenn niemand


dich auch grüsste.

ROUSSEAU AND HERDER


Discourses.—In his Discourse concerning the Arts and Sciences
Rousseau insists that our outward lives should be true expressions of our
inner feelings. This harmony between expression and feeling began its
decline under the influences of overrefinement and of tastes that had
been distorted by excessive civilization. Therefore, he argues, it is the
common man, the crude rustic, rather than the polished and elegant
courtier who reveals his heart in all purity; we may deal with this
common man without suspicions, fears, reserves, and treacheries. It was
the simplicity of ancient times when men lived in a primitive state that
bred innocence and virtue, courage and genuine humanity. In this
discourse there is in general a pointed attack upon literary and scientific
training and polish.
The discourse which deals with the inequality of man is based in
general upon the same doctrine which furnishes the ground for the attack
on the sciences and the arts. It attempts to show us what men would have
been had they remained in their original state. This original state was one
in which man lived much like the dumb animals; forests and rocks,
running brooks and springs, furnished abode by day and bed and shelter
for the night, and among these were to be found the meat and drink
which produced strong healthy bodies; bodies robust because their
nourishment was simple. This was a primitive state which had remained
true to nature by not advancing at all or at least not more than a single
degree beyond the original. In such a state man by reason of both his
physical hardiness and his native animal instincts and alertness has all
his faculties, these operating with a force and fineness unknown to the
highly civilized man. Here, as in the essay on the social contract, the
philosopher is opposed to a superior ruling power and arbitrary
establishment of laws.
Social contract.—In the Social Contract in which Rousseau’s social
state is presented as the superior form of government, men had been
brought to realize their dependence upon one another and to know that
co-operation was the true basis of welfare. The doctrine of individuality
which made of man a self-centered unit was weak in that it offered little
protection for the individual. For this individual, born with natural
freedom, was in danger of exercising this freedom to the detriment of the
rights of others.
In giving up himself and his rights to the group, the individual became
subject to no one person, but gained certain rights over each member of
the community. In this compact there is a union of individuals, each
working for the good of the body politic, each a sovereign with civil
liberty and moral freedom.
Thus the restrictions which would be imposed upon members of
society by one supreme authority were avoided. By this means the
general will worked for the general good of humanity.
But the idea of progress implied not only the teaching that the good of
one must be the good of all, but meant also: (1) That man was not self-
sufficient and therefore could come to fullest development only in the
group. (2) That the seeds of individuality lay within man as a universal
element and were nurtured and brought to flower by the peculiar touch of
him who was expressed in their flowering. The fundamental tendencies
in mankind being allowed to unfold, the man will be good; this goodness
is the essential thing in his manhood, and it is natural.
Emile.—The keynote of Rousseau’s doctrine here is that of absolute
reliance upon nature without impeding or diverting her progress at any
point. He is in accord with the epistemological side of Locke’s
philosophy, and therefore demands that Emile shall have his senses well
developed. He is to have a strong vigorous body, full of courage and
hardihood. Moral education is to be the result of natural discipline
carried on in a sort of laissez-faire way. In general, Emile gets his
education by being thrown into contact with nature and being allowed to
observe and feel the phenomena of a crude environment, and by
expressing directly what he has learned at first hand from this teacher.
Emile, then, is shaped by primitive forces just as the simple, common
man in the Social Contract and the Inequality. These made the simple,
common man the epitome of that which was of greatest worth to
humanity.
Origin of language.—In fixing the beginnings of speech, Rousseau
says we can believe that necessities dictated the first movements, and
that passions called forth the first voices. The genius of oriental
languages, the most ancient known to us, have nothing in them that is
methodical or reasoned out; they are vivacious and figurative. It is
evident that the origin of languages is not at all due to the primary needs
of man. The origin is due to the moral needs, to the passions. It is neither
hunger nor thirst, but love, hate, pity, or anger which have called forth
from men the first voices. Fruits do not steal away from our hands at all;
one may nourish one’s self with them without talking; we may follow in
silence the prey of which we wish to make a repast; but to move a young
heart, to repel an unjust aggressor, nature dictates accents, cries, and
tones of resentment. It was for this reason that the oldest words were
invented.
The following quotations affirm in a general way the preceding
statements of Rousseau’s philosophy:

L’astronomie est née de la superstition, de la haine,


de la flatterie, du mensonge;
la géométrie, de l’avarice;
la physique, d’une vaine curiosité;
toute et la morale même de l’orgueil humain.
Les sciences et les arts doivent donc leur naissance à nos vices.

Discours sur les Sciences et les Arts, Part. II:

O vertu! science sublime des âmes simples, faut-il donc tant de


peines et d’appareil pour te connaître? Tes principes ne sont-ils
pas graves dans tous les coeurs? et ne suffit-il pas pour apprendre
tes lois de rentrer en soi-même et d’écouter la voix de sa
conscience dans le silence des passions?

Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi les


hommes:

Il suit de cet exposé que l’inégalité, étant presque nulle dans


l’état de nature tire sa force et son accroissement du
developpement de nos facultés et des progrès de l’esprit humain,
et devient enfin stable et légitime par l’établissement de la
propriété et des lois.
Il suit encore que l’inégalité morale autorisée par le seul droit
positif, est contraire au droit naturel toutes les fois qu’elle ne
concourt pas en même proportion avec l’inégalité physique;
distinction qui détermine suffisamment ce qu’on doit penser à cet
égard de la sorte d’inégalité qui règne parmi tous les peuples
policés, puis-qu’il est manifestement contre la loi de nature.

The primitivism which stands out in Rousseau’s two discourses is to


be seen in a general way in Herder’s dislike for the higher culture that
would discourage spontaneous outbursts of human feelings as they
appear in the so-called cruder forms of literature; a culture that would
displace these by a smoother product born of reflection and regulated by
set rules and formulas.
He has an admiration for the instinct which to him is always to be
found in women, children, and fools, and which he sees as the
foundation of a naïveté more valuable as a part of mental equipment than
anything which could be substituted by processes of training and culture.
Rousseau’s attempt to return to nature for concrete everyday life finds
its approval with Herder, but the general idea takes a new turn. He finds
in it the inspiration for scientific methods of studying art, history, and
philosophy. His line of investigation in these will be by way of nature;
i.e., man in his primitive abode; man in the hands of nature; man as the
product of his environment.
The opposition to a central and superior governing power, which is
found in the Social Contract, to be opposed to the natural method of
community life, finds its echo in Herder in frequent tirades against the
policirte Nationen. It is the unpolicirte Nationen to whom nature has
given a certain solace that can scarcely be found in Menschliche
Künsteleien.
The Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität carry a constant strain,
which makes the interdependence between the individual and the group a
requisite for well-being. This theory, we have seen, finds a distinct place
in Shaftesbury’s philosophy before Rousseau had voiced it as his own.
Emile’s senses have been highly developed by his contact with nature,
and it is this sharpness and exactness of the senses that Herder extols so
much in primitive peoples. They are both cause and effect of the work
which nature achieves by her most trusted handmaiden; namely,
environment.
In discussing the origin of language, even though Herder at certain
points takes issue with Rousseau, it is very clear that he is influenced by
the latter and is in agreement with him to considerable extent.
Rousseau has pursued the question of the origin of language, not only
in his essay bearing this title, but also in the Discourse on Inequality.
The first sentences of Herder’s essay Abhandlung über den Ursprung
der Sprache run not unlike a passage in Rousseau’s Discours just
mentioned:

Schon als Thier, hat der Mensch Sprache. Alle heftigen, und
die heftigsten unter den heftigen, die schmerzhaften
Empfindungen seines Körpers, alle starken Leidenschaften seiner
Seele äussern sich unmittelbar in Geschrei, in Töne, in wilde,
unartikulirte Laute.
Le premier langage de l’homme, le langage le plus universel, le
plus énergique et le seul dont il eut besoin avant qu’il fallût
persuader des hommes assemblés est le cri de la nature. Comme
ce cri n’était arraché que par une sorte d’instinct dans les
occasions pressantes, pour implorer du secours dans les grands
dangers ou du soulagement dans les maux violents, il n’était pas
d’un grand usage dans le cours ordinaire de la vie, où règnent des
sentiments plus modérés.

Further, in his own essay, Herder says, that as our tones of nature are
for the purpose of expressing passion, it is natural that they should
become also the elements of all that which is emotional, and if we call
this immediate sound of feeling speech, then, says he, it is easy to find
the origin of speech natural.
But although all animals have a speech by which they sound forth
their feelings, such speech will never become human language until
reason, understanding (Verstand), arises to use these tones with direct
intention.
In so far, then, as the very beginnings of language are cries of passion,
Herder is in accord with Rousseau in both essays in which the latter
discusses the question.

REFERENCES TO ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES

I: 22, 47, 96, 484.


II: 229, 269, 276, 313.
III: 279.
IV: 52, 145, 369, 371.
V: 20, 21, 33, 37, 44, 58, 85, 114, 117, 120, 147, 168, 314, 394,
452, 583, 640, 643.
IV: 163; note to page 250.
VII: 65, 74.
VIII: 328.
IX: 354, 474.
X: 298, 306, 307, 352.
XII: Note to page 198.
XIII: 265.
XV: 35, 248, 495.
XVI: 26.
XVII: 8, 97, 190, 309, 326.
XVIII: 91, 359, 371.
XX: 288, 293.
XXII: 151, 161.
XXIII: 231, 272.
XXV: Note to page 601; 631, 632.
XXIX: 256, 265.
XXX: 30.
XXXII: 17, 33, 41, 75, 147, 185, 233.

CONCLUSION

The character and frequency of the references which Herder makes in


his writings to the philosophers of the eighteenth century show that he
knew the predominant lines of thought which characterized the entire
period of the enlightenment. The outstanding eighteenth-century theories
which seem to have a place in Herder’s conception of das Volk are well
epitomized in the teachings of Leibniz, Shaftesbury, and Rousseau.
Herder’s own exposition of a part of Leibniz’ contribution to thought
shows how he found here some things which were in agreement with his
own fundamental ideas concerning innate potentialities.
The praise given to Shaftesbury’s principal ideas of the harmonious
development of the individual and of humanity lead us to believe that
Shaftesbury had exercised an influence on the German writer.
The numerous eulogistic outbursts over Rousseau, the coinciding in
many writings by both men of details concerning the essential elements
in man’s nature, concerning primitivism, liberty, and the ideal state, show
that Herder was fully imbued with the spirit of Rousseau, expressed in
the cry, “back to nature.”
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSION

Both the word Volk and the various ideas for which it stands are old
and are to be found among many peoples. The parent tongue, the Indo-
European, seems to have had a form which meant “full,” “many.” The
“many” easily became the “common,” so that the “many” as opposed to
the “few” was parallel with the “common,” “vulgar” as opposed to the
“upper classes,” the “aristocracy.” This meaning seems to have been a
fundamental one in both ancient and modern times.
The shift in meaning of the Germanic word Volk, which extends the
sense to that of “nation,” has been more general and more permanent in
German than in English. It is with these two main conceptions, that is
Volk, the common people, and Volk, nation, that we are concerned in this
study of Herder. Many examples of Herder’s use of the term Volk show
that he makes the word an exact synonym for nation. In many other
examples it is used as an equivalent term for nation. In both of these uses
“nation” with Herder means those bound together only by the same laws
and customs whether related by consanguinity or not.
But Herder frequently makes Volk stand more specifically for those
who are of the same blood, and in that sense identifies it with “race.” We
have seen that these are common uses of the term Volk and the idea
conveyed by it, uses which occur in many languages and among many
civilized peoples.
Now Herder, while using the term Volk in the commonly accepted
sense of nation, has always firmly in mind certain attributes and powers
which characterize groups as such. They have power to rule; they have
power to express themselves in peculiar ways; they have Nationalgeist.
This Nationalgeist in the final analysis is the outgrowth of physical and
social environment and conforms to the dictates of these in all its
peculiarities.
In exercising their powers and general spirit, they act as an entity
according to Herder’s conception. He makes the group a single being, an
individual. In Herder’s day when ideas of nationalism had no definite
shape, this added sense of the meaning of nation meant clearly that he
was a forerunner in the realm of philosophy, and gave to Herder’s
conception of Volk, even in this commonly used sense, a unique place.
Individuality, personality, distinguished nations just as these traits mark
out human beings.
Herder makes use of the term Volk in a second sense. Here he means a
group within a civilized nation which forms the mass below the
aristocracy and the governing class. This use likewise is to be found in
all languages of civilized peoples.
But Herder is emphatic in noting that this group has not been affected
by expurgating and eliminating influences to the fullest extent to which
these have operated. It has therefore been more thoroughly the product of
natural environment. In the proportion to which innate tendencies have
not been checked and warped, individual traits have had free
development. Therefore spontaneous personality characterizes this group
to a higher degree than it does the more cultured. Here Herder makes
prominent his philosophy that unhampered nature is the most potent
force in the development of this spontaneous personality.
In his collection of Volkslieder, Herder does not confine himself to
those which are marked by primitivism, but includes also many
selections of polished literary form. But these all submit to a
classification which takes into account the true expression of universal
and fundamental feelings common to all humanity. Here Herder’s mind
is fixed on that power which the group has to express itself, to express
that which is fundamental and therefore to show forth its personality.
Ossian’s people and the Ancient Hebrews are products of an
environment which is most effective in shaping Herder’s ideal Volk:
namely, nature unaltered by the hand of man. As a result of such rough,
crude surroundings, these peoples have developed into simple,
harmonious beings, and possess all the elements which Herder considers
essential in man’s nature. He finds they are natural because they are
primitive, and they possess superior traits because they are natural. They
have the power to give expression to their personality and have exercised
this power in a marked way in their unique literatures. The individuality
of each group is sharply defined in the songs of each.
Now how does Herder arrive at the requirements to which he makes
his Volk conform?
His philosophy as expressed in Erkennen und Empfindung recognizes
inborn forces in the individual which are potentialities differing in kind
and degree of working power in each person. These varying
potentialities he makes the constituencies of the senses which are
accordingly different in scope and capacity in every human being.
It must be noted that Herder does not regard these original “forces” as
constituted by the senses; they are prior to and more fundamental than
the senses. The phenomenon Reiz, stimulus, which causes the smallest
fiber either in plant or animal to contract or expand, repeats itself in the
nerves of each one of the senses. But this Reiz is in the beginning, and
without it there would be no Kräfte, no nerve, no sense organ. This Reiz,
then, is identical with the innate forces, Kräfte.
They control and direct the development of the senses and are,
therefore, the very beginning of that variation in sense functioning which
initiates individuality.
It is in the treatment of these original Kräfte that Herder gives his own
turn to Leibniz’ theory of the monad.
The principle of the monad was highly abstract, and when Herder took
it over he gave to it a more concrete application. It became the principle
of innate and varying potentialities. The monad was not controlled and
directed by a force outside itself, according to Herder, but by a power
within, and as the power within was never exactly alike in any two
beings, no two could develop just alike. Here are Herder’s foundations
for individuality and personality.
A perfection resulting from the unfolding of the content of the
individual life and the shaping of its originality are seen in Shaftesbury’s
thought when he makes morality consist of the rich and full expression
of individual powers in a beautiful and sovereign personality. The
individual system as seen in one man in all its physical and mental
elements is related to something external to himself. Altruistic
inclinations are an important part of the natural endowment of every
human being.
Now Herder sees that this unfettered development of natural
endowments will come to its fullest only in relations to others. It is the
essence of his Humanität. He goes further than Shaftesbury in that he
finds in this tie, which unites the individual to the group, that which is
universal and fundamental. He endows his Volk with sentiments which
are universal and fundamental. It is this universal and fundamental which
makes such expressions as “Hamlet’s soliloquy” find a place among the
songs of Herder’s Volk.
We have seen that when Herder lays emphasis on the feelings, when
he is opposed to arbitrary and restrictive government, when he elevates
the crude and primitive, his system of thought is in agreement with that
of Rousseau. But Herder makes an advance in seeking standards in
processes actually or believed to be found in Nature. His line of
investigation in history, art, and philosophy will be by way of the natural
man, i.e., the primitive. His Volk, then, because of their power to express
their personality freely, give him a theory of art; art must be an
expression of personality.
Both Shaftesbury and Rousseau relate the development of the
individual to the group but neither makes the altruism or interdependence
such an impelling force as does Herder. His Volk, conscious of their own
frailty, will have sympathy and a general regard for the needs and
interests of mankind. This consciousness will be not merely a passive
altruism nor an interdependence of material and economic necessity, but
it will be heightened by an ideal love for humanity, which will force to
active and positive efforts to make humanity the highest possible.
When we eliminate details, when we regard only those elements upon
which Herder’s thought seems to be continuous, those qualifications of
which he never seems to loose sight, whether he idealizes his Volk
through his philosophy, his song collections, his study of the works of
other philosophers, or through the analysis of concrete examples, we
come to the following as essentials in Herder’s Volk: Das Volk is a group
whose innate, natural tendencies have been allowed to unfold and
develop unhindered and unwarped by civilization. They are people who
have come into contact with various forces of nature in the physical
world and have been strongly influenced by their natural environment.
They, as an entity, possess: (1) Individuality, personality; (2) a sense of
that which is universal and fundamental among mankind; (3) common
feelings of relationship to humanity; (4) strong religious sentiments.
They are wont to express themselves freely, fully, truthfully, in various
forms of art, the individual specimens of which find their test of
genuineness in the response which they receive from the group out of
which they arose.
In this ideal conception Herder sees the best that mankind can
produce.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Schiller, Jungfrau von Orleans, I, p. 3.
[2] Piccolomini, II, p. 7.
[3] Kampf mit dem Drachen.
[4] Wildenbruch.
[5] Goethe, Faust, I.
[6] Fénélon, Télémaque, XXIV.
[7] Bible, Jérémie, XXXI, 33.
[8] La Bruyère, IX.
[9] Dr. Martin Schütze has analyzed this feature of Herder’s philosophy,
“Fundamental Ideas in Herder’s Thought,” Modern Philosophy, XVIII; June,
October, 1920.
[10] References to these discussions: Herder’s Sämmtliche Werke, Suphan,
volume and page: I, 437; II, 119, 132, 168, 182, 203, 259, 322, 324, 331, 387,
416; VI, 21; VIII, 99, 216, 391; IX, 317, 543; XI, 297; XII, 334; XIV, 103,
263; XVI, 323; XVIII, 446; XXIII, 569; XXIV, 232, 301, 302; XXVII, 180.
[11] References to these discussions: Herder’s Sämmtliche Werke, Suphan,
volume and page: I, 258; VI, 1; XI, 215; XII, 1.
[12] Ossian, V, 325.
[13] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 173.
[14] Ossians Gedichte, Lieder .... V, 196.
[15] Ossians Gedichte, V, 197.
[16] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 28.
[17] Ancient Hebrews, I, 258.
[18] Ossian, V, 326.
[19] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 27.
[20] Ossian, V, 324.
[21] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 22.
[22] Ossian, V, 324.
[23] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 292.
[24] Ossian, V, 182.
[25] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 227.
[26] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 228. (die Ebräische Sprache).
[27] Ossian, XVIII, 457.
[28] Ancient Hebrews, I, 262.
[29] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 8.
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