Int.J.Econ.Environ.Geol.Vol.

8(1) 1-7,2017
Ertugrul et al. /Int.J.Econ.Environ.Geol.Vol. 8(1) 1-7, 2017
Open Access
Journal home page: www.econ-environ-geol.org ISSN: 2223-957X

8th International Symposium on Aggregates (2016) Kutahya, Turkey

Analysis of Geological, Mechanical and Characteristics of Aggregates Used in

Tailings Ponds
G. Ertugrul¹, E. Goz², A. Ucar¹*

¹Dumlupinar University, Mining Engineering Department, Küyahya, Turkey

²Dumlupinar University, Geological Engineering Department, Küyahya, Turkey

*Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Increasing social demand, economic developments, consumption fluctuations, urbanization, industrialization,
modernization, population growth and technical needs have resulted due toincrease in the production of natural
resources throughout the world. However, there is a less importance focused on the environmental regulations. Waste
water is one of the environmental problemsthatmining activities may cause. It contains a lot of solid and liquid
contaminants.Aggregatesare found among the most abundant ones in natural resources. They are obtained from river
basins, sea and lake edges, quarries and industries as by products and waste. During mining activities or terminated
mining activities, these materials are used in the creation of stability, impermeability and settlement of tailings dam. In
this paper, construction of tailings pond by using aggregates are given in detail together with their classification,
particle stability, particle shape, particle size, particle texture, covered in minerals of particle, particle porosity and
trending to chemical reactivity of aggregates.

Introduction Thepotential harm is high; the natural balance of the

tailings pond formed by the drainage of groundwater
Aggregates are defined here as particles of rock, which or wastewater facilities in the mining activities may
when brought together in a bound or unbound cause potential problems. Waste ponds of content in
condition, form part or the whole of an engineering or heavy metals (such as lead, mercury and arsenic), the
building structure. Natural sand, gravel and crushed acid or base content (H2SO4, such as NaOH and NH4)
rock aggregates are fundamental materials for the status and toxicity are major factors threatening the
man-made environment and represent a large environment.Therefore, ensuring permeability,
proportion of the materials used in the construction stability and settlement conditions of waste ponds is
industry (Smith and Collins, 2001). In addition, very important for optimum design. Compatible with
aggregates are used during the mining operations and each of these three elements in the form of
for the termination of mining operations for implementation, regional geology, the chemical
reclamation purpose. reactivitytendency and strength of the aggregate
should be known.
Aggregates containing sand, gravel or crushed
rocksare mainly used for filtering works (land Good filling and ballast (the train route) used as the
drainage, structure drainage, remedial and stability material aggregates can be used in stability and
works, water supply, filtration and purification works impermeability. Aggregates are used here for
and marine works) with specific particle size, grading, protection. There are three general methods, which are
strength, durability, shape, texture, porosity, surface rock fill, riprap method and gabion. As general fill
coatings and chemical activity (Smith and Collins, materials would also be excluded, except for purposes
2001). Description and classification of aggregates of comparison or explanation (Smith and Collins,
related on its type, physical characteristics, particle 2001).
shape, surface texture, color, presence of fines, presence
of coatings, extraneous material, petrological Aggrerate Geology
composition (monomicitic or polymictic), petrological
name, geological age (for sedimentary rocks), Rocks are classified as sedimentary, igneous, and
petrographicdescription, sample reference, certificate of metamorphic. Sedimentary rocks especially carbonate
sampling, source and also identified by petrographic rocks such as limestone and dolomite ubiquitously
thin section examination, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X- used as aggregates. Limestones are used for aggregates
ray diffraction analysis (XRD), Scanning Electron with good strength, low possibility of alkali-silica
Microscope (SEM) (Smith and Collis, 2001). reaction and reduce the drying shrinkage in concrete
(Carlos et al., 2010). Carbonate facies and facies
Sedimentary facies plays important role on the color sequences must be defined for evaluation and selection
and pattern properties of limestone that its changing of aggregates for applications.Facies may change
has negative effect on the quality of the limestone vertically or laterally by diversity of fossil content or
(Turk et al., 2010). grain size (Tucker and Wright, 1990). Variations of
the color and pattern related to the facies that
Nowadays, a number of environmental problems can negatively influences on the quality of the limestone
occur due to the growing industrialization.
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(Turk et al., 2010). A limestone’s classification is derived from the interlocking or cementation of
often difficult to identify during fieldwork due to the individual mineral grains that pay attention to
diagenesisbutsome techniques will help us i.e. assessment of the strength and abrasion resistance of
petrographic thin section observation according to these aggregates (Smith and Collins, 2001).
Dunham (1962) and/or Folk (1962) limestone
classification, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Particle durability can be defined as the resistance of
stable isotope analysis (Morse and Mackenzie, 1990). the aggregate under its working conditions to cyclic
variations in temperature, load, moisture content,
Aggregates Features freezing and thawing, and chemical environment. It is
essential that filter aggregates are durable in the long
Particle size, grading, strength and durability are the term and this is particularly important where high
key properties, as these determine permeability, ease strength is not a characteristic of the aggregate. Any
of construction, stability and longevity. Particle sizes breakdown of the constituent particles would increase
in filter aggregates can range from fine sands to the fines content of the filter and alter its design
boulder-sized material. The aggregates are usually grading and efficiency (Smith and Collins, 2001).
placed and compacted in an unbound condition. The
completed filter layer or bed will usually need to have Particle shape, is, after grading, as important as
the following properties: structural stability (especially strength in a filter aggregate and can be discussed
if placed in an unconfined situation); durability; high under two main headings. The first relates to whether a
permeability combined with resistance to internal particular particle is basically equidimensional in
erosion of fines; low frost susceptibility; low shape or whether it is flaky or elongated. In general, it
susceptibility to salt aggression, chemical attack and is desirable for filter aggregates to be essentially
solution loss. Physical and chemical breakdown in equidimensional as this aids the flow distribution
service may seriously impair the design grading of a through the medium and also facilitates packing of the
filter, adversely affecting its performance. The coarser and fine constituents and improves the
strength, shape, surface texture and composition of the effectiveness of the filter. The second important shape
individual particles will have an important influence characteristic is roundness and again it is better for the
on the above properties as will the abrasion resistance filter aggregate to have rounded, as opposed to angular
and crushing strength of the aggregate since, if these edges to most particles (Smith and Collins, 2001).
are deficient, it may degrade during placing and
compaction (Smith and Collins, 2001). Particle texture affects to a lesser extent both the flow
of liquid through the filter and the filtration
Grading is fundamental to the design of a filter, characteristics of the material. A smooth glassy
detailed consideration of which is beyond the scope of surface is useful from a drainage aspect but not so
this report. Filters in contact with natural soils or efficient from a filtration or fines ingress viewpoint,
controlled fill material may be designed in accordance where a rougher surface texture is considered more
with criteria originally was given by Terzaghi and advantageous (Smith and Collins, 2001).
Peck (1967), but current practicefavours the design
criteria developed by Sherard and Dunnigan (1985 - Some aggregates have a coating that may, or may not,
1989) and it was issued as guidelines (U.S. be easily removed during initial processing. Coatings
Department of Agriculture 1986). Multi-layered are commonly composed of clay, silt, calcium
construction will tend to be used for the thicker filter carbonate, iron oxides, silica or gypsum, but other
layers. A very wide range of particle sizes, from fine coatings can occur. Such coatings may vary in
sand up to boulders, might, therefore, be used in thickness and hardness and are, on the whole,
different parts of a filter zone. An important undesirable in filter aggregates. They shouldbe
requirement is freedom from silt and clay and it is removed by scrubbing (Smith and Collins, 2001).
commonly specified that any material passing the 425 The functions of drainage and filtration are not
µm BS sieve shall be non-plastic when tested in significantly affected by particle porosity which can
accordance with BS 1377 (British Standards however, be expected to have a negative correlation
Institutions, Methods of testing soils for engineering with strength and durability. Therefore, the aggregate
purposes). It would also normally have a fine content porosity or a related property such as water absorption,
below 10% (Smith and Collins, 2001). should be measured in order to assess its possible
Aggregate strength, since in the absence of a effects on for example, durability, chemical reaction,
cementitious binder, the stability and load-bearing freeze/thaw or other breakdown mechanisms (Smith
properties of a filter rely on the aggregate particles and Collins, 2001).
alone, these must be strong enough to prevent There are generally no specified requirements for
breakdown during construction and when in use. Fine- chemical inertness or solubility but these should
grained materials normally used for filters are nevertheless be taken into account in relation to the
generally those which nature has selected as the most use of the filter media. It is important that the
durable. Thus, many sands and gravels and fine aggregate is not affected by the chemical properties of
gravels, are mainly composed of the hard and stable the liquid to be treated and also that constituents are
quartz mineral. However, aggregate particles coarser not leached from the filter medium into the filtrate.
than fine gravel are not usually monomineralic but are The latter is more likely to occur with artificial
composed of rock fragments in which the strength is aggregates, such as slag, than with naturally occurring
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aggregates. Slag may also be aggressive to concrete The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance
and, if used, is generally required to comply with the to sudden impact or shock, which may differ from its
stability and sulphur content requirements of BS 1047, resistance to gradually applied compressive load.
British Standards Institutions, Specification for air-
cooled blastfurnace slag aggregate for use in Aggregate abrasion value, the aggregate used in
construction (Smith and Collins, 2001). surface course of the highway pavements are subjected
to wearing due to movement of traffic. When vehicles
Using Aggregates for Waste Water Ponds move on the road, the soil particles present between
the pneumatic tyres and road surface cause abrasion of
As a using for stabilitiy and impermabillity materials road aggregates. The steel rimmed wheels of animal
aggregate may be applied general aggregate tests. But, driven vehicles also cause considerable abrasion of the
use of these aggregates for different purposes, the road surface. Therefore, the road aggregates should be
engineering implementation of tests listed in Table 1 is hard enough to resist abrasion. Resistance to abrasion
recommended. of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los
Angeles test machine. The principle of Los Angeles
Grading Test is that the rock shall comply with to the
abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by use of
defined grading limits after it has been put within the
standard steel balls, which when mixed with
matrix of the rock riprap.
aggregates and rotated in a drum for specific number
Shape test (flakiness and elongation indices) is of revolutions also causes impact on aggregates. The
examined for two indices. First, the Flakiness index of percentage wear of the aggregates due to rubbing with
aggregates is the percentage by weight of particles steel balls is determined and is known as Los Angeles
whose least dimension (thickness) is less than three- Abrasion Value.
fifths (0.6times) of their mean dimension. This test is
The soundness (MgSO4) test determines an
not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3mm. Second,
aggregate’sresistance to disintegration by weathering
the Elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage
and in particular, freeze-thaw cycles. Aggregates that
by weight of particles, whose greatest dimension
are durable (resistant to weathering) are less likely to
(length) is greater than nine-fifths (1.8times) their
degrade in the field and cause premature hot mix
mean dimension.
asphalt(HMA) pavement distress and potentially,
Relative density (oven dried) test is the ratio of mass failure. The soundness test repeatedly submerges an
of an aggregate to the mass of a volume of water equal aggregate sample in a sodium sulfate or magnesium
to the volume of the aggregate particles, also referred sulfate solution. This process causes salt crystals to
to as the absolute volume of the aggregates. It is also form in the aggregate’s water permeable pores. The
expressed as the ratio of the density of the aggregate formation of these crystals creates internal forces that
particles to the density of water. apply pressure on aggregate pores and tend to break
the aggregate. After a specified number of submerging
Water absorption causes the penetration of a liquid and drying repetitions, the aggregate is sieved to
into aggregate particles with resulting increase in determine the percent loss of material.
particle weight. It is defined as a percentage.Ten
percent fines value is a measure of the resistance of Deleterious substances in aggregate, organic
aggregate crushing subjected to loading and it is impurities interfere with the hydration
applicable to both weak and strong aggregates. Fine reaction.Organic matter is mostly found in sand and
aggregates are defined as those passing 2.36mm sieve. consists usually of products of decay of vegetable
The test aims at looking for the forces required to matter (mainly tannic acid and its derivatives).Organic
produce 10% of fine values (i.e. weight of fines matter may removed from sand by washing. In order
aggregates/weight of all aggregates = 10%). This test to determine the organic content of aggregate,
is very similar to Aggregate Crushing Test in which a colorimetric test is recommended. However, this test
standard force 400kN is applied and fine material does not confirm the adverse effect of the organic
expressed as a percentage of the original mass, is the impurity, because high organic content does
aggregate crushing value. necessarily mean that the aggregate is not fit for use in
concrete. Clay present on the surface of the aggregate
The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure particles in the coating form interferes with the bond
of the resistance of an aggregate crushing under between aggregate and the cement paste, adversely
gradually applied compressiv load. With aggregate affecting the strength and durability of concrete. Other
crushing value 30 or higher, the result may be fine materials, which may be present in aggregate, are
anomalous and in such cases the ten percent fines silt (2 to 60 µm) and crusher dust. Silt and dust, owing
value ought to be determined instead. to their fineness, increase the surface area and
therefore, increase the amount of water necessary to
Aggregate impact value, the property of a material to wet all the particles in the mix. In view of above, it is
resist impact is known as toughness. Due to movement necessary to control the amountof sand from seashore
of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to or dredged from the sea or a river estuary, as well as
impact resulting in their breaking down into smaller desert sand contains salt. Coarse aggregate dredged
pieces. The aggregates ought to have sufficient from sea also contains salt. Salts coming through
toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact. aggregates cause reinforcement corrosion and also
This characteristic is measured by impact value test. absorb moisture from the air and cause efflorescenceof
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clay, silt and fine dust in aggregate. Following are the the selection. These size aggregates are used to ensure
two broad types of unsound particles found in the stability and settlement of the tailings ponds.
aggregates. Materials fail to maintain their integrity.
Materials lead to disruptive expansion on freezing or Taken from another thought, there are basically two
even on exposure to water. Unsound particles, if types of sand filter. First, filters are characterized by
present in large quantities (over 2 to 5% of the mass of slow filtration rates, using fine sand and requiring
the aggregate), these particles may adversely affect the infrequent cleaning. Second, rapid filters are coarser
strength of concrete and should certainly not be operating at higher filtration rates and requiring
permitted in concrete, which is exposed to abrasion. frequent cleaning. The action of a filter bed in
Shale and other particles of low density are regarded removing fine suspended matter is complex and not
as unsound. Clay lumps, wood and coal, included in yet fully understood, being a combination of straining,
aggregate are also regarded as unsound. physical forces, which determine the transport of
particles towards and on to the sand grains, and
The procedure of petrographic analysis outlines the surface forces, which hold the suspended particles to
method to be employed in the petrographic analysis of the grains. In slow sand filters, the bed usually
fine aggregate. Unlike the petrographic analysis of comprises of 0.6 m. to 1.2 m. of fine sand supported
coarse aggregate, this method does not provide a by layers of graded gravel 0.2 m. to 0.3 m. thick.
petrographic number. The procedure appraises the Rapid filters usually comprise of 0.6 m. to 0.8 m. of
quality of the fine aggregate. Firstly, the method coarse sand supported on several layers of fine to
determines amounts of silicate and carbonate rock coarse gravel to give a total bed thickness of 1.0 m. to
types. Secondly, the amount of deleterious material 1.3 m. (Fig.1). The sand should be hard, abrasion
including, for example, shale, mica and chart, is resistant and free from contaminants. It should not lose
recorded. The latter is required so as to assess the more than 2% by weight after immersion for 24 hours
potential for problems, such as lack of freeze-thraw in 20% hydrochloric acid at 20 oCboth rounded and
durability and alkali-aggregate reaction. angular grains may be used, but they should not be
flaky. Filter sand is normally obtained from natural
Table 1 Proposed test for assessment of filter aggregates
(modified from Smith and Collins, 2001). sand deposits by sieving, although crushed fines
produced from rocks aremainly quartz minerals. The
Categories of Suggested gravel or coarse layer in a filter system has several
Tests
Test guideline functions. It supports the sand, permits the filtered
Physical water to move freely towards the underdrain and, in
Grading Design test only
Properties
Shape (flakiness and the case of a rapid filter, and facilitates a uniform flow
Not more than 30 distribution. The coarse material should be clean, hard,
elongation indices)
Relative density (oven
No less than 2.5 durable, and free from flat, flaky or elongated particles
dried) (Smith and Collins, 2001).
Not more than 3%
Water absorption
by weight
Mechanical Not less than 100
10% fines value
Properties kN
Aggregate crushing value Not more than 30
Aggregate impact value Not more than 30
Aggregate abrasion value Not more than 20
Los Angeles abrasion
Not more than 40
value
Durability Not more than 12%
Soundness (MgSO4)
Properties lost
Deleterious substances To be assessed
after
Petrographic analysis
examination

To use in tailings ponds aggregates, mineral filler (<63

µm.), Thin (63 . µm. to 4 mm.), container (4 mm. to
31.5 mm.), ballast (31.5 mm to 70 mm) and large (70
mm to 1.3 m.) are examined in five groups.

Mineral fillers have worn this uniform structure by the

physical and chemical processes are a very fine grained Fig.1Settle of filter aggregate (Tibbett, 2015).
more resistant to degradation. They ensure very good
impermeability. Coarse aggregates can hold mineral Landfill Applications Using Aggregate for
filler. Therefore, coarse aggregates fullfil very effective Arrangement of Tailings Ponds
impermeability function like mineral fillers.
Landfilling is the most economical and environmentally
Ballast and large granular aggregates, resistance to admitted method of solid waste isolation.
wear on the physical and chemical processes may be Implementation of waste reduction, recycling, and
low. Therefore, the geological origin of these transformation technologies has decreased landfill.
aggregates and Table 1 values should be considered in Landfill for Solid Waste Disposal remains an important
component of an integrated solid waste management

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strategy (Tchobanoglous, 1993). Landfilling unit is a

discrete area of land or excavation that receives
household waste and that is not considered a land
application unit, surface impoundment and injection
well, or waste pile, etc. In addition to household waste,
a unit may receive commercial waste, non-hazardous
solid waste from industrial facilities with nonhazardous
sludges and sewage sludge from wastewater treatment
plants (US Environmental Protection Agency, 1993;
Environmental Research Foundation, 2009). Tailing
pond components are shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 4 Sequential raising, centerline embankment

(Environmental Protection Agency, 2003).

.
Fig2Systematic tailing pond pomponents (Environmental
Protection Agency, 2003).
Sequential raising upstream embankment of tailing
pond is shown in Figure 3.Sequential raising
centerline embankment of tailing pond is shown in
Figure 4.Sequential raising downstream embankment
of tailing pond is shown in Figure 5.

Release of pore water during tailings consolidation is

the main source of potential contaminant release to the
receiving environment. Thus, the tailings storage
facilities (TSF) design must provide the most effective
means for allowing this fluid to be expelled, while
ensuring significant capture of the contaminated water.
Fig. 5 Sequential raising, centerline embankment (Environmental
Consolidation calculations indicate that the fine nature Protection Agency, 2003).
of the tailings will lead to a relatively slow rate of
consolidation. Therefore, the proposed design includes
a high permeability consolidation seepage collection This drainage layer is designed to allow for active
layer installed at the base of the facility. collection and pumping of the pore water released from
the base and partially at the sides of the tailings mass
during consolidation. To enhance tailings drainage and
to prevent the expelled pore water from entering the
environment, an active pumping system will be
installed (Hore and Duppnow, 2015).Detailed section of
the underdrainage layer is shown in Figure 6.

Soil structural stability plays an important role for

environmental protection. It is named as primary soil
particles held with each other by cohesive forces,
secondary particles and organic matter form soil
aggregates. Stability of an aggregate is its ability to
resist stresses such as tillage, swelling, drying and
shrinking processes and fast wetting by meteoric
water, which cause aggregate disintegration. Structural
stability is the same meaning with aggregate stability,
especially in cases, where the stress to which the soil
is exposed arises from wetting under different
Fig.3 Sequential Raising, Upstream Embankment (Environmental conditions (Kay and Angers, 1999; Glinski and et. al.,
Protection Agency, 2003). 2011).
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Conclussion
Aggregates are useful for different environmental
regulations in soil and water areas. Especially,
sedimentary origin rocks such as limestone and
dolomite are optimum materials for production of
filter aggregates.

Environmental researchers expected that the properties

required for filter aggregates are influenced by the
highly diverse objectives for which they might be
used. In other situations, the shape and size of the filter
aggregates, their operating conditions (including the
physical and chemical environment), and making a
general specification is sometimes impossible. The
predominant requirement are for durability, settlement,
impermeability and measured stability, which will
usually have to be stated from a wide range of
physical, chemical and geological properties. This
might ask for a substantial degree of decision and
experience on the part of the engineer.

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