NFPA1081 Standard 6.3.

3 Utili ze master stream appli ances, gi ven an assi gnment, an exti ngui shi ng
agent, and a master stream devi ce and suppl y hose, so that the appliance i s set up
Inc ipie nt Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r correctl y and the agent i s appli ed as assi gned.
5.3.1 * Attack an i nci pi ent stage fi re, gi ven a handli ne fl owi ng up to 473 L/mi n (125 (A) Requi site Knowl edge. Correct operation of master stream appliances, uses for
gpm), appropri ate equipment, and a fi re si tuati on, so that the fi re i s approached master stream appliances, tacti cs usi ng master stream appliances, sel ection of the
safel y, exposures are protected, the spread of fire i s stopped, agent appli cati on i s master stream appli ance for different fi re situati ons, the effect of master stream
effecti ve, the fi re i s exti ngui shed, and the area of ori gi n and fi re cause evi dence are appliances on search and rescue, ventil ati on procedures, and property conserva
preserved. tion.
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. Types of handli nes used for attacking inci pi ent fires, (B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to correctl y put i n servi ce a master stream appli
precauti ons to be foll owed when advanci ng handli nes to a fi re, observabl e ance and evaluate and forecast a fi re's growth and devel opment.
results that a fi re stream has been properl y appli ed, dangerous buil di ng condi 6.3.5* Control a fl ammabl e gas fi re operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven an
tions created by fi re, pri nci pl es of exposure protecti on, and dangers such as assi gnment, a handli ne, personal protecti ve equi pment, and tool s, so that crew
exposure to products of combu sti on resul ti ng from fi re condi ti on. integri ty i s mai ntai ned, contents are i dentifi ed, the fl ammabl e gas source i s
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to recogni ze inherent hazards rel ated to the controlled or i sol ated, hazardous conditi ons are recogni zed and acted upon, and team
materi al 's confi gurati on; operate handli nes; prevent water hammers when safety i s mai ntained.
shutting down nozzles; open, close, and adjust nozzl e fl ow; advance charged and (A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Characteri sti cs of flammable gases, components of
uncharged hoses; extend handli nes; operate handlines; eval uate and modify flammabl e gas systems, effects of heat and pressure on cl osed contai ners, boiling
r appli cati on for maxi mum penetrati on; asse ss patterns for ori gi n determi na -ft; and liquid expanding vapor expl osi on (BLEVE) si gns and effects, methods for i dentify
eval uate for complete exti ngui shment. [ • 13.3* Utili ze master stream appli ances, ing contents, water stream usage and demands for pressuri zed gas fi res, what to
gi ven an assi gnment, an exti ngui shi ng agent, and a master stream devi ce, so that the do i f the fi re i s prematurel y exti ngui shed, al ternati ve acti ons rel ated to vari ous
agent i s applied to the fi re as assi gned. hazards, and when to retreat.
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. Safe operati on of master stream appli ances, uses for (B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to execute effecti ve advances a nd retreats, appl y
master stream appli ances, tacti cs usi ng fi xed master stream appli ances, and vari ous techni ques for water appli cation, asse ss gas storage contai ner integrity
property conservati on. and changi ng conditi ons, operate control val ves, and choose effecti ve procedures
when condi ti ons change.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to put i nto servi ce a fi xed master stream appli
ance, and to eval uate and forecast a fi re's growth and devel opment. 6.3.9 * Exti ngui sh a Cl ass C (ei ectri cal ) fi re as a member of a team, gi ven an
assi gnment, a Cl ass C fi re -exti ngui shi ng appli ance/exti ngui sher, and personal
protecti ve equi pment, so that the proper type of Cl ass C agent i s sel ected for the
A dv a nc ed Ext e rior Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r 6.2 .3* Attack an conditi on, sel ected agent i s correctl y appli ed to the fuel, fi re i s exti ngui shed,
exteri or fi re operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven a water source, a handli ne, re-i gniti on i s prevented, team protecti on i s mai ntai ned, and the hazard i s faced until
personal protecti ve equi pment, tool s, and an assi gnment, so that team integrity i s retreat to safe haven i s reached.
mai ntai ned, the attack li n e i s correctl y depl oyed for advancement, access i s gai ned (A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Methods by whi ch Cl ass C agent prevents or control s a
into the fire area, appropri ate appli cati on practi ces are used, the ti re i s approached hazard; methods by whi ch Cl ass C fires are de-energi zed; causes of i nj uries from
in a safe manner, attack techni ques facili tate suppressi on gi ven the l evel of the fi re, Cl ass C fi re fi ghti ng on li ve Cl ass C fi res wi th Cl ass A agents and the Cl ass C
hi dden fi res are l ocated and controll ed, the correct body posture i s mai ntai ned, agents; the exti ngui shi ng agents' characteri sti cs, uses, and li mitations; the advan
hazards are avoi ded or managed, and the fi re i s brought under control . tages and di sadvantages of de -energi zi ng as using wat er fog nozzl es on a Cl ass A
(A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Pri nci pl es of fire streams; types, design, operati on, or Cl ass B fi re; and methods to reduce or avoi d hazards.
nozzl e pressure effects, and fl ow capabiliti es of nozzl es; precauti ons to be (B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to operate Class C fi re extingui shers or fi xed
foll owed when advancing handlines to a fi re; observable resul ts that a fire stream systems and approach and retreat from Cl ass C fi res as part of a coordinated team.
has been correctl y appli ed; dangerous conditi ons created by fi re; pri nci pl es of
exposure protecti on; potenti al l ong-term consequence s of exposure to products
of combusti on; physi cal states of matter i n whi ch fuel s are found; the appli cati on Inte rior St ruc tural Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r
of each si ze and type of attack line; the rol e of the backup team in fi re attack 7.2 Manual Fi re Suppressi on
si tuati ons; attack and control techni ques; and exposi ng hi dden fi res. 7.2.1* Attack an i nteri or structural fi re operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven a
(B) Requi site Skill s. The ability to prevent water hammers when shutting down water source, a handline, personal protecti ve equi pment, tool s, and an assi gn ment,
nozzl es; open, cl ose, and adj ust nozzl e fl ow and patterns; appl y water using so that team i ntegrity i s mai ntai ned, the handli ne i s depl oyed for advance ment, access
di rect, i ndi rect, and combi nati on attacks; advance charged and uncharged is gained i nfo the fi re area, correct appli cati on practi ces are used, the fire i s approached
38 mm (1Vi i n.) di ameter or l arger handli nes; extend handli nes; repl ace burst hose safel y, attack techniques facilitate suppressi on gi ven the l evel of the fi re, hi dden fi res
secti ons; operate charged handlines of 38 mm (IV2 i n.) di ameter or l arger; coupl e are l ocated and controlled, the correct body posture i s mai ntained, hazards are
and uncouple vari ous handli ne connecti ons; carry hose; attack fi res; and l ocate and avoi ded or managed, and the fire i s brought under control. (A) Requi si te Knowl edge.
suppress hi dden fi res. Pri nci pl es of conducti ng i ni ti al fi re si ze -up; pri nci pl es of fi re streams; types, desi gn,
operati on, nozzl e pressure effects, and fl ow capabiliti es of nozzles; precauti ons to be
foll owed when advanci ng hose lines to a fire;
 observabl e results that a fi re stream has been correctl y appli ed; dangerous buil di ng (B) Requi si te Skill s. The ability to operate a speci al agent suppl y for use, master
condi ti ons created by fi re; pri nci pl es of exposure protecti on; potenti al l ong-term vari ous speci al agents appli cati on techniques, and approach and retreat from
consequences of exposure to products of combusti on; physi cal states of matter in hazardous areas as part of a coordi nated team. 7.3.11* Exti ngui sh a Cl ass C
whi ch fuel s are found; common types of acci dents or i nj uri es and thei r causes; and (el ectri cal ) fi re as a member of a team, gi ven an assi gnment, a Cl ass C
the appli cati on of ea ch si ze and type of handli nes, the rol e of the backup team i n fire-exti ngui shi ng appli ance/exti ngui sher, and personal protecti ve equi pment, so
fire attack situati ons, attack and control techni ques, and exposi ng hi dden fi res. that the type of Class C agent i s sel ected for the conditi on, a sel ected agent i s
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to prevent water hammers when shutti ng down correctl y appli ed to the fuel, fi re i s exti ngui shed, re -i gni ti on i s prevented, team
nozzl es; open, cl ose, and adj ust nozzl e fl ow and patterns; appl y water using direct, protecti on i s mai ntai ned, and the hazard i s faced until retreat to safe haven i s
indi rect, and combi nati on attacks; advance charged and uncharged 38 mm (1 l h i n.) reached.
di ameter or larger handlines; extend handli nes; repl ace burst hose secti ons; (A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Methods by whi ch Cl ass C agent prevents or control s
operate charged handlines of 38 mm (1 lli i n.) di ameter or l arger; coupl e and a hazard; methods by whi ch Cl ass C fi res are de -energi zed; causes of i nj uri es
uncoupl e vari ous handli ne connecti ons; carry hose; attack fires; and locate and from Cl ass C fi re fi ghti ng on li ve Cl ass C fi res with Cl ass A agents and the Cl ass
suppress hi dden fi res. C agents; the exti ngui shi ng agents' characteri sti cs, uses, and li mi tati ons; the
7.2.4 (B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to depl oy and operate handli nes, expose advantages and di sadvantages of de -energi zing usi ng water fog nozzl es on a
voi d space s without compro mi si ng structural i ntegri ty, appl y exti ngui shi ng agents Cl ass A or Cl ass B fi re; and methods to reduce or avoid hazards.
for maxi mum effecti veness, expose and extingui sh hi dden fi res, recogni ze and (B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to operate Class C fi re extingui shers or fi xed
preserve obvi ous si gns of area of origi n and fi re cause, and eval uate for compl ete systems and approach and retreat from Cl ass C fires as part of a coordinated
extingui shment. team.
7.3.3 Utili ze master stream appli ances, gi ven an assi gnment, an extingui shi ng
agent, a master stream devi ce, and suppl y hose, so that the appliance i s set up
correctl y and the agent i s appli ed as assi gned. Additional NFPA Standard
(A) Requi si te Knowledge. Correct operati on of m aster stream appliances, uses tor NFPA 600 Standard on Industri al Fi re Bri gades
master stream appliances, tacti cs using master stream appliances, selection of the
master stream appliances for different fire situations, and the effect of master stream
appliances on search and rescue, ventil ation procedures, and property conservati on. Knowledge Objectives
(B) Requi site Skill s. The abili ty to correctl y put i n servi ce a master stream After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to:
appliance and to eval uate and forecast a fi re's growth and devel opment. • Descri be offensi ve versus defensi ve operati ons.
7.3.5* Control a fl ammabl e gas fi re operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven an • Descri be how to operate hose lines.
assi gnment, a handli ne, personal protecti ve equi pment, and tool s, so that team • Descri be how to attack an i nteri or structure fi re.
integri ty i s mai ntai ned, contents are i dentifi ed, the fl ammabl e gas source i s • Descri be exposure protecti on.
controll ed or i sol ated, hazardous conditi ons are recogni zed and acted upon, and • Descri be how to attack a vehi cle fi re.
• Descri be how to exti ngui sh a fl ammabl e gas cyli nder fi re.
(A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Characteri sti cs of flammable gases, components of • Describe a BLEVE.
flammabl e gas systems, effects of heat and pressure on cl osed contai ners, BLEVE • Descri be how to attack fi res i nvol vi ng el ectri ci ty.
si gns and effects, methods for i denti fyi ng contents, water stream usage and
demands for pressuri zed gas fi res, what to do if the fi re i s prematurel y exti n
gui shed, al ternati ve acti ons rel ated to vari ous hazards, and when to retreat. Skills Objectives
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to execute effecti ve advances and retreats, appl y After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to perform the foll owi ng skill s:
vari ous techni ques for water appli cation, asse ss gas storage contai ner integrity • Appl y water usi ng the di rect attack.
and changi ng conditi ons, operate control vai ves, and choose effecti ve procedures • Appl y water usi ng an indi rect attack.
when condi ti ons change. • Appl y water usi ng the combi nation attack.
7.3.6* Exti ngui sh a fi re usi ng speci al exti ngui shi ng agents other than foam • Use a l arge handline usi ng the one -person method.
operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven an assi gnment, a handline, personal • Use a l arge handli ne usi ng the two -person method.
protecti ve equi pment, and an exti ngui shi ng agent suppl y, so that fi re i s exti n - • Operate deck guns.
gui shed, rei gniti on i s prevented, and team protecti on i s mai ntai ned. (A) Requi si te • Operate portabl e monitors.
Knowl edge. Methods by whi ch speci al agents, such as dry chemi cal , dry powder, • Locate and suppress i nteri or wall and subfl oor fi res.
and carbon di oxi de, prevent or control a hazard; pri nci pl es by whi ch speci al agents • Exti ngui sh a fi re i n a fl ammabl e gas cyli nder.
are generated; the characteri sti cs, uses, and li mi tati ons of fi refi ghti ng speci al agents;
the advantages and di sadvantages of usi ng speci al agents; speci al agents
appli cati on techni ques; hazards associ ated with speci al agents usage; and methods
to reduce or avoi d hazards.
 During your shift at your plant, you are dispatched to a reported fire in the warehouse area. You
are well aware of the hazards associated with this warehouse, so you don your personal protec-
tive equipment (PPE) and your self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). As you arrive with
your team at the designated area, you notice heavy smoke coming from the warehouse bay. You
pull the appropriate hose line from the hose cabinet and make your way to the seat of the fire. As
your brigade turns the corner into the aisle, the situation changes; you see a fully involved forklift.
On the rear of the forklift is a compressed gas cylinder. The radiant heat from the forklift fire is
beginning to heat the combustible materials to the point that they are starting to burn.
1. What are the hazards at this fire?
2. How should you attack this fire?

Introduction attack the seat of a fire, the strategy is offensive. Defensive

The term fire suppression refers to all of the tactics and tasks operations are conducted fro m the exterior of a facility or
that are performed on the fire scene to achieve the final goal of structure. Defensive operat ions are usually conducted by
extinguishing the fire. Fire suppression can be acco mplished directing water streams at a fire fro m the exterior fro m a safe
through a variety of methods that will stop the combustion distance.
process. All of these methods involve removal of one of the Offensive operations expose brigade members directly to
four components of the fire tetrahedron. A fire can be the heat and smoke generated by a fire inside a facility and
extinguished by removing the o xygen, the fuel, or the heat may requ ire the use o f thermal protecti ve cl othi ng.
fro m th e co mbust ion pro cess. Interrupt ing the chemical Offensive operations expose brigade members to addit ional
chain reactions will also stop the combustion process and risk factors, such as the possibility of being trapped by a col-
extinguish the fire. lapse of warehouse storage units, structural collapse, or failure
This chapter presents the methods that are most frequently of structural co mponents. The object ive in an offensive
used by brigade members for extinguishing fires. The apparatus operation is for the brigade members to get close enough to
and equipment used by most fire brigades is designed to apply the fire to apply ext inguishing agents direct ly to the seat of
large volumes of water to a fire in order to cool the fuel below the fire at close range where it can be most effective. When an
its ignition temperature. Although fire brigades typically use a offensive attack is undertaken and co mp leted successfu lly,
variety of extinguishing agents for different situations, water is the fire can be cont ro lled with th e least amount of agent and
used more often than any other agent. the least amount o f p roperty damage.
Water is a very effective extinguishing agent for many dif- Industrial b rigade members usually undertake offensive
ferent types of fires, because tremendous quantities of heat strategies when the fire is reported quickly and is usually still
energy are required to convert water into steam. When water in the i nci pient stage. Offensive operat ions are acco m-
is applied to a fire, all of the heat that is used to create steam is plished by applying water fro m hose lines or using other
removed fro m the co mbustion p rocess. If a sufficient ext ingu ishing agents such as portab le fire ext ingu ishers.
quantity of water is applied, the fuel is cooled belo w its igni- Large hand lines are o ften used to conduct interio r opera tions
tion temperatu re and the fire is ext inguished. on larger fires, although they are much heavier, require
addit ional personnel, and are mo re d ifficu lt to maneuver
Offensive versus Defensive Operations inside a facility. La rge handlines provide a greater volume of
water and operating pressure and should be used only by
All industrial fire suppression operations can be classified as properly trained fire brigade members.
either offensive or defensive operat ions. When fire b rigade Large handlines and master streams are mo re often used
team members attack a fire directly either using portable fire in defensive operations. Defensive strategy is used in situa-
ext ingu ishers o r by advancing hose lin es into a facility to t ions wh ere th e fire is t oo larg e t o b e cont ro lled by an
 Fi r e Suppression 617

Brigade Member Safety Tips

Offensive (interior attack) and defensiv e (exterior attack) operations
must NEVER be performed simultaneously.

Brigade Member Safety Tips

A brigade leader should nev er risk the lives of fire brigade team
members when there are no lives to save.

offensive attack. It is also used in situat ions where the

integrity of the structure is in question and the level o f risk ( Figure 21-1) Exposures should be cooled to prevent equipment failure.
to brigade members conducting an interior attack would be
unacceptable. The primary object ive in a defensive opera tion
is to prevent the fire fro m spreading. Water or other
suppression agents are directed into the structure through ext erio r att ack has reduced th e vo lu me of fire
doorways, windows, and other openings, or onto exposures ins ide a bu ild ing to th e po int that fire brig ade team
to keep a fire fro m extending fro m one area to another, wh ile memb ers can enter the bu ild ing and co mp lete the
brigade members remain outside the build ing and operate ext ingu ish ment with hand lines. An o ffensive fire attack
fro m safe positions. requires well-planned coo rd inat ion bet ween crews
The decision to conduct o ffensive o r defens ive opera- perfo rming d ifferent t asks, such as ventilat ing, operating
tions must be made by the brigade leader at the beg inn ing of hose lines, and conducting aggressive search and rescue.
fire suppression operations and is periodically reevalu -ated A defensive strategy should be implemented when the
throu ghout the incid ent . The decis io n to emp loy o ffensive brigade leader determin es that it wou ld b e impossible to
or defensive operat ions must be made befor e operat ions enter the fire area or structure and control the fire with han -
begin and must be clearly co mmun icated and understood by dlines, as well as in situat ions where the risk of in jury o r
everyone invo lved in the operat ion. There is no roo m for death of a team member is excessive. Defensive operations
confusion between o ffensive and defensive operat ions. involve the use of large hose lines and master stream devices
Master streams fro m defensive operations will push fire, fro m the e xterio r o f th e st ru ctu re to con fine th e fire.
heat, and s mo ke back into the structure. It wou ld be Exposure protection should be a high priority during defen -
ext remely dangerous if one g roup o f brigad e members was sive operations, and equip ment should be cooled to prevent
operating defensive master streams outside a facility while equipment failu re ( Figure 21-1 ).
another brigade crew was inside the facility conducting an
offensive attack. Retired Phoen ix Fire Depart ment Ch ief Command Considerations
Alan Brunacin i said it b est, " Co mb in ing strateg ic modes The Incident Co mmander (IC) has to evaluate a wide range
(offensive/defensive) is like o rdering art illery on yourself." of factors to decide if offensive strategy (interior attack) or
If the decision is made to switch fro m offensive to defen - defensive strategy (exterior attack) should be used at a par-
sive or from defensive to offensive strategy at any point dur- ticular fire. If the risk factors are too great, an exterior attack is
ing an operation, the change must be clearly co mmun icated the on ly acceptab le opt ion. If the decis ion is made to launch
and understood. The change fro m offensive to defensive an in terio r att ack, the IC has to det ermine where and how
operations cou ld occu r if an interior attack is unsuccessful to attack, considering both safety and the effectiveness of the
or the risk facto rs are determin ed to be too great to justify operation. The factors to be evaluated when cons idering
hav ing fire b rig ade team memb ers ins id e the structu re. whether to enter the structu re to mount an attack include
Prior to transition ing fro m offensive to defensive strategy, the follo wing:
the b rig ade leader shou ld co mp lete a fu ll personnel • What are the risks versus the potential benefits?
account ab ility ch eck to ensure all team memb ers are • Is it safe to send brigade members into the bu ild ing?
accounted fo r and outs ide th e st ructure. So met imes the • Are there any structural concerns?
strat egy is s witched fro m defens ive to o ffensive aft er an • Are there any lives at risk?
• Does the size o f the fire proh ibit entry?
61 8 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A ND P R A C T I C E

Brigade Member Safety Tips

Incipient fire brigade mem bers are limited to operating handlines up
1
to 1 / 2 " and mast er streams up to 300 gallons per m inute.

• Are there enough brigade memb ers on the scene to

mount an interior attack? (Remember the
two-in/two-out ru le.)
• Is there an adequate water supply?
• Can p roper vent ilation be performed to support offen
sive operations?
After sizing up the situation, the IC must determine which
type of attack is appropriate. As a new brigade member, you (Figure 21-2) U nderstanding the dangers of hose lines is essential for your
are not responsible for determin ing the type o f fire attack brigade's protection, and for the protection of other brigades that may be
that will be used, but you should understand the factors that operating nearby.
go into making these decisions and why the IC orders dif-
ferent types of fire attacks for different types of fires.
Large hose lines are defined as hoses that are 2V2" in
Operating Hose Lines diameter or larger. The most co mmon large hand line used
for fire attack is 2 1/2". Water can flow through such a hose at a
The most basic fire brigade team member skills that must be rat e of 250 g allons per min ute and a p ressure o f 100
mastered by every team member involve the use of hose lines pounds per square inch (psi). Co mpared to s maller
to apply water onto a fire for ext inguishment. As a brigade hand-lines, these large hose lines are much heav ier and less
member, you must learn how to advance and operate a hose maneuverable in a con fined space, such as when operat ing
line effectively to ext inguish a fire. Understanding the dan - inside a facility. One brigade member can control a properly
gers of hose lines is essential for your protection, the protec- anchored hose line; however, at least three brigade members
tion of your b rigade members, and the protection of other are requ ired to effect ively advance and maneuver a large
brigades that may be operating nearby ( Figure 21-2). One hose line.
general rule that must always be observed is to know where Master streams are used when even larger quantities of
your stream is going. Care must always be taken to avoid water are required to control a large fire or when protecting
opposing hose lines, where two crews are operating at the exposures. Master streams are generally used to deliver at
same t ime "against" each other fro m opposite direct ions. least 300 gallons of water per minute and are capable of
Fire b rigade members must learn to operate both large delivering flows greater than 3,000 gallons per minute. The
and small hose lines, as well as master stream devices. Small most co mmon ly used master st ream dev ices will flo w
hose lines are generally up to 2" in diameter with the most between 1,000 and 2,000 g allons per minute. Because of
common being 11/ 2" or PA". Hose lines discharge large vol- their weight, flo w rat es, and higher operat ing p ressures,
umes of water under operat ing pressures ranging fro m 100 master stream dev ices are operated fro m fixed posit ions
to 200 pounds per square inch (psi), so brigade members either on the ground, on top of a p iece of fire apparatus, or
must be physically capable of controlling the nozzles at all fro m some other elevat ing device.
times. Generally one b rigade member can usually operate
the no zzle wh ile a second b rigade member can prov id e Fire Streams
added support and assistance while advancing and maneu - Several different types of fire streams can be p roduced by
vering hose lines. different types of nozzles. The nozzle defines the pattern and
form o f the water that is d ischarged onto the fire. A fire
Brigade Member Safety Tips stream can be produced with either a s mooth bore nozzle or
an adjustable fog nozzle. Brigade policies and standard oper-
Care m ust be tak en to av oid opposing hose lines —tw o teams ating procedures (SOPs) will usually determine the type of
operating at the same tim e "against" eac h other. nozzle that is used with d ifferent types of hose lines. The
nozzle operator must know wh ich type of nozzle should be
used in d ifferent situ at ions. When an ad justab le no zzle is
 Fi r e S uppressi on
618

Brigade Member Tips

Although ev ery effort should be made to minimize w ater damage,
remember, property can be dried out but it cannot be unburned.

Brigade Member Safety Tips

It is imperativ e to extinguish all fire as y ou proceed to its seat. Failure
to do so m ay allow the fire to grow behind you, entrapping you by
cutting off your escape rout e.

used, the no zzle operator must kno w ho w to set the d is -

charge pattern to produce d ifferent kinds o f streams .
The first major d istinction in nozzle discharge patterns is
between a fog stream and a straight stream ( Figure 21-3). A
fog stream d ivides water into d roplets, which have a very
large surface area and can absorb heat efficiently. When heat
levels in a bu ild ing need to be lowered quickly, a fog stream
is usually the pattern of cho ice. A fog stream can also be (Figure 2 1-3) A straight stream and a fog stream are both produced using
used to protect brigade members from the heat of a large fire. adjustable fog nozzles.
Most adjustable no zzles can be ad justed fro m a straight
stream, to a narro w fog patt ern , to a wide fog pattern,
depending on the reach that is requ ired and how the stream
will be used.
A straight stream provides more reach than a fog stream,
so it can hit the fire fro m a greater distance. A straight stream
( Figure 2 1- 4) A solid stream is produced by a smooth-bore nozzle.
also keeps the water concentrated in a small area, so it can
penetrate through a hot at mosphere to reach and coo l the
burning materials. A straight stream is produced by setting
an ad justab le no zzle to the narrowest pattern it can d is -
charge. Th is type of stream is made up of a h ighly concen - a fog stream, so there are fewer concerns with displacement
trated pattern of droplets that are all discharged in the same and disrupt ion o f the thermal balance.
direction. The air movement created by a fog stream can be used for
A soli d s tream is p rodu ced by a s moot h bo re no zzle ventilation. Discharging a fog stream out through a window
(V Figure 21-4). A solid stream has more reach and pene- or doorway will d raw s mo ke and heat out in the same man ner
trating power than a straight stream, because it is d ischarged as an exhaust fan. Th is operat ion must be perfo rmed
as a continuous colu mn of water. carefully to prevent accidentally drawing hidden fire toward
One impo rtant po int that must be rememb ered when the nozzle operator.
selecting and operat ing no zzles is the amount o f air that is
moved along with the water. A fog s tream naturally moves a
Water Hammer
large quantity of air along with the mass of water drop lets. Water hammer is the surge of pressure caused when a
This air flo ws into the fire area along with the water. When high-velocity flow of water is abruptly shut off. A
this air movement is co mbined with steam production as the fast-mov ing stream of water has a large amount of kinetic
water d roplets encounter a heated at mosphere, the thermal energy. If the stream is suddenly stopped by clos ing a valve,
balance is likely to be disrupted quickly. The hot fire gases all o f its kinet ic energy is converted to an instantaneous
and steam can be d isplaced back do wn toward the no zzle increase in pressure behind the valve. Because water cannot
operato r or pushed into a different area o f the bu ild ing. be compressed, the add it ional pressure is trans mitted along
Straight and solid streams move litt le air in co mparison with the hose or pipe as a shock wave (water hammer). The
resulting
 I N D U S T R I A L FI R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I PL E S AND P R A C T I C E

water hammer can rupture a hose, cause a coupling to sep - ext ingu ish the fire, in o rder to keep damag e fro m excess
arate, or damage the p lu mbing on a piece of fire apparatus. water to a minimu m. To perfo rm a d irect attack, follo w the
The faster a nozzle or valve is closed, the greater the steps in ( Skill Drill 21-1).
shock-wave-g enerated effect will be. Severe wat er hammer 1. Select the proper hose line used to fight the fire
can even damage an underground water d istribut ion system. depending on the fire's size, location , and type.
Damage generated by a water hammer can in jure brigade 2. Advance the hose line to the entry point of the struc
team members and cause additional damage to firefighting ture on th e unbu rned s ide.
equip ment. 3. Don face piece, activate SCBA and Personal Alert
A similar s ituation can occu r if a valve is opened too Safety System (PASS) device prior to entering the
quickly and a surge o f pressurized water suddenly fills a build ing.
hose or pipe. The surge in p ressure can damage the hose or 4. Signal the operator/driver that you are ready for water.
pipe and cause the brigade member at the no zzle to lose 5. Open the no zzle to purge air fro m the system and
control o f the no zzle o r app liance. make sure water is flowing.
To prevent water hammer, always open and close fire 6. Make sure ventilat ion is co mp leted o r in p rogress.
hydrant valves slowly. When operating nozzles on an attack 7. Enter into the structure and locate the seat o f the fire.
line, always open and close the nozzle slowly. Pu mp opera- 8. Apply water in either a straight or solid stream onto
tors must also be aware of the need to open and close all fire the base of the fire i n short bursts.
apparatus valves slowly. 9. Watch for changes in fire cond ition; use only enough
water to extingu ish the fire.
Interior Fire Attack 10. Locate and ext ingu ish hot spots.
Interio r structure fires occur inside a bu ilding , structure, or
facility that is usually co mp letely enclosed and has a roof Indirect Attack
structure. The fuel can be the contents, structural members, Indirect application of water is used by interior structural
or other items stored in the structure. Interior structural brigades in situat ions where the temperatu re is increas ing
firefighting involves the physical activity of suppression, and it appears that the room or space is ready to flashover. A
rescue, or both inside of structures that are involved in a fire short burst of water is aimed at the ceiling to cool the super-
situation beyond the incip ient stage. An interior fire attack is heated gases in the upper levels of the roo m o r space. This
an offensive operat ion that requires brigade members to act ion can p rev ent o r delay flashover long enough fo r
enter a stru ctu re and d isch arg e an ext in gu ish ing agent brigade members to app ly water d irect ly to the seat o f the
(usually water) onto the fire. The larger the fire, the greater fire or to make a safe exit. Follo w the SOP of your organiza tion
the challenge the fire b rig ade teams experience and the regard ing the applicat ion o f water.
greater th e risks that are encountered. The objective of an indirect attack is to quickly remove as
Interio r fire attack can be conducted on many different much heat as possible from the fire at mosphere. An indirect
scales. In many cases an interior attack is conducted on a fire attack is particularly effective at preventing flashover from
that is only burning in one room, and the fire can be controlled occurring. This method should be used when a fire has pro -
quickly by one attack hose line. Larger fires require more water, duced a layer of hot gases at the ceiling level. When the water
which could be prov ided by t wo or mo re small handlines is applied into the hot fire gases, it is converted to steam,
working together or one or more larger handlines. Fires that absorbing tremendous quantities of heat in the process. The
involve multiple rooms, large spaces, or concealed spaces are atmosphere is cooled quickly down. The heat that is used to
more co mplicated and require much more coordination; how- convert the water to steam is removed from the combustion
ever, the basic techniques for attacking the fire are similar. process.
Direct attack and indirect attack are two different methods
of discharging water onto a fire. A co mbination attack is
performed in two stages, beginn ing with an ind irect attack
and then continu ing with a d irect attack.

Direct Attack
The most effective means of fire suppression in most situa-
tions is the direct attack. The direct attack uses a straight or
solid hose stream to deliver water direct ly onto the base of
the fire (Figure 21-5). The water cools the fuel until it is below
its ignition temperature. The water is directed into the fire in
short bursts and in a contro lled method. Brigade members ( Figure 21-5) In a direct attack, a straight or solid hose stream is used to
should no t app ly mo re water th an necessary to deliver water directly onto the base of the fire.
 Fi r e Suppressi on
621

where you are going to app ly water.

8. Direct the water stream to ward the upper levels of the
roo m and ceiling into the heated area overhead and
move the stream back and forth. Flow water until the
roo m beg ins to darken. Then shut the no zzle o ff and
assess conditions.
9. Watch fo r changes and reduct ion in the amount of
fire. Once the fire is reduced, shut down the nozzle.
10. Check to make sure ventilat ion has been co mp leted .
11. Attack remain ing fire and hot spots until
(Figure 21-6) In an indirect attack, brigade mem bers direct a fog stream at extinguished.
the ceiling of the intensely heated area to create steam.
Combination Attack
The combi nati on attack emp loys both the ind irect and
An indirect attack can be performed by brigade members direct attack methods sequentially . Th is method should be
using a st raight stream, a solid stream, o r a n arro w fog used when a roo m's interior has been heated to the point
stream. The b rigade members direct their water at the ceiling where it is nearing a flashover condition. The brigade mem-
of the intensely heated area where the hot gases are layered, in bers should first use an ind irect attack method to coo l the
order to create steam ( Figure 21-6) This is often referred to as fire gases down to safer temperatures and prevent flashover
"painting the ceiling" with the water stream. The water is fro m occurring. Th is is fo llowed with a direct attack on the
distributed over a large surface area to absorb heat as quickly main body of fire.
as possible. Once the temperature has been reduced and th e When using this method, the b rigade member who is
area has b een p rop erly vent ilated , th e brigade members can operating the no zzle should be given plenty o f space to
switch to a direct attack to co mplete ext inguishment. maneuver it. Only enough water as needed to control the fire
As soon as enough steam has been produced to reduce the should be used, thus avo id ing unnecessary wat er damage.
fire, the fire stream should be shut down so that the thermal To perfo rm a co mb inat ion attack, follo w the steps in
layering of the superheated gases is disturbed as little as (Skill Drill 21-3).
possible. When water is converted to steam, it expands to 1. Wearing full PPE and SCBA, select the correct hose
occupy a volume 1700 t imes greater than the volu me o f the line to acco mp lish the suppression task at hand .
water. Th is exp ansion tends to d isplace the hot gases that 2. Stretch the hose line to the ent ry po int of the struc
were near the ceiling and push them down toward the floor. ture and signal the operato r/driver that you are ready
This mixture o f steam and hot gases is capable of causing to receive water.
serious steam burns to brigade members through their PPE.
Serious injuries can occur if brigade members put too much
water into the upper atmosphere and the hot gases are forced Brigade Member Safety Tips
down on top o f them. Indic ators of poss ible building c ollaps e •
To perfo rm an ind irect attack, fo llo w the steps in ( Skill Leaning w alls • Sm ok e emitt ing f rom c racks •
Drill 21-2). Creaking s ounds • Sagging roofs or floors
1. Don PPE, including SCBA. Cons iderations for possible building collaps e •
2. Select the correct hose line to be used to attack the fire Ex pos ure t o serious fire • W ater loading due to
depending on the type of fire, its location, and size. mast er streams • Age of building
3. Advance the hose line fro m the apparatus to the open
ing in the structure where the ind irect attack will be
made; ideally fro m the unburned side.
4. Don face piece; activate SCBA and PASS device.
5. Notify the operator/driver that you are ready for
water.
6. Open the no zzle to be sure that air is purged fro m the
hose line and that water is flo wing. If using a fog
nozzle, ensure proper no zzle pattern fo r entry. Shut
Brigade Member Tips
down the no zzle unt il you are in a posit ion to app ly When us ing the indirect or c ombination attack, w atch for droplets of
water. water raining dow n. This indicat es low ered ceiling temperat ures. If no
7. Advance with a charged hose line to the locat ion droplets f all, the c eiling is still too hot.
622 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

3 . Open the no zzle to get the air out and be sure that nozzle where they cross. This reduces the energy needed to
water is flo wing. control the line if it is necessary to maintain the water stream
4. Enter the structure and locate the area o f orig in o f the for a long period of t ime. Th is method does not allo w the
fire. hose to be moved wh ile water is flo wing, but it is good for
5. Aim your nozzle at the upper left co rner o f the fire protecting exposures when operat ing in a defensive attack
and make either a "T," "O," o r "Z" pattern with the mode. To perform the one -person method fo r operat ing a
nozzle. Rememb er to start high and work the pattern large handline, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 21-4).
down to the fire level. 1. Select the co rrect size fire hose for the task to be
6. Use only enough water to darken do wn the fire with performed .
out upsetting the thermal layering. 2. In fu ll PPE and SCBA, advance the hose into the posi
7. Once the fire has been reduced, find the remain ing tion fro m wh ich you plan to attack the fire.
hot spots, and co mplete ext inguish ments using a 3. Signal the operator/driver that you are ready for water.
direct attack. 4. Open the no zzle to allo w air to escape the hose and to
ensure that water is flo wing.
Large Handlines 5. Close the nozzle and then make a loop with the hose,
Large handlines can be used for either offensive fire attack or ensuring that the nozzle is UNDER the hose line that
for defensive operations. In an o ffensive attack situation, a 2 is coming fro m the fire apparatus. (Step 1)
1/22 " attack line can be advanced into a bu ild ing to apply a 6. Lash the hose together at the sect ion o f hose where
heavy stream of water onto a large volume of fire. The same they cross or use your body weight to kneel or sit on
direct and ind irect attack techn iques as were described for the hose line at the point where the hose crosses itself.
small hose lines can also be used with larg e hand lines. A 2 (Step 2)
1/2" handline can overwhelm a substantial interior fire if it can 7. Be sure to allow enough hose to extend past the section
be discharged directly into the involved area. The ext ra reach where the line crosses itself for maneuverability. (Step 3)
of the stream can also be valuable for an interio r attack in a 8. Open the no zzle and direct water onto the des ignated
large bu ild ing. area. (Step 4)
It is mo re d ifficult for b rigade members to advance and
maneuver a large handline inside a bu ilding, part icu larly in T wo-Pers on Metho d
tight quart ers o r around corners. At least th ree brig ade When two brigade members are availab le to operate a large
members are usually needed to advance and maneuver a 2 handline, one should be the nozzle operator, while the other
1/2" handline inside a building. The brigade members have to provides a back-up. The no zzle operator g rasps the nozzle
contend with the nozzle reaction force, as well as the combined with one h and and ho lds the hose b eh ind the no zzle with
weight of the hose and the water. In situat ions where the hose the other hand . The hose shou ld be crad led across the
line has to be advanced a considerable distance into a brigade member's h ip fo r added stab ility . The back-up
build ing, add itional brigade members will be required to brigade member should be posit ioned about 3' beh ind the
move the line. The extra effort is balanced by the powerfu l nozzle op erato r. Th is person g rasps the hose with both
fire suppression capabilit ies of a large handline. hands and holds the hose against a leg or h ip. A hose strap
Large handlines are often used in defensive situations to can also be used to provide a better hand grip on a large hose
direct a heavy stream of water onto a fire fro m an exterior line. When the line is operated fro m a fixed position, the
position. In these cases the nozzle is usually positioned to be second b rigade me mber can kneel on the hose with one
operated from a single location by one or two brigade mem- knee to stabilize it against the ground. (Skill Drill 21-5)
bers. The stream can be used to attack a large exterior fire or to demonstrates this skill.
protect exposures. The stream can also be directed into a 1. Don all PPE and SCBA.
building th rough a doorway o r window open ing to knock 2. Select the correct hose line fo r the task at hand .
down a large volume of fire inside. If the exterior attack is 3. Stretch the hose line fro m the fire apparatus into
successful in reducing the volume of fire, the IC might make position. (Step 1)
the decision to switch to an offensive (interior) attack to
comp lete ext inguish ment.

One-Person Method Brigade Member Safety Tips

One b rigade member can contro l a large attack hose by Master streams should NEVER be directed int o a building while
forming a large loop of hose about 2' behind the nozzle. By brigade m embers are operating inside the structure. The force of the
placing the loop over the top of the nozzle, the weight of the stream can pus h the heat, smoke, and fire onto the brigade
hose stabilizes the nozzle and reduces the nozzle reaction. To members.
add mo re stability, lash the hose loop to the hose behind the
 Fi ne Suppression
6Z3

One-Person Method for Operating a Large Handline

Close the nozzle and then make a loop with the hose, ensuring that Lash the hose together at the section of hose where they cross, or
the nozz le is UND ER the hose line that is coming from the fire use your body weight to kneel or s it on t he hos e line at the point
apparatus. where the hos e crosses itself.

Be sure to allow enough hose to extend past the section where the Open the nozzle and direct water onto the designated area.
line c rosses itself for maneuverability.

4. Signal the pu mp operator that you are ready fo r water. hose with t wo hands and, if necessary, use a knee to
5. Open the no zzle a small amount to allow air to escape stabilize the hose against the ground. 9. A hose strap can
and to ensure that water is flo wing. be used to prov ide a better g rip on
6. Advance the hose line as needed. (Step 2) the hose.
7. Before attacking the fire, the b rigade member on the 10. Open the no zzle in a cont ro lled fashion and d irect water
nozzle should crad le the hose on his o r her hip while onto the fire o r designated exposure. (Step 4) If you need to
grasping the nozzle with one hand and supporting the advance a flo wing 2 1/2" hand line a short d istan ce and on ly
hose with the other hand. (Step 3) two b rigad e memb ers are av ailab le, b e aware o f the large
8. The second brigade member should stay react ion fo rce exert ed by t he flo wing water. It is much
appro ximat ely 3' beh ind the brigade memb er on the easier to shut do wn t he no zzle mo men t arily and mov e it to
nozzle. The second brigade member should grasp the th e new pos it ion than to relocate a
BZ4 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

Two-Person Method for Operating a Large Handline

Stretch the hose line from the fire apparatus int o position. Advance the hose line as needed.

Before attacking the fire, the brigade member on the nozzle should The second brigade m ember should stay approx imately 3' behind the
cradle the hose on his or her hip while gras ping the nozzle with one brigade m ember on the nozzle. The sec ond brigade member should
hand and supporting the hos e with the other hand. gras p the hose wit h two hands and m ay use a knee to stabilize the
hose against the ground if necessary. Open the nozzle in a controlled
fashion and direct water onto the fire or designated exposure.

flo wing line. If the line must be moved while water is flo w- master streams discharge between 300 and 1500 gallons of
ing , both b rigad e members must b race the hose against water per minute, although much larger capacit ies are avail-
their bod ies to keep it under cont ro l. Th ree brigade members able for special applications. In addit ion, the stream that is
can stabilize and advance a large handline more co m fortably discharged fro m a master stream dev ice has a g reater range
and safely than t wo. than a handline, so it can be effective from a greater distance. A
master stream device can be either manually operated or
Master Stream Devices directed by remote control. Many master stream devices can
Master stream devices are used to produce h igh-vo lu me be set up and then left to operate unattended. This can be
water streams for large fires. There are several different types extremely valuable in a high-risk situation, because there is no
of master stream devices, includ ing portable mon itors, deck need to leave a brigade member in an unsafe location or
guns, ladder p ipes, and other elevated stream devices. Most haz-ardous env iron ment to operate the dev ice (Fig ure 21-7 ).
 Fire Suppressi on 625

Master streams are used on ly du ring defensive opera-

tions. A master stream shou ld never be d irected into a
building wh ile brigade members are operating inside the
structure. Master streams may be p laced in position during
search and rescue activities if it appears that offensive oper-
ations will not be able to stop the progression of the fire.
Nevertheless, the master stream must never be tu rned on
until all search and rescue team members h ave evacuated
the bu ild ing and all memb ers are accoun ted fo r, because it
can push h eat , s mo ke, o r fire onto the brig ade team
members.
Master streams generate strong air current movement, so
they will have a majo r effect on any ventilat ion efforts that
may have been in it iat ed . Wh en us in g a master stream
through an open ing in a st ructure, it is essential to ensure
that addit ional open ings exist th rough wh ich the fire, hot
gases, and smoke can escape. Failure to have adequate open - ( Figure 21-8) A deck gun is perm anently mounted on a vehicle and
ings could result in trapp ing the fire and by-products inside equipped with a piping system that delivers water to the device.
the structure.
Master stream dev ices create water streams that have
excessive force. The force and impact of the stream can dis - stream is being properly applied and whether a sufficient
lodge loose materials, cause extensive damage to interior quantity of water is being app lied to the fire.
property , or lead to structu ral co llapse. Because master
streams are considered to be the last defense against a fire, Deck Guns
property conservation is usually a low priority when they are A deck g un is permanent ly mounted on a veh icle and
used. equipped with a p ip ing system that delivers water to the
When a master stream is p roperly positioned, b rigade device. These devices are so metimes called turret p ipes or
members should see a change in the fire gro wth. A properly wagon pipes ( Figure 21-8). If the vehicle is equipped with a
positioned master stream device should be angled so that the pump, the pu mp operator can usually open a valve to start the
stream is deflected o ff the ceiling or other overhead equip - flo w o f water. So metime a hose must be connected to a
ment. Deflecting the stream causes a raindrop effect and pro- special inlet to deliver water to the deck gun. If your fire
vides the best extinguishing characteristics. If brigade team apparatus is equ ipped with a deck gun, you need to learn
members do not see a decrease in the fire's p rogression, an your ro le when p lacing it in operat ion . To op erat e a deck
evaluat io n shou ld be conducted to d etermine wheth er t he gun, follow the steps in (Skill Drill 21-6).
1. Make sure that all firefight ing personnel are out o f
a structure befo re us ing a deck gun.
2. Place the deck gun in posit ion.
3. Aim the deck gun at the fire or at the intended
exposure.
4. Signal the operator/driver that you are ready for water.
5. Once water is flo wing, ad just the angle, pattern, or
water flow as necessary.

Portable Monitor
A portable moni tor is a master stream dev ice that can be
positioned wherever a master stream is needed and p laced
on the ground (► Figure 21-9). Hose lines are connected to
the portable mon itor to supply the water. Most portable
monitors are supplied with either two or three 272 " in lets or
with one large-d iameter hose in let. So me monito rs can be
used as a deck gun o r taken off the fire apparatus and used as
a portable mon itor.
( Figure 21-7) Master streams are effective when long reach and large To dep loy a po rtab le mon itor, remove it fro m the appa-
cooling streams are required. ratus an d carry it t o th e locat ion wh ere it will b e used .
626 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AN D P R A C T I C E

1. Remove the portab le mon itor fro m the fire apparatus

and move it into posit ion.
2. Attach the necessary hose lines to the mon itor as per
SOPs or manufacturer's instructions. (Step 1)
3. Be sure to loop the hose lines in front o f the mon ito r
to counteract the fo rce created by water flo wing out of
the nozzle. (Step 2)
4. Signal the operator/driver that you are ready for water.
5. Aim the water stream at the fire o r onto the desig
nated exposure and ad just as necessary.
The nozzle reaction force can cause a portable monitor to
move fro m the posit ion where it was placed if it is not
adequately secu red . A mov ing po rtab le mon ito r can be
extremely dangerous to anyone in its path. Many portable
(Figure 21-9) A portable m onit or is plac ed on the ground and supplied with mo n it o rs are equ ip ped with a s t rap o r chain th at mu st be
water from one or more hose lines. secured to a fixed ob ject to p revent the monito r fro m
moving. Po inted feet on the base also help to keep a portable
mon ito r fro m mov ing . If the stream is operated at a lo w
angle, the react ion fo rce will tend to make the mon itor
Advance an adequate number of hose lines fro m the engine unstable. A safety lock is usually provided to prevent the
to the mon ito r. The nu mber of hose lines needed dep ends on monito r fro m being lowered beyond a safe limit of 35 °.
the volume of water needed and the size of the hose lines. When setting up any po rtable mon itor, always follo w the
Form a large loop in the end of each hose line in front of the manufacturer's instructions and the SOPs of your brigade for
monito r and then attach the male coup ling to the in lets o f safe and effective operation.
the mon itor. The loops serve to counteract the force created
by the flo w o f the water th rough the no zzle. Elevated Master Streams
To set up and operate a portable monitor, follow the steps Elevated master stream dev ices can be mounted on aerial
in ( Skill Drill 21-7). ladders, aerial p latforms, o r special hydraulically operated
booms ( Figure 21-10 ). A ladder pi pe is an elevated stream
d ev ice th at is mount ed at the t ip o f an aerial ladd er. On

Set Up and Operate a Portable Monitor

Attach the nec essary hos e lines to the m onitor as per SOPs or Be s ure t o loop t he hos e lines in front of the
manufacturer's instructions. monitor to counteract the force creat ed by water
flowing out of the nozz le.
 Fire S uppres sion 627

( Figure 21 -11) Protecting an exposure from radiant heat.

So metimes the IC has to identify a point where the progress

(Figure 21-10) Aerial ladder mast er st ream. of the fire can be stopped and direct all firefighting efforts
toward that objective.
Protecting exposures involves very different tactics from
many aerial ladders the ladder p ipe is only attached to the offensive fire attack. At a large fire, the first priority is to
top of the ladder when it is needed, and a hose is run up the protect exposed build ings and property fro m a co mb ination
ladder to deliver water to the device. Most newer aerial lad- o f rad iant h eat , conv ect iv e heat , an d b u rn in g emb ers (
ders and tower ladders are equ ipped with a fixed p ip ing Figure 21-11 ). The best option is usually to direct the first hose
system to deliver water to a permanent ly mounted master streams at the exposures rather than the fire itself. Wetting
stream device at the top. This saves valuable set-up time at a the exposures will keep the fuel fro m reaching its ignition
fire scene. If your apparatus is equipped with a ladder pipe, temperature. Because radiant heat can travel through a water
you need to learn ho w to assist in its set-up . stream, directing water onto the exposed surface is more
effective than aiming a stream between the fire and the
exposure. Master stream devices such as deck guns, portable
Protecting Exposures monitors, and elevated master streams are excellent tools for
Protecting exposures refers to act ions that are taken to p re- protecting exposures. Large volumes of water can be directed
vent the spread of a fire to areas that are not already burn ing. onto the exposures fro m a safe distance.
Exposure protection is a consideration at every fire; ho wever,
it is a much mo re impo rtant cons iderat ion when the fire is Ventilation
large. If the fire is relat ively s mall and contained within a Before any interior attack is initiated, it is important that the
limited area, the best way to protect exposures is usually to structure be ventilated. Ventilation must be coordinated with
extinguish the fire; when the fire is ext inguished, the the suppression efforts to ensure that both events occu r
exposure problem ceases to exist. In cases where the fire is simu lt aneously and in a manner that supports the att ack
too large to be controlled by an init ial attack, exposure plan. Proper ventilat ion allo ws for the hot gases and smoke
protection beco mes a priority. In some cases the best out - to be removed fro m the building, improv ing visib ility and
come you can hope to accomplish is to stop the fire fro m tenab ility in the bu ild ing fo r any t rapped v ict ims and
spreading. brigade members. Improper ventilat ion can create condi -
The IC has to consider the size of the fire and the risk to tions that allow a fire to burn more aggressively and make it
exposures in relation to the amount of firefighting capability mo re d ifficu lt for brigade members to enter and attack the
that is av ailab le and ho w qu ickly it can be assemb led. In fire. Coo rdinat ion is essential to ensure that the hose lines
some cases the IC will d irect the first brigades to protect will be ready to attack when the vent ilat ion openings are
exposures while a second group prepares to attack the fire. made. The ventilat ion openings must be located so that the
hot smo ke and gases will be d rawn away fro m the attack
crews.
Brigade Member Safety Tips Concealed-Space Fires
Any time a floor feels hot through your PPE, consider the possibil ity of Fires in o rdinary and wood frame construction can burn in
a fire burning in the lev el below you. Beware of a weakened floor combustib le vo id spaces behind walls and under subfloors.
caused by a hidden bas ement fire!
In o rder to prevent the fire fro m spreading, these fires must
be found and suppressed ( ►Figure 21-12 ).
 VOICES OF EXPERIENCE
"As I saw this, I called for the units inside
the structure to back out. "

F ighting a fire offensively or defensively is a key decision that must

be made by the command function at the start of operation. Once
that decision is made, it must be clearly communicated to
everyone on the fireground.
While fighting a very large fire in a warehouse, I made the deci-
sion to attack the fire offensively using PA" attack lines from two sides of the warehouse.
Defensive lines were also put in place to be used in the event the fire began to spread
into the issue counter area, and a ladder truck with a master stream device was placed at
the rear of the facility to be used only if the offensive operation failed. During the initial
attack, the advancing firefighting crews pushed the fire out the rear windows. The
operator of the master stream device thought the fire had gotten out of control and
opened up the nozzle and began to discharge water into the structure. As I saw this, I
called for the units inside the structure to back out, and was quickly able to get the
operator of the master stream to shut down. Once the master stream was shut down, the
offensive crews were advanced back into the structure and were able to ext inguish the
fire.
It is imperative that everyone operating on the fire ground is aware of the command
decisions that have been made and control their impulse to act independently based on
their own observations. Combining offensive and defensive operations can be very
dangerous. It is essential that everyone knows when a change from offensive to defensive
operations is going to occur, and all crews operating in the interior must be accounted
for before defensive operations are undertaken.

Frederick J. Knipper
Duke University—Duke Health System
Durham, North Carolina
 Fire Suppressi on G Z9

( Figure 21-13) Fire below grade.

(Figure 21-12) F ires may be hidden behind walls. Brigade members shou ld ident ify th e safest means o f
entry and exit into the area where firefighting operations will
be conducted. An exterior access point allows brigade mem-
bers to enter a basement without passing through the hot gas
To locate and suppress fires behind walls and under
layers at the basement ceiling level. If the only point of entry is
sub-floors, fo llo w the steps in (Skill Drill 21-8).
an interio r stairway, brigade members must protect that
1. Locate the area of the fire building where a hidden fire
stairway open ing to keep th e fire fro m extend ing to the
is believed to be.
upper floors (Figure 21-13). Ventilation must be planned and
2. Look for signs of fire such as smoke coming fro m cracks
conducted early. If ventilat ion is not managed properly, the
or open ings in walls, charred areas with no out ward
interior stairwell will act as a ch imney and bring heat and
evidence of fire, and peeling or bubbled paint or wall
smo ke up fro m the basement.
paper. Listen fo r cracks and pops or hissing steam.
Always consider the possibility of a fire burning below the
3. If available, use a thermal imager to look for areas of
ground floor level when you enter a fire building. A fire that
heat that may ind icate a h idden fire.
appears to be on the ground floor could have orig inated in
4. Using the back o f your hand, feel for heat co ming
the cellar and weakened the floor. Cellar fires can also spread
fro m a wall or floor.
to upper floors in houses with balloon construction.
5. If a hidden fire is suspected, use a tool such as an
axe or Halligan to remove the building material over Fires above Ground Level
the area.
Advancing charged hose lines up stairs and along
6. If fire is located, expose the area as well as possible
narrow-hallways requires much more physical effort than
and extinguish the fire using conventional firefighting
fighting a fire on the ground level in an open area. It is always
methods. Be sure to expose as much area as needed
important to protect stairways and other vertical openings
without causing unnecessary damage.
between floors when fighting a fire in a mult iple -level
For mo re in format ion on evaluat ing the structure fo r
structure. Hose lines must be placed to keep the fire fro m
co mp lete ext inguish ment, see Chapter 19, Salvage and
extending vertically and to ensure that exit paths are always
Overhaul.
availab le (Figure 21-14).
Basement Fires When advancing a hose above the ground floor, advance
Fires in b as emen t s o r b elo w g rad e lev el a re ra re in them uncharged until you reach the fire floor and have extra
most industries and present several d ifferent challenges. hose available. This allows for easier advancement of attack
lines.
Basements are d ifficu lt and dangerous to enter, and they
have limited routes of egress. Basements are usually d ifficu lt Interior fire crews must always look for a secondary exit
to ventilate, wh ich means that an interior attack often has to path in case their entry route is blocked by the fire or by a
structural collapse. The secondary exit cou ld be a second
be made in cond itions of high heat and lo w v isib ility. Th is
also means that it will be d ifficult to remove the fire gases interio r stairway , an outside fire escape, a ground ladder
and steam produced by the attack lines. It can be difficult to placed to a window, o r an aerial dev ice.
Be aware o f the risk of structu ral instab ility and co l-
see even after ventilat ion has been performed. Basements are
often used for storage, and it may be hard to keep your sense lapse. Ch eck the floor that you are wo rking on and listen
of orientation in the narrow d isorganized spaces. for the sounds associated with a failing ceiling or roof. Do
630 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

materials exposed, without the fire-resistant features of a

fin ished building. If the build ing lacks windows and doors,
an almost unlimited supply of o xygen could be available to
fuel a fire. Fire detection, fire alarm, and automatic fire sup -
pression systems might not be operational. Construction
workers may be using to rches and other flame -producing
devices. These buildings are often unoccupied and could be
targets fo r arson. The fire suppression systems are many
times non-operat ional in these build ings.
Under these conditions a fire in a large build ing could be
impossible to ext inguish. If there are no life safety hazards
involved, brigade members should use a defensive strategy
for this type of fire. No b rigade members should enter the
build ing , and a co llapse zone should be established . A
defensiv e exterio r operat ion should be conducted using
master streams and large hand lin es to p rotect exposu res.

Fires in Stacked or Piled Materials

Fires occurring in stacked or piled materials can present a
variety of hazards. The greatest danger to brigade memb ers
is the possibility that a stack of heavy material such as rolled
paper or baled rags will co llapse without warning. This can
(Figure 21-14) With fires above grade, stairways in structures must be occur if a fire has damaged the stacked materials or if water
protected from fire. has soaked into them. Absorbed water can g reatly increase
the weight o f many materials and also weaken cardboard
not use mo re water than is needed to ext inguish the fire. and paper p roducts. The wate r d ischarged by auto mat ic
Addit ional water adds weig ht to the st ru ctu re and cou ld sprinklers alone can be sufficient to make so me stacked
lead to st ructural co llapse. materials unstable. A tall stack of material that falls on top of a
In mu lt i-story structu res, the standpipe system may be team o f b rigade memb ers can cause in jury o r death.
used to supply water for hose lines. Brigade members must Fires in stacked materials should be approached cau -
pract ice connect ing hose lin es to standpip e out lets and tiously. All brigade members must remain outside potential
extend ing lines fro m stairways into remote floo r areas. collapse zones. Mechan ical equip ment should be used to
Additional hose, tools, air cylinders, and emergency med ical move material that has been partially burned or water-soaked.
service equip ment should be staged one or two floors below Conventional methods of fire attack can often be used to
the fire. gain control o f the fire; however, water must penetrate into
the stacked material in order to fully extinguish the residual
Fires in Large Buildings combustion. Class A foam can often be used to ext inguish
Many large buildings have floor plans that can cause brigade smo ldering fire in t ightly packed co mbustib le materials.
memb ers to b eco me lost o r d iso rient ed wh ile wo rking Overhaul will require the materials to be separated to expose
inside, part icularly in lo w-v isibility or zero-v isibility condi- any remain ing deep-seated fire. This can be a labor intensive
tions. The use o f gu ide lines may b e n ecessary to keep process unless mechan ical equip ment can be used to dig
brigade members fro m becoming lost and running out of air. through the material.
A well-o rganized preincident plan of the structure can be
essential when fighting this type of fire. Knowing the occu - Trash Container and Rubbish Fires
pancy and the other hazards befo rehand will help in deter- Trash container (du mpster) fires usually occur outside of any
min ing the best strategy and tactics. structure and appear to present fewer challenges than a fire
inside a building. Brigade members still must be vigilant in
Fires in Buildings During Construction, wearing full PPE and using SCBA when fighting trash con -
Renovation, or Demolition tain er fires. There is no way o f kno wing what might be
Build ings that are under construction, renovation, or demo - inside a trash containe r.
lit ion are all at increased risk for destruction by fire. These If the fire is deep seated, the trash will have to be over -
buildings often have large quantit ies of hauled. Manual overhau l involves pulling the contents of a
co mbustible trash container apart with pike po les and other h and too ls
so that wat er can reach th e b urn ing material. Th is can b e
 Fire S uppres sion 631

Brigade Member Safely Tips

Fires that occur in confined spaces generate deadly levels of toxic
gases or vapors and are v ery dangerous. Entry should be m ade only
by brigade members w ho are s pec ially trained in interior structural
operations and w ho us e PPE and SCBA.

labor intensive and invo lves considerable risk to brigade

members. The b rigade memb ers are exposed to whatever
contaminants are in the container, as well as the risks o f
in jury fro m burns, s mo ke, or other causes. Considering the
value of the contents of a trash container, it is difficu lt to
justify any risk to b rigade members.
Class A foam is useful fo r many t rash container fires, (Figure 21-15) Some brigades use a deck gun on top of an engine to
because it allows water to soak into the materials. This can extinguish large trash container fires.
eliminate the need fo r manual overhau l. So me fire brigades
use the deck gun on the top of an engine to ext inguish large victim, harness, or stretcher line on a bight (rescue knot).
trash container fires and then complete ext inguish ments by which allows surface personnel to raise the victim out of the
filling the container with water. Th is is done by pointing the hole. Due to the lack of ventilat ion in most confined spaces,
deck gun at the du mpster and slowly opening the d ischarge brigade memb ers may notice an increased amount of heat
gate to lob water into the container ( Figure 21-15). once in the space. Brigade members will t ire quickly and
Trash containers are often placed behind, or immediately must recognize the signs of heat exhaustion and heat s troke.
adjacent to, large build ings and busines ses. If the container Confined spaces may have low o xygen levels and high
is close to the structure, be sure to check for extension. Also levels of combustible or flammable gases, such as methane.
loo k above the container fo r telephone, cab le, and po wer Brigade members who must enter a confined space should
lines that might have been damaged by the fire. take an air monitoring dev ice. Air quality must be checked
constantly, looking for the buildup of explosive gases as well
Confined Spaces as decreased oxygen levels.
Fires and other emergencies can occur in confined spaces. A strict accountability system must be adhered to when
Fires in underg round vau lts and ut ility roo ms such as brigade members enter into a confined space. This ensures
transformer vaults are too dangerous to enter. Brigade mem- that on ly those with prop er t rain ing and equ ip ment enter
bers shou ld su mmon the p lant ut ility g roup and keep the the confined space. It is important for a safety officer to track
area around manhole covers and other openings clear wh ile the movement of personnel and the time that they are in the
await ing the arrival o f the utility personnel. For emergencies confined space.
in these areas, the Occupat ion al Safety and Health Fire suppression in confined spaces must not begin until
Administration requires specially trained entry teams. You all associated utilit ies and industrial processes have been
should be familiar with your fire brigade's operational pro- turned off. Fire suppression may requ ire the use of hose
cedures for these incidents. It is also important to be familiar streams , h igh and lo w expans ion foams , carbon d io xide
with con fined spaces th roughout you r facility . These areas (CO2 ) flooding systems, or built-in sprin kler systems.
should be toured with p lant personnel so that preinci-dent
plans can be developed.
Other hazards exist in confined spaces, including o xygen
Vehicle Fires
deficiencies, to xic gases, and standing water. Cond it ions Vehicle fires are common occurrences in most areas. Vehicles
might appear to be safe, but there might not be enough oxy - contain hundreds of pounds of plastics, which give off to xic
gen in the confined space to sustain life. It is common for an smo ke when they bu rn . Fo r th is reason it is impo rtant to
employee to enter these spaces and pass out, usually fo l- wear SCBA when fighting a vehicle fire. A 1 1/2" or 1 3/4" hose
lowed by another employee who comes in to assist and also line should always be used to attack a vehicle fire, in order to
passes out. If ent ering these spaces to attempt rescue, an prov ide sufficient p rotect ion fro m a sudden flare -up .
SCBA must b e wo rn , and b rigad e memb ers shou ld b e M an y mo dern veh icles h ave sho ck abso rb ers in th e
attached to a lifeline. An additional lifeline should be low- bumpers, and t runk or hatchback co mponents that are
ered o r b ro ug ht wit h th e b rig ad e memb er t o t ie t o t he gas-filled. Be aware th at wh en these cy linders are heated
they
632 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

can burst and send pieces fly ing fro m the veh icle at high attempt ing to open th e hood . If th e shock abso rb ers
velocity. (hold-open cy linders) are still hot, the cy linder could be
If the operator or driver is present, ask about any specific over-pressurized and cause the hood to spring open with
hazards that may be present in the veh icle, such as a gas tremendous force.
cylinder, cans of spray paint, or any other hazardous materials. After the vehicle has been cooled and some of the fire has
If no driver or operator is around, do not assume that the been darkened, t ry to open the hood. If the hood release
v eh icle is safe; always b e caut ious as you app ro ach a operated, a g loved hand should be used to activate the sec-
vehicle fire. ondary latch , wh ich is usually located in the middle o f the
front of the hood. If the release cable is damaged, a Halligan
Attacking Vehicle Fires
bar can be used to force the co rner of th e hood up enough to
Fires Under the Hood allo w a no zzle to be inserted into the eng ine co mpart ment.
Fighting fires under the closed hood o f a veh icle can not Another method is to break the front grill out and cut the
only be very d ifficu lt, but also very d angerous. When release cable close to the latch mechan is m. Us ing a pair of
approaching a burn ing veh icle with fire under the hood, vise-grip pliers, grasp the remain ing piece of cab le at the
approach fro m the uphill and upwind side at a 45° ang le release mechan ism and pull. Once the hood is raised, ext in -
(Figure 21-16). Using the full reach of the stream, direct the guish the remaining fire, being carefu l not to splash battery
stream of water into the wheel well and through the front grill. acid . In most eng ine co mp art ment fires, the p lastic case of
This technique gets some water onto the fire quickly to cool the battery will have melted and leaked battery acid onto the
the engine area, the shock absorbers, and the pistons of frame, engine, and g round.
shock-abso rb ing bu mpers. Sho ck absorbers and It is also important to be aware of any leaking flu ids on
shock-absorbing bu mpers are enclosed cylinders that when the ground. These could possibly ign ite, spread ing the fire
heated are capable of exp loding. An exp loding cy linder can beyond the vehicle. In addition, care should be taken to pre-
travel d istances up to 20' and pack enough fo rce to b reak vent these fluids fro m entering into storm d rains or water-
bones, and they can cause severe bu rns. If the cy linders in a ways, wh ich could create an environ mental prob lem.
front (o r rear) shock-absorbing bu mper explode, they can After the main body o f the fire has been ext inguished, it is
throw t h e bu mp er up to 3' with enough fo rce to b reak a impo rtant to perfo rm a co mp lete overhau l just as with a
fire brigade team member's legs. Veh icles contain other small structure fire. All of the seating material should be removed
pistons that could also be dangerous, such as the hold -open or exposed to ensure that the fire has not spread into this
pistons somet imes used on the front hood to keep the hood combustible material. Other concealed areas of the vehicle
raised. These are sealed cylinders that can explode and shoot a should also be checked for fire extension. Because the vehicle
spear-like rod through the front o r rear of a veh icle. has probably already been extensively damaged fro m the fire
Once firefighting operat ions have begun under the hood and firefighting operations, the liberal use of water will not
area, have another fire brigade team member stabilize the cause any undue d amage beyond what has already
veh icle to keep it fro m ro lling . The fire b rigade t eam occurred.
member entering the veh icle should open the d river's door
and pull the hood release latch, wh ich is usually located at Fires in the Passenger Area
the bottom of the "A" post. Pulling the hood latch may be Fires in the passenger area should be approached from the
ineffective if the fire has already damaged the release cable; upwind side at a 90° ang le fro m the car. Us ing the reach of
however, it is a worthwh ile first step. Always co mmunicate the 1 3/4" hose line, start approximately 50' fro m the vehicle,
with the team fighting the fire before releas ing the hood. with the nozzle set on straight stream, and darken the fire
A lways make s u re th e sho ck abso rbers are co o l b efo re down by slowly sweeping the stream back and forth in a hor-

(Figure 21 -16) W hen possible, approach vehicle fires in

the hood or engine area from upwind and from a 45° angle.
 Fire S uppres sion 633

izontal mot ion . Ext inguish all v isib le fire wh ile walking They are usually p laced so that they will pass directly
toward the car. Observe the area under the vehicle during the under the center o f the d river's chair. Ext ra care should
approach for any sign of leaking flammable liquids. If burn ing be used when using hydrau lic metal cutters o r
flammab le liquids are present, widen the spray pattern on the spreaders on these types of autos.
nozzle. Foam can be used to ext inguish the burning liq uid and
provide a vapor barrier to p revent re -ignit ion.
After all v isible fire has been knocked down, allow a few
Flammable Liquids Fires
minutes for the steam and smoke to dissipate before starting Flammab le liquids fires can be encountered in almost any
overhaul. This will allow v isibility to imp rove so that over- type of occupancy. Most fires involving a vehicle (plane, train,
haul can be co mp leted safely . During overhau l o f interior ship, car, truck) are also likely to involve a co mbustible or
fires, remember that air bags can dep loy without warn ing in a flammab le liquid. Special tactics must be used when attempt-
burning automobile. Never p lace any part of your body in the ing to extinguish a flammable liquids fire. Special extinguish -
path of a front o r side air bag. ing agents such as foam o r d ry chemicals may b e needed .

Fire in the Trunk Hazards

A fire in the trunk area of an automobile can be accessed by Fires involving flammab le liqu ids such as gasoline require
using the pike o f the Halligan bar to fo rce the lock into the special extinguishing agents. Most flammable liquids can be
trunk, then using a screwd river o r key too l (K -too l lock extinguished using either foam or d ry chemicals. Class B
puller) to turn the lock cylinder in a clockwise d irect ion. A ext ingu ishing agents are app roved fo r use on Class B
charged hose line must be ready when the trunk lid is raised. (flammab le liquids) fires.
Fires in the rear of light trucks and vans must always be Flammab le liquids fires can be classified as either
approached cautiously. Vans are often used for maintenance two-dimensional or three -dimensional. A t wo-dimensional
and support funct ions and cou ld contain h azardous waste, fire refers to a spill, pool, or open container of liquid that is
chemicals, and rad ioactive material. burning only on the top surface. A three-dimensional fire
refers to a situat ion where the burn ing liquid is dripping ,
Alternative Fuel Vehicles spraying fro m the source, o r flo wing over the edges o f a
Always be alert for signs that a burn ing vehicle could be container.
powered by an alternate fuel, such as compressed natural gas A two-dimensional flammab le liquid fire can usually be
(CNG) or liquefied propane gas (LPG). Fu lly involved fires controlled by applying the appropriate Class B foam onto the
in vehicles powered by either type of fuel should be fought burning surface. There are several d ifferent formulat ions of
with an un manned master stream to prevent in juries fro m Class B foams that are suitable for different liquids and situ-
exploding gas cylinders. ations. The foam will flow across the surface and create a seal
Vehicles powered by CNG contain high pressure storage that stops the fuel fro m vaporizing. Th is separates the fuel
cylinders. These cy linders are usually located in the t runk fro m the o xygen and extingu ishes the fire. Foam will also
or t ruck bed and contain CNG at high pressures. They must cool the liquid and reduce the possibility o f re-ign ition.
be cooled and protected like any gas cylinder. CNG is a Brigad e members should be aware o f hot surfaces or
lig hter-th an -air gas t hat will ris e and d iss ipate if it is open flames that could cause the vapors to re -ign ite after a
released into the at mosphere. fire has been ext inguished. It is impo rtant to determine the
Propane is stored in pressure cy linders similar to those identity of the liqu id that is involved in order to select the
used fo r heat ing o r coo king purposes. Propane is heav ier appropriate ext inguishing agent and to determine whether
than air, so the vapors will pool o r co llect in lo w areas. the vapors are lighter o r heav ier than air.
Hy b rid auto mob iles h ave s mall g aso lin e -po wered A three-dimensional fire is much mo re difficult to ext in-
engines and large battery banks. The batteries power electric guish with foam, because the foam cannot establish an effec-
motors that drive the wheels, much like a t rain loco mot ive. tive seahon the fuel surface. Dry extinguishing agents may be
There are t wo noteworthy hazards in these vehicles: mo re effective than foam in contro lling three -dimensional
• The nickel metal hydride batteries are very hazardous fires. Dry chemical agents can also be used to extinguish
when bu rning and may exp lode. The runo ff fro m two-dimens ional fires; ho wever, it does not p rov id e a seal
water used in firefighting will also be hazardous and between the fuel and the oxygen. In some cases a fire can be
should be avoided. ext inguished with a dry chemical, and then the surface can
• High-vo ltage direct current cab les connect the batter be covered with foam to prevent re-ignit ion.
ies to the elect ric motors that po wer the wheels. Brigade members should avoid standing in pools or con -
Cutting these orange cables can cause serious in jury taminated runoff fro m flammab le liquids. Brigade members '
or death. The cab les usually run fro m the battery PPE cou ld absorb the p roduct and beco me contaminated. If it
bank to the front o f the car vi a the undercarriage. is seriously contaminated, the PPE itself could beco me
flammable.
634 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Brigade Member Safely Tips Boiling-Liquid, Expanding-Vapor

Explosion (BLEVE)
Som e vehicle components (engines or body) m ay be m ade out of
magnesium or m etal alloys that can react violently when water is Flammab le gas cylinders that are exposed to direct heating
applied during suppression. A Class D extinguis hing agent should be fro m an external source are subject to catastrophic failure, an
used instead of water. incident co mmon ly called a boili ng -li qui d,
expandi ng-vapor explosion (B LEVE). A BLEVE can occur
when the liquid fuel in a co mpressed-gas cylinder o r tan k is
stored under pressure. A p ropane tank is an examp le: Such a
vessel is part ly filled with the liquid propane and the rest of
Suppression the vessel is occupied by propane in the form o f a vapor.
The skills for suppressing flammab le liquids fires are p re- The most co mmon cause of a BLEVE is a fire that
sented in the Foam chapter, Chapter 17. imp ing es upon th e tan k. The fire heats the liqu id in the
tank, causing it to generate mo re vapo rs. Th is react ion
Flammable Gas Characteristics increases the internal pressure of the tank and causes the
pressure-relief valve to open in an attempt to siphon off the
A flammab le gas is defined as a subst ance th at is in a excess pressure. If the p ressure canno t be relieved fast
gaseous form at a temperature of 68°F (20°C) or less. It has a enough, the pressure can increase to a po int where the tank
pressure of 14.7 psi (101.3 kPa) and either is ignitable at 14.7 will ruptu re cat astroph ically. When th is hap pens, large
psi (101.3 kPa) when in a mixtu re of 13 percent o r less pieces of the tan k can be p ropelled over s ign ificant d is -
volume with air or possesses a flammable range at 14.7 psi tances, potentially in juring o r even killing brigade team
(101.3 kPa) with air at least 12 percent regardless of the lower members. As the tan k ruptures, any remain ing flammab le
limit. The U.S. Depart ment of Transportation (DOT) catego- liquid is immed iately released fro m the tank. Because the
rizes flammab le gases within Div ision 2.1, mean ing that temperature of the liquid is at or above its boiling point, the
containers hold ing these substances are p lacarded/labeled liquid immed iately tu rns into vapor and creates a rap id ly
using the DOT 2.1 placards and labels. exp and ing cloud . The fire can th en ign it e the escap ing
Most flammab le gases are sto red in cy linders o r tan ks vapors, creating a fireball. A ll of this can happen quickly, in a
and are used as fuels in a flammable gas system. The remain- matter of a few seconds.
der of the flammable gas system usually consists of a regulator The best method to prevent a BLEVE is to direct heavy
(wh ich contro ls the flo w and the p ressure of the gas), valves streams o f water onto the tan k using un manned master
(which are used to turn on and shut off the flow of the gas), streams fro m a safe d istance. The water should be d irected at
and hoses, pipes, tubes and other devices (which direct the the area where the tank is being heated. The brigade members
gas to its intended po int o f ign ition or use). operating these streams should work fro m protected
positions or use remote -contro lled or un manned monito rs.
Compressed-Gas Cylinders An adequate water supply is a must for pressurized-gas fires.
Flammable gases are stored in compressed-gas cylinders that To control a flammable gas or liquid container fire, a mini-
are designed to DOT specificat ions. Co mpressed-gas cylin- mu m of 500 gp m is needed at each point of flame imp inge-
ders are designed to withstand temperature increases to ment for tankers. For s maller fires, two 1 3/ 4-inch lines should
approximately 130°F (54°C). Most cylinders are equipped be used to cool the conta iner.
with p ressure-relief valves that will open when the pressure Horizontal tanks are designed to fail at the ends if a cat-
inside the cy linder increases above the designed pressure. astrophic failure occurs. Nevertheless, the tank failure will
The pressure-relief valve will continue to relieve the excess likely create a fireball, with frag ments flying in all directions.
pressure until either the cy linder is cooled and its pressure There is no "safe side" when a p ressurized tan k fails.
reduced o r the cy linder's contents and pressure are co m- Over the years, dozens of emergency services personnel
pletely empt ied . When sufficient heat is co nt inuous ly have been killed by BLEVEs that occurred while they were
applied to the tan k but its pressure does not decrease, the trying to fight fires that invo lved tanks of liquefied gaseous
internal pressures can reach a level that could cause a cata-
strophic failure of the cy linder.
Brigade Member Safely Tips
Brigade Member Safely Tips A propane tank with the relief valv e operating should not be
approac hed. Remot ely directing water onto the tank allows it to cool until
Do not attempt to extinguish a propane gas fire until the fuel flow is shut the relief valve resets. Then the tank may be approac hed and the valve
off. turned off.
 Fi r e Suppression G35

fuels. By understanding the characteristics of flammab le gas remains within the vapor space. If a p ropane cy linder is
fuels and the mechanis m underly ing a BLEVE, we can help placed on its side, the relief valve could be below the liquid
to prevent in juries o r deaths in emergency s ituations. level. If a fire were to heat the tank and cause an increase in
pressure, the relief valv e wou ld release liqu id p rop ane,
Propane Gas which wou ld then expand by the 270 to 1 rat io. Th is wou ld
The popularity of propane gas has caused these cylinders to create a hug e cloud o f potent ially exp los ive p ropane gas.
beco me co mmo np lace in many locat ions. In add it ion ,
propane is used as an altern at ive fuel for veh icles and is Propane Hazards
often sto red to po wer emerg ency elect rical g enerato rs. Propane is high ly flammab le. It is nonto xic, but it can dis -
Brigade members should be familiar with the basic hazards place oxygen and cause asphyxiat ion. By itself propane is
and characteristics o f p ropane and procedures for fighting odorless, and leaks could not be detected by a human sense
propane fires. of s mell. Mercaptan is added to propane to create a d istinctive
Propane or LPG exists as gas in its natural state at tem- odor. Propane gas is heavier than air, so it will flow along the
peratures above -44°F (-42.2°C). When it is placed into a ground and accu mu late in lo w areas.
storage cylinder under pressure, it is changed into a liqu id. When responding to a reported LPG leak, brigade mem-
Storing propane as a liquid is very efficient, because it has bers and their apparatus should stage uphill and up wind of
an expansion rat io of 270 to 1. (One cubic foot o f liquid the scene. Brigade members should be aware that an exp lo-
propane will convert into 270 cubic feet o f gas when it is sion could happen at any time, so full PPE and SCBA must
released into the at mosphere.) A large quantity o f fuel can be worn. When using meters to check for LPG, be sure to
be stored in a s mall container. check storm drains, basements, and other low-ly ing areas for
Inside a propane container, there is a space filled with concentrations of the gas. Life safety should be the highest
propane gas above the level of the liqu id propane. As the prio rity; depending on the type and size of the leak, an
contents of the cylinder are used, the liqu id level beco mes evacuation might be necessary.
lower and the vapor space increases. The internal pip ing is To p rotect the contain er fro m rupture, the relief valve
arranged to d raw p roduct fro m the vapo r space. will open to release some of the pressure. The relief valve
Propane gas containers co me in a variety o f sizes and should exh aust vapor unt il the p ressure d rops to a p reset
shapes, with capacit ies rang ing fro m a few ounces to thou - level, and then the valve should close or reseat. As the heating
sands of gallons. The cylinder itself is usually made of steel and reliev ing cycles continue, the liqu id can beg in to bo il
or alu minu m. A discharge valve keeps the gas inside the within the container. If the flame is imping ing d irectly on the
cylind er fro m escap ing into the at mosphere and cont ro ls tank, the container can weaken and fail somewhere above the
the flow of gas into the system where it is used. This valve liquid line. When th is happens, the container will ruptu re and
should be easily visible and accessible. In the event of a fire, release its contents with exp losive speed. The bo iling liqu id
closing this valve should stop the flo w of the p roduct and will expand, vaporize, and ign ite in a g iant fireball,
extinguish the fire. The valve should be clearly marked to accompan ied by fly ing frag ments of the ruptured contain er.
indicate the d irect ion it should be turned or moved to reach Brig ade members and mun icipal fire figh ters have been
the closed position. killed in these exp losions.
A connect ion to a hose, tub ing , or p ip ing allo ws the
propane gas to flow fro m the cy linder to its destination. In Propane Fire Suppression
the case of portable tanks, this connection is often the most Fighting fires involving LPG or other flammable gas cylin ders
likely place for a leak to occur. If the gas is ignited, this area requires careful analysis and logical procedures. If the gas
could become involved in fire. itself is burning because of a pipe or regulator failure, the best
A propane cylinder is always equipped with a relief valve way to ext inguish the fire is to shut off the main d is charge
to allow excess pressure to escape in order to prevent an valve at the cy linder. If the fire is ext inguished and the fuel
exp losion if the tank is overheated. Propane cylinders must continues to leak, there is a h igh probab ility that it will
b e sto red in an up right pos it io n so t hat th e relief v alve re-ignite exp losively . Do not attempt to ext inguish the flames
unless the source of the fuel can be shut off o r all of the fuel
has been consumed. If the fire is heating the storage tank, hose
Brigade Member Safety Tips streams should be used to cool the cylinder, being careful not
Fighting a fire inv olving any pressurized tank is dangerous. If there is to ext inguish the fire.
any question regarding the int egrity of the tank or the relief valve, stay Unless there is a remote shutoff valve, the flo w can only
away! Cool the tank from a s afe distance and let it burn out. Don't risk be stopped if it is safe to approach the cylinder. The integrity
lives for a tank. of the cy linder should be inspected fro m a d istance befo re
any attempt is made to approach and shut off the valv e. If
the cont ainer is d amaged or the valv e is missing , the fu el
636 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

should be allo wed to burn off, wh ile hose streams continue

to cool the tan k fro m a safe d istance.
Approach the fire with t wo hose lines working together.
The nozzles should be set on a wide fog pattern, with the
discharge streams interlocked to create a protective curtain.
The brigade leader should be located between the two nozzle
operators. On the co mmands of the b rigade leader, the crew
should move forward , remain ing together and never tu rn ing
their backs to the bu rn ing product . Upon reach ing the valve,
the brig ade member in the center turns o ff th e valve,
stopping the flow o f gas. Any remaining fire is then
ext inguished by normal means. Cont inue the flo w o f water
as a p rot ect ive cu rt ain an d to reduce sou rces o f ign it ion .
Should the fire be ext inguished prematurely, the valve
should still be turned off as soon as the team reaches it .
Always approach and retreat from these types of fires facing
the objective with water flowing, in case of re-ign ition.
Un manned master streams should be used to p rotect
flammab le gas containers that are exposed to a severe fire.
Direct the water to cool the point of d irect flame imp ingement
and the vapor space or upper part o f the container (►Figure
21-17). If the container is next to a fully involved building or
fire that is too large to control, evacuate the area and do not (Figure 21-17) Using a master stream to protect a flammable gas container
fight the fire. If there is noth ing to save, risk nothing. exposed to fire.
Keep in mind that if the relief valve is open, the container
is under stress. Exercise extreme caution when this is occur- Gas supplies are delivered through a gas meter connected
ring. As the gas pressure is relieved, it will generate a shrill to an underground ut ility net work o r fro m a storage tank
wh istle; if the sound is rising in frequency , an exp losion located outside the building. If the gas is supplied by an
could be immin ent and evacuat ion should be o rdered . underground d istribut ion system, the f lo w can be stopped
To suppress a flammab le gas cylinder fire, fo llow the by closing a quarter-turn valve on the gas meter. If there is an
steps in ( Skill Drill 21-9). outside LPG storage cy linder, closing the cy linder valve will
1. Cool the tank fro m a d istance until the relief valve stop the flow. After the gas service has been shut off, use a
resets. lockout tag to be sure that it is not turned back on. On ly
2. Wearing fu ll PPE, two teams of brigade members qualified personnel should re-establish the flow of gas to a
using a min imu m of t wo PA", hose lines advance structure.
using an interlocking 90°-wide fog pattern fo r protec
tion. Do not approach the cylinder fro m the ends. The
brigade leader is located between the t wo no zzle per
Fires Involving Electricity
sons and coord inates and d irects the advance upon Class C fires involve energized electrical equip ment, wh ich
the cylinder. includes any device that uses, produces, or delivers electrical
3. When the cylinder is reached, the t wo no zzle teams energy. A Class C fire could involve plant wiring and outlets,
isolate the shutoff valve fro m the fire with their fog fuse boxes, circu it breakers, transformers, generators, or
streams wh ile the leader closes the tank valve, elimi electric motors. Po wer tools, lighting fixtures, household
nating the fuel source. appliances, and electronic devices such as televisions, radios,
4. As cooling continues, brigade members slowly back and co mputers could be involved in Class C fires as well.
away fro m the cylinder, never turning their backs to it. The equip ment must be plugged in or connected to an elec-
trical source for the incident to be considered a Class C fire,
Shutting Off Gas Service although the equ ip ment does not need to be switched o n to
There are many industrial app lications for natural gas and be energized.
propane. If a gas line inside a structure is compro mised dur- Electricity does not burn, but elect rical energy can gen -
ing a fire, the escap ing gas can add fuel to the fire. The erate tremendous heat that could ignite nearby Class A or B
method in which the gas is supplied to the structure must be materials. As long as the equip ment is energ ized, the inci-
located to stop the flow. d en t mus t b e t reat ed as a Class C fire. To effect iv ely
and sa fely ext ing u ish fires inv o lv ing charged elect rical
 Fire S uppr essi on
637

equipment, extinguishing agents that will not conduct elec- result of either the brigade team member co ming in d irect
tricity, such as dry chemicals o r carbon d io xide, must be contact with charged equip ment or personnel working wit h
used. Chapter 17 prov ides detailed informat ion on ext in- ground ladders near electrical wires. To maximize safety on
guishing agents. the fire ground, it is advisable to de-energize all electrical cir-
The primary hazard for industrial fire brigade team mem- cuits whenever possible.
bers during Class C fires is the possibility of electrical shock. When it is not possible to turn the electricity off at the
Whenever possible, the electrical circuit to the equip ment breaker or another readily available isolation point, it will be
should be disconnected or de-energized befo re the brigade necessary to have a qualified elect rician who has been
makes an attack on the fire. De -energ izing the circu it does trained in handling h igh voltage disconnect the po wer out -
not always guarantee that the equ ip ment is de-energ ized, side the build ing.
however. Care must be taken that the equ ip ment does not
store charged electrical power in t ransformers, capacitors, or Class C Fire Extinguishing Agents
any other po wer sources. If possible, the incident co m- Certain situations may d ictate that fire suppression effo rts
mander should confer with a responsible person fro m the cannot wait until electrical equip ment is de-energized before
elect rical ut ility d iv is ion of the p lant regard ing th e best the b rigade beg ins attacking a fire. When these t act ics
means to deal with this th reat. become necessary, it is very important that brigade team
De-energ izing electrical equip ment can be as easy as members know the types of agents available, the procedures
unplugging the equ ip ment fro m the wall o r as co mp licated for properly app lying these agents, and the limitat ions of
as shutting down an ent ire h igh-vo ltage d istribut ion g rid. these agents. Class C fire ext inguishing agents include dry
Other methods o f de -energ izing elect rical circu its and chemicals, carbon d io xide (CO2 ), and halogenated agents.
equip ment include remov ing and covering fuses, switching
circu it breakers off, and terminating power at ut ility poles; Dry Chemicals
only qualified electrical personnel should perform the last Dry chemical fire ext inguishers deliver a stream of finely
task. Brigade members must ensure that they are familiar ground particles into the base of the fire. Different chemical
with the systems they are working on p rio r to operating dur- compounds are used to produce extinguishers of varying
ing an emergency and shou ld nev er at tempt t o d is rupt capabilities and characteristics.
power by accessing areas o r using d ev ices they are not The dry chemical ext inguishing agents work in two First,
trained on . the dry chemicals interrupt or terminate the chemical chain
All electrical equip ment should be considered as poten - react ions that occu r du ring th e co mbust ion pro_ Once the
tially energized until the power utility department or a qual- chemical chain react ion is interrupted, the fire go out .
ified electrician confirms that the power is off. Once the Second , the tremendous surface area of the finely g round
electrical service has been disconnected, most fires in elec- part icles allo ws th em to absorb large quant it ies o f heat.
trical equ ip ment can be contro lled us ing th e same tactics Absorbing the heat lo wers the overall temp erature at the fire
and agents as are used for a Class A fire or Class B fire, area and helps to ext inguish the fire and prevent its
depending on the fuels involved . reignit ion.

Injuries Carbon Dioxide

The danger of electrocution when using hose streams is min- Carbon dio xide is a gas that is 1.5 t imes heavier than air.
imal. With the exception of po wer p lants, most buildings When CO2 is d ischarged on a fire, it fo rms a dense cloud
generally do not produce voltages sufficient to be hazardous that d isplaces th e air su rround ing th e fuel. Th is interrupts
to brigade team members. Tests have shown that airspaces the co mbustion process by reducing the amount of o xygen
between the water drop lets help to d issipate enoug h of the that can reach the fuel. A blan ket of carbon dio xide over the
voltage that a brigade team member would receive only a surface of a liquid fire can also disrupt the fuel's ability to
low-order shock, wh ich cou ld cause an involuntary reflex vaporize.
action. A lthough it is a min imal shock, a low -order shock
could still be sufficient to cause a brigade team member to Halogenated Agents
lose contro l of the no zzle, wh ich then beco mes a g reater Halogenated extinguishing agents are produced from a family
hazard. of liquefied gases, known as halogens, that includes fluorine,
Brigade team members must keep in mind that the use of bro mine, iod ine, and ch lorine. Halogenated ext inguishing
hose streams around charged electrical equ ip ment differs agents are also called "clean agents" because they leave no
fro m the use of pressurized water ext inguishers. Pressurized residue; this characteristic makes them ideal agents for fire
wat er ext ingu ishers should never be used on o r around suppression in areas that contain computers or other sensitive
charged electrical circuits or equip ment. Most elect ron ic equ ip ment . A 1987 internat ional ag reement,
electrocution-related in juries that occu r on the fire ground kno wn as the Mont real Protoco l, limits Halon produ ct ion
have been the
638 I NDUS T R I AL F I R E B R I GADE : P R I NC I PL ES AND P R A CT ICE

because these agents damage the earth's ozone layer. Halons contact with electrically energ ized equ ip ment . If a hose
have since been largely rep laced by halocarbons and other stream co mes in contact with the energ ized equip ment, the
clean agent gaseous agents. current may flo w back th rough the hose and elect rocute
The halogenated agents are stored as liquids and are d is - brigade members who are in contact with the hose.
charged under relat ively h igh pressure. They release a mist Do not apply water to a burning transformer. Water can
of v apo r and liqu id d rop lets that d isrup ts the mo lecu lar cause the cooling liquid oils in the transformer to spill o r
chain react ions with in the co mbustion p rocess. Just like d ry splash, contaminat ing both b rigade members and the env i -
chemical agents, the large surface area offered by the vapor ronment. If the transformer is located on a pole, it should be
and drop lets absorbs large amounts o f heat and helps to allo wed to burn until p lant o r power utility pro fessionals
reduce the temperature. arriv e and de -energ ize the t ransfo rmer. Brigade t eam
members should keep in mind that transformers may retain o r
Limitations hold power for several minutes after the circu it has been
Class C fire ext inguishing agents do have certain limitations de-energ ized . Once po wer is d isconnected, dry chemical
that might become a factor when determin ing wh ich type of ext inguishers should be app lied to contro l the fire. Fires in
agent should be used on certain fires. One co mmon factor ground -mounted transfo rmers can also b e ext ing u ished
that affects almost all Class C agents is wind. Class C agents using dry chemical agents after the power has been discon -
are co mposed of fine particulate materials or gaseous clouds nected. Brigade team members should stay out of the smoke
that can easily be swept away by even a mild breeze. Brigade and away fro m any liquids that are discharged fro m a trans -
team members should position themselves so the wind pro- former, and they must wear full PPE and SCBA when attacking
vides the best advantage; keeping the wind at your back usu - the fire.
ally provides the greatest advantage. So me very large transformers contain large quantities of
Dry chemical ext inguishers are generally limited to a sin- cooling oil and requ ire foam agents to be applied to ext in -
gle use. Such extinguishers tend to bleed off pressure even if guish fires. The foam can be applied only after the power has
they are on ly part ially d ischarged . Fine part icu lates may been disconnected. Until the power is disconnected, brigade
lodge in the seal assemb ly and often cause the ext inguisher to team members should concentrate their effo rts on protecting
bleed off air pressure even if only a very small amount of agent exposures, taking precaut ions to avoid contaminat ion of
is used. themselves and the environ ment .
Other limitat ions include corrosive effects (certain dry Underground po wer lines and t ransfo rmers are o ften
chemicals), to xic effects (Halons), o xygen d isplacement located in vaults belo w g round level. Explosive gases can
(Halons), and possibly thermal shock (CO2 ) when used on build u p wit h in these vau lts and be ign ited by a sp ark.
certain p roducts and circu its. When ignited , these trapped gases can burn with exp losive
force, lift ing a manhole cover fro m a vault and hurling it a
Su p p res s io n considerable distance. Products of co mbustion can also leak
Fire suppression methods for fires involving electrical equip - into build ings th rough the underg round conduits and p ipe
ment depend on the type of equ ip ment and the po wer sup- chases. Brigade team members should never enter under-
ply. In many cases, the best approach is to wait unt il the ground electrical vaults while the equip ment is energized. If
power is d isconnected and then use the approp riate ext in - suppression actions are immed iately necessary, brigade team
guishing agents to control the fire. If power cannot be dis - members can d ischarge Class C agents into the vault and
connected or the situation requires immed iate action, only replace the cover. Replacing the lid will help to maintain the
Class C extinguishing agents, such as those described previ- concentrations of the agents at levels that will aid in con -
ously and in Chapter 17, should be used. tro lling t he fire unt il the vau lt eq u ip ment can be
When delicate electronic equip ment is involved in a fire, de-energ ized. Even after the power is disconnected, these
either Halon or CO2 should be used to limit the damage as vault; should be considered to be confined spaces and should
much as possible. These agents will cause less damage to be entered only by team members with confined-space
co mputers and sensit ive equip ment than will water o r dry training, fu ll PPE, and SCBA . Vau lts will typ ically contain
chemicals. to xic gases, but could also contain exp losive or
When po wer d istribut ion lin es o r t rans fo rmers are oxygen-deficien: at mospheres.
involved in a fire, special care must be taken to ensure the Industrial co mp lexes often have high-voltage elect rical
safety of the emergency personnel as well as other facility service connections and interior roo ms contain ing trans -
personnel. No attempt should be made to attack these fires formers and distribution equ ip ment. These areas should be
until the power has been d isconnected. In some cases, it will clearly marked with electrical hazard signs and should no :
be necessary to protect exposures or to ext inguish a fire that be entered by b rigade memb ers un less a rescue must be
has spread to ot her co mbust ib le mat erials . Th is attack made. Electrical energy can "jump" fro m the high-voltag;
should be attempted on ly if there is no chance of co ming in equipment to the brigade team member even when no water
 Fi r e Suppressi on 639

is being applied o r even present. In these circu mstances,

brigade team members should limit their actions to protect ing Finding the Point of Origin
exposures. They must also wear fu ll PPE and SCBA owing The first step in most fire investigations is to determine the
to the inhalation hazard created by the burning of the plastics point of the fire's orig in. The po int of orig in is the exact
and cooling liquids that are o ften used with equ ipment o f this physical location where a heat source and a fuel co me in
size and type. contact and a fire begins. It is usually determined by exami-
Brigade teams should exercise ext reme caut ion when nation of fire damage and fire pattern evidence at the fire
operating around any energized electrical circu its. It is v ital scene. Flames, heat, and smo ke leave distinct patterns that
that the correct extingu ishing agents be selected and prop erly can often be traced back to identify the area or the specific
applied to contro l the hazard and put out the fire. Team location where the heat ignited the fuel and the burning first
members should ensure the fire is co mp letely ext inguished occu rred . Determin ing the po in t o f o rig in requ ires the
before they leave the area. When departing or backing out of analysis of in format ion fro m four sources:
the area, they should never turn their back on the charged • The physical marks, or fire patterns, left by the fire.
equip ment or circu its. • The observations reported by persons who witnessed
the fire (including brigade team members) o r who
Preservation of Evidence were aware of condit ions present at the t ime o f
the fire.
Industrial brigade members have a responsibility to preserve • The physics and chemistry o f fire init iat ion, develop
evidence that could indicate the cause or point of origin of a ment, and gro wth as they relate to kno wn o r hypothe
fire. Memb ers who d iscover so mething that cou ld be ev i- sized fire condit ions capable of p roducing those
dence wh ile performing fire suppression actions or other conditions.
activities at a fire scene should leave the item in place, make • The location where elect rical arcing has caused dam
sure no one interferes with it or the surround ing area, and age as well as the electrical circuit involved. An elec
notify a brigade team leader or fire investigator immed iately. trical arc is a lu minous discharge of electricity fro m
Respond ing indust rial b rigad e members must be alert and one object to another, which typically b lackens
open-minded when they are invo lved in fire suppres sion objects in the immed iate area.
duties. During the course of their fire suppression work, they Burn patterns and smo ke residue will o ften spread out-
may witness or come in contact with key evidence that might ward fro m the roo m o r area o f o rigin where the damage is
be used to determine the cause of fire. First-arriv ing team the most severe. Because heat rises, the flow of heated gases
members have the responsibility to wo rk with fire fro m a fire will almost always be up and out fro m the po int of
invest igato rs to ensure that impo rtant ev idence is neither origin. Th is upward, outward flo w can usually be recognized
lost nor destroyed. Fire suppression team memb ers should even when the fire affected all o f the room's contents. Often
be trained to recognize and collect important in formation the point of orig in is found direct ly belo w the most heavily
pertaining to the fo llowing issues: damaged area on the ceiling, where the heat o f the fire was
• Behavior of the fire most concentrated.
• Incendiary devices, trailers, and accelerants A charred V-p attern on a wall ind icates that the fire
• Condit ion of fire alarm or suppression systems spread up and out fro m so mething at the base of the " V". An
• Obstacles inverted V-pattern can indicate that a flammab le liqu id was
• Contents used to start the fire.
• Charring and burn patterns The depth of charring can also assist in determining how
Although most evidence is found during the salvage and long a fire bu rned in a part icu lar locat ion. An area th at
overhaul phase of fire operations, the p reservation of ev i- burned for only a few minutes would have mostly surface
dence begins during suppression activities. If evidence could damage and a shallow depth of char. Conversely, materials
be damaged o r dest royed du rin g suppression act iv it ies, that bu rned fo r a longer period wou ld have a deeper depth
cover it with a salvage cover or some other type of protec tion, of char. Th e area with the deepest char is not always the
such as a garbage can. Use barrier tape to keep others fro m point of origin, however.
accidentally walking through evidence. Before moving an Burn patterns are a better indicator o f the point of origin.
object to p rotect it fro m damage, be sure that witnesses are
present, that a location sketch is drawn, and that a photograph
is taken .
Ev idence should not be contaminated, or altered fro m its
original state, in any way. Fire investigators use special con -
tainers to store ev idence and p revent contaminat ion fro m
any other p roducts.
 Dir ect attack F iref ighting operat ions inv olv ing t he applic ation of
extinguis hing agents directly ont o t he burning f uel.
Ele vat e d ma ste r str ea m N oz z le m ou nt ed on t he en d of an
aerial device c apable of delivering large amounts of wat er ont o a fire or
• Wear appropriate PPE to all fires.
ex pos ed building f rom an elev at ed position.
• Underst and the fire t etrahedron and how eliminating one part of
Inci pient sta ge R ef ers t o t he s ev erity of a f i r e w here t he pro -
it will s uppress any f ire.
gress ion is in the early stage and has not dev eloped beyond t hat
• Fire suppression operations can be class ified as either offens ive whic h can be extinguished using portable f ire extinguis hers or s m all
or defensive. (up t o VA") w at er handlines, flowing a m ax imum of 125 gpm (473
• Know and understand your brigade's SOPs on dealing w ith L/m in). A f ire is c onsidered beyond t he inc ipient stage w hen t he use of
diff erent types of fires and extinguis hing agents. therm al prot ect iv e clot hing or s elf -c ontained breat hing apparat us is
required, or an indust rial f ire brigade t eam mem ber is required to crawl
• Nev er t urn y our back on any fire. on the ground or floor to stay below s mok e and heat.
• There are t hree prim ary fire stream s: fog, straight, and s olid. Indirect application of water Using a solid object such as a
• There are t hree types of int erior att ack: direct, indirect, and wall or ceiling to break apart a stream of water, causing it to create m ore
combinat ion. surface area on the water droplets and thereby abs orb m ore heat.
• Large handlines are oft en us ed in defensiv e sit uations t o direct a In direct attack F irefighting operations inv olv ing t he applic ation of
heavy stream of w at er onto a fire from an exterior posit ion. extinguis hing agents to reduc e the buildup of heat releas ed from a fire
wit hout applying the agent direct ly ont o the burning f uel.
• Mast er st ream devic es produc e high -v olum e w ater streams f or
Lad der pi pe N oz zle att ac hed t o t he tip of an aerial ladder t ruc k
large fires.
des igned to provide large v olum es of w ater from an elev ated position.
• Expos ure prot ection refers to actions that are tak en to prevent the M aste r st re a m dev ice A larg e c apac it y noz z le t hat c an be
spread of fire to areas not already burning. supplied by tw o or m ore hos e lines or fix ed piping. C an flow in ex c ess
• Vehicle fires are c om m on in m ost c om m unities. Giv en t heir of 300 gallons per minute. I nc ludes deck guns, port able ground
ex plosive pot ent ial, proceed w ith caution. monitors, ladder pipes and ot her elev at ed devices.
• Spec ial tactic s m ust be used to extinguish a flam ma ble liquid fire. Po rtab le mo n ito r A m as t er s t ream applianc e designed t o be set
up and operat ed from the ground. T his dev ic e is designed t o flow large
• Flamm able gas cy linders t hat are expos ed to direct heating are
amounts of w ater onto a fire or ex pos ed building f rom a ground-level
subject t o cat ast rophic failure, c om m only c alled a boiling-liquid, pos ition.
ex panding v apor explos ion (BLEVE).
Soli d strea m A st ream m ade by us ing a s m oot h bore nozz le t o
• Class C fires inv olv e energiz ed elect ric al equipment. produc e a penet rating stream of wat er.
• The pres erv ation of evidence begins during suppression activities. Straig ht strea m A st ream m ade by us ing an adjust able nozz le that
is set t o provide a straight stream of w at er.
Thermal protective clothing Protecti ve clothing such as
helm ets, foot wear, gloves, hoods, trousers, and c oats that are designed
and manufact ured to protect t he fire brigade m em ber from t he adv ers e
effects of fire.
Boiling-liquid, expanding-vapor explosion (BLEVE) An W ater h a mme r An ev ent t hat oc c urs w hen f low ing w at er is
ex plosion t hat c an oc c ur w hen a t ank c ont aining a v olat ile liquid is suddenly st opped; t he v elocity of the m oving w ater is transferred t o
heated and the t ank f ails. ev eryt hing it is in cont act w ith. T hes e tremendous forc es c an damage
C o mb i nati o n atta ck A t y pe of att ack em ploy ing bot h t he direct equipment and c aus e injury.
and indirect att ack m ethods.
ID ec k gun Apparat us-m ount ed m ast er st ream devic e int ended to
flow large am ounts of w at er directly onto a fire or ex pos ed building.
 D uri n g a mai ntena nce tur na ro u n d p eri o d, y ou r fire b ri gade rece ives a n a lert
statin g t hat a fi re has o cc ur re d i n a te m p o ra ry mai nte na nce s ho p loc ated o n
the e dge of a p ro cessi n g u nit. As the fi rst -d ue e n gin e tu rns the c or ner to wa rd
the i nci de nt lo cati on , th e bri ga de lea de r ri di n g i n the fr ont pa sse n ger seat
inf or ms y o ur cre w t hat t he fi re n ot on ly i nv olves t he te mp o rary m ai nte na nce
sh op, whic h is ma de of scaff old co mp o ne nts a n d ply wo o d, but has als o
exten ded t o t wo ve hicl es sittin g next to t he s ho p. T he fir e is a ls o i mp in gi n g o n seve ral racks of
co mp res se d-ga s cyl in de rs a n d s eve ral t otes of al co h ol-ba sed ch e mi cal a d ditives , wh ic h are
stage d a djace nt to t he pr oces s area . The b ri gade lea de r i nf or ms y o u t hat he wil l ass u me
co m man d an d co mp lete a s ize - u p of th e fir e ar ea. He o r der s y o u a n d th e othe r t wo cre w
me mb ers o n t he en gi ne to in itiate fi re c o ntr ol o pe rati on s.

1. W hic h of the following haz ards w ould c oncern you 3. Aft er k noc king dow n the bulk of t he fire, a group of
relat ed to t he v ehic les that are on fire? brigade mem bers are ass igned t o extinguis h the fire
A. Shock abs orbers in t he engine c om part m ent in one of t he vehicles.
B. Toxic s m ok e from burning plast ic W hic h approac h s hould they us e?
C. Alt ernativ e fuels A. Attack the f ire from directly in f ront of the v ehicle
D. All of the above B. Attack the fire from a 45-degree angle from either
of the f ront c orners of t he vehicle
2. W hic h of the f ollowing operations w ould allow t he C. Attack the fire t hrough t he fir ew all in t he vehicle's
greatest flow of wat er wit h the least am ount of m an pass enger c om partm ent
power? D. None of the abov e
A. Deck gun
B. Large handline 4. W hat w ould be the great est potential haz ard w ith the
C. Port able m onit or fire inv olv ing t he c om press ed -gas cylinders ?
D. M ultiple att ack lines A. BLEVE of the cylinders
B. Act iv ation of a cy linder press ure relief v alv e
C. Fire from m at erials being released from t he
cylinder v alv e
D. The c ylinders falling ov er