A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR orm FRENCH, ITALIAN, SPANISH, AND PORTUGUESE LANGUAGES, By EDWIN A. NOTLEY, ‘his Workstn a Tabula form, mach faite tue aeurement of any one of thes Tangunse, and for the stady of tw age is still greater. A COPIOUS VOCABULARY, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, 1S APPENDED. LONDON: TRUBNER & CO., 60 PATERNOSTER ROW. 1868.[pINBUROH: PRLYTED BY BALIANTY¥E AND COMPANY, PAUL WORK.Pumac, . , Aupuanu axp ProxuNcramion, . Anrionns— Dofinito Article Dectined, Indefinite Artiele Declined, Agreement with Noun, . Ina General Senso, Ina Pesticular Senso, In a Paritive Senso, ", Before Countries, £6, Before Nouns of Weight, &e,, Baforo Names of Deity iin, ke,” Before Names of Celcbritios, Beiore Numeral Adjecti Before Two or more Adjectives, Before Possessive Pronouns, « ‘Adverbs of Quantity, With an Hxelamation, CONTENTS. + oY | Sonsraseryes— Formation of the Plural, . oH Of the Gender, Augmentatives Diminatives, 2 4 6 6 8 8 10 ced :ou u 36 16 as is 20 Compound Substantives, Plural of Compound Substaniives, ApseervEs— ‘Yormation of the Feminine, . Formation of the Plural Dogrecs of Comparison, Compartive of Sup Comparative of Inferiontyy Comparative of Equality, ‘The Seperative Degree, ‘Numeral Adjectives Daye of tho Month,” | AID with Numeral, Tho Hour, fo, ity, Pak 36 33 32 34 34 38 40 a rr 48 46 50 5 60 60Aprons, continued — Of Ags : Once, Twice, bo, : Concord with the Nown, Place of Adjectives, : ‘Adjectives of Dimension, Proxovss— ‘Table of Personal Pronouns, « Nominative Case, | Accusative Case,” + Dative Caso, With the Infinitive Mood, With the Imperative Mood, It They, Them, Posseesire Pronouns Conjunetive, Possessive Pronouns Disjunctive, Demonstrative Pronouns, Relative Pronouns, Indefinite Pronouns, Vanas— Conjugation of “To Har » ATO Be” 3 Regular’ Verbs, Tnvegulas Vert, Moods nd Tenses, Tniicative Present, Imperfest and Preterite Dette, Proterite Indefinite, Yrature Tent, rnditional Mood, Imperative Mood, St Subjunetive Mood, 1! Infiaitive Mood, Partiaiplo Present, CONTENTS. mace 62 a 6 85 mo nm Bs 8 88 85 99 on 100 408 2 130 182 150 164 178 185 258 238 288 240 240 2M ud 25 252 254 ‘Yun, continued — Pasticiple Past, mL with Verb Zo be, 3 with Verb Zo have, th Pronominal Verbs, 3 with Unipersonal Verbs, with Infinitive, Paseive Verb, a ‘Neuter Verb, a Reflective Verb, Unipersonal, or Impersonal Verbs, Negative form of Conjugation, Toterrogative form of Conjugetion, Agreement of the Vorb with its Subject, ‘Agrecmnent of the Verb with ite Subjeet in the fora ‘of s Colleetive Noun or Adverb of Quantity, Apvenrs WETS Go) 5 OFPhio LL Of Orden, Of Quality and Comprise OF Dont Of Affirmation aud Negation, Rontation from Adjectives, Place ofthe Adverby ! Aiirmati enti 7 Olorvatins Ga various Advesbe, Remarks on wariona Prepositions, Pioco of tha Proposition, Repetition, Coxsusenoxsy Lt Vooswuuary 22PREFACE. —— ‘Tas work, though on a less comprehensive seale, was commenced some years past, solely for the purpose of the author’s enlarging his own acquaintance with two of the languages treated, and of his acquiring the other two more easily by comparison—all the four having been of real utility, if not of absolute necessity, in his avocations, not ouly in the countries where the languages are spoken, but also in England. The course of instruction now imparted to others is, therefore, purely of a practical nature, based upon long personal experience, and adopted in preference to many of the systems which are advoeated on the study of foreign languages. Far from wishing to pass invidious remarks upon other grammars, or pre- sumptuonsly to assert any superiority in this, the author must be allowed to state the plan pursued by him, and wherein he differs feom others, leaving the mastet or pupil to select the method most in aecordance with his own opinion, In the first place, grammar, as an abstract science, is not here taught, Philological technicalities and remarks upon the origin of words, however interesting to some few, are suppressed, the main object being not to swell a volume, but to give only that which is really necessary. Tt must: not be considered an imperfection to have departed from the generally-adopted method of having a separate portionvi PREFACE. of the grammar devoted to Syntaz, which plan invariably necessitates the repetition of rules already’ given in some other methodieal division of the work, and cannot be of any real practical use ; for, as “syntax” (to quote one author) “is a convenient disposition of the different parts of speech among themselves,”— meaning, though obseurely, the right construction of a sentence—why separate the rules which govern that disposition from observations on any other peculiarities in the part of speech, such as the variations of form on account of gender or number ? Tt is also deemed unnecessary to define the names of the different parts of speech, such as what a relative pronoun is, and why it is so called: the rules and examples will at once show all this. The real, and, without doubt, the most useful object aimed at, is to indicate the principal features in the grammatical construction of the French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese languages: this is endeavoured to be explained by a collection of all the most necessary rules, each one illustrated by an example or examples taken from classic writings, from newspapers, and from any modern literature showing the prevailing phraseology, and all translated into English, As French is the most universally Imown, its rales are placed in the first column, and those of the other languages are compared with it and with one another; so that, whatever language may be under study, the rule in the French division should be first read, Where it differs from the others is shown in the parallel columns, In this manner a knowledge of more than one language can be acquired at the same time, while the real principles of grammar are more easily comprehended, for they are the same in all tongues, although different idioms exist, and these are learned only by actual practice, Every language abounds in idioms, a mere fraction of which could fill a volume, yet grammars devotePREFACE, vit some pages to formal lists which a student would as soon think of committing to memory as ho would attempt to remember all the proverbs of Sancho Panza. It is a great mistake to suppose that a mere grammar is sufficient to teach a pupil to speak and write a foreign language unaided by his own efforts and by thoso of his tutor, and that the publishing a quantity of idiomatieal expressione adds value to a work of this description, Long lists of exceptions and irregularities are next to useless, such as in verbs, of which the Spanish language alone contains upwards of jive hundred; also of partiviples. A good die- tionary, which is indispensable, contains this and other information which is often unnecessarily inserted in a grammar. Nevertheless, as it has been observed that the more common or necessary may bo the use of a verb, the more it is subject to irregularity of inflection; and that, consequently, verbs which are irregular in one language are, for the most part, irregular in others of like derivation, several are here conjugated and arranged alphabetically as regards the Wnglish equivalent. On adverbs, (and the same observation might apply to prepositions) Corticelli remarks: “ Molti sono gli avverbj, e pit che molti i modi avverbiali della lingua toseana, né sarebbe senza noja Pannoverargli qui.” Still, for the sake of those who are studying more than one of the four languages, a table is given of one hundred adverbs Properly classified, and each classification in alphabetical order as regards the English word, Interjections are not alluded to : they are too soon learned without the aid of a preceptor. As an important, if not the first necessary step in the acquirement of language, is natnrally an acquaintance with the names of objects, a copious vocabulary is appended. Tt consists of about two thousand five hundred words in most common use in each language, ‘The student is cecommended to earn them by degrees, giving to the task if ouly a quarter of an hour every day. It will assist him in hisviii PREFACE. reading, which, undor the guidance of a grammar, and with the assistance of a good dictionary, is by far the most successful, if not the only means of becoming familiar with the idioms of languages. One cannot read too much, especially works containing colloquial phraseology, such as dramatic writings. Newspapers are also great aids, not only because they are, as a rule, correctly written, but because they necessarily adopt expressions in constant use, This cannot be said of poetry, which Inxury is too frequently placed in the hands of pupils before they are enabled to spell ont an ordinary sentence in prose, ‘The time that js sometimes employed in construing one canto of Dante or of Caméens would almost suffice for any intelligent leaner to translate the whole of Gil Blas, or the greater part of Goldoni’s plays, It has already been hinted that this publication does not pretend to give a complete analysis or a thorough enumeration of all the difficulties which present themselves in the acquirement of a foreign language, but it professes to give rather more than a general outline of study ; and the author may be permitted to assert that a Knowledge of its contents will give to the learner no mean insight into the construction of the four southern languages, During the time that it has been in preparation and compilation—for, after all, a great port of any grammar must be mere compilation, (you eannot alter the conjugation of the verb Parler, to speak, nor the meaning of the numeral adjective ‘Tre, three,)—it has been observed that, professors are teaching one foreign language with the assistance of another, thus practically realising the idea of this work, and adding testimony to the utility of a comparative grammar, ‘Much eare and labour have been bestowed in the endeavour to lessen difficulties which ave usually found in comprehending clearly the following points :—The right employment of personal pronouns in the nominative, dative, and aecusative cases ; the distinet uso of the imperfect and preterite tenses indicative 5PREFACE. ix the peculiarities of the subjunctive mood, especially in the Spanish and Portuguese languages; and the variation of the past participle. ‘These parts of grammar are all capable of being subjected to fixed rules, which cannot be said of the capricious government of prepositions, and of a few other obstacles which are overcome only by reading, Although some few of the rules given do not appear in other books, (for they are formed on the examples themselves.) the greater part are recognised by the following undoubted authorities — In the French division, by the “Grammaire Nationsle” of Bescherelle fréves, (than which, perhaps, a better grammar does not exist in any tongue) by the “ Grawmaire des Grawmaires,” and others, In the Ttalian, by Corticelli, Buommatei, Cieiloni, and Lemmi. In the Spanish, by the Grammar of the Academy, by F. I, A. Chalumean de Verneni, Emanuel del Mar, and others. Of the Portuguese language there is a very poor collection of grammars, ‘The best that has come under the notice of the author is by F. S. Constancio, written in French, and published in Paris 1849, ‘Although not sufficiently modern, it is well worth the study of those who might desire to compare Portuguese with its Latin origin. Vieyra’s appears to be the favourite, im fact, almost the only one generally known ; but it has several inaccuracies, some of which axe noticed by John Laycock, whose grammar, published in Leeds 1825, is also rather behind the age, for Portuguese has lately undergone some changes which will be remarked upon in the course of this work, ‘There is also a grammar by Mr DOrscy, published 1860. It possesses some useful notes on the modern style of writing, bas plenty of exercises, and is a slight improvement upon Ollendorff, It may be here observed that Portuguese is notx PREFACE. sufficiently studied, in spite of its increasing utility, not so much in respect to literature, but in eommereial pursuits, In the immense and flourishing empire of Brazil, where so many of ont comntzymen ate located, it is singular, and ab the same time humiliating, to remark how few ever apply themselves to earning the language with any degres of correctness. ‘They appear to nest satisfied with acquiring the kitchen jargon of their nigger servants, Iearning it in the same manner as it is imparted to a parrot, a courier, or a Levantine barber—that is, by oral instruction only, and in just sufficient quantity to make their wants known, There are, of course, some exceptions, and these experience the value of understanding the construction of the Portuguese language, The examples which illustrate the rules in this book are mostly from La Bruy’re, Bossuet, Lamartine, Napoldon, Boccaccio, Goldoni, Manzoni, Cervantes, La Sage, Urraca, Corticelli, Coustancio, Guerini, and others, besides publie journals, Whatever deficiencies may be found here, the author hopes that this small addition to the many educational works daily appearing will at least afford some assistance in the study of modern languages,ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. ‘Te must be admitted that without the aia of oral instroction, a correct idea of pronunciation exnact oe gained, No one by ‘writing cam teach tho nasal sounds of the Frenoh » and the Portuguese do, Ube open snd close sounds of the Ttalian e and a, or ths, ‘guttural of tho Spanish g and j. Nevertheless, some assistance can be given to the pupil who is obliged to dispense with a'master, ‘or who is unable to go whore the language is spoken, 1 nocenmyy to expan Sat i tho able of ap habol he Jtters which would cgsapy the Munk sptco are pronowoond in the ‘pune manner as those in the Wrench column, where the equivalent sound is given in English, For instanes, 4 in all the languages is sounded like ai, or like a in ara, Where a dash is made, the letter does not exist, TABLE OF ALPHABETS, pe 08. marta, ssa ponrocurse 3 oe. ‘The SranishD and Vhave alma the ss, hay. thay fas thane) sy. gos fehay tay i hae) v. as & Se yen, axes Jy, (Shark) day, tar) Jar, (asia Beench Ho GyGeem erinmenre) Bs mae sa L Ee Gaon ee. hota, (Rttara,) oa, G soft as In French) i tte tat s oe 3 a by 00 200, Bore & ae 1. or Wasoundvetneen oo and you) 00 , ow, Vv vay, 7 “vay, (see letter B) wee = had — Foe = Stier wie tee etary Ip, (pronounced Ike the ter x) a ma” Gals ‘hata ike tha in thang 5." :xii RENCE. ‘The Vowels are all pronounced as shown in the Alphabet: Example —de (a thimble or die) is like the English da in the word date, ‘The Consonants are pronounced as in English, with certain exceptions noted in following observations -— € before a, 0, x, is, when marked with the Cedilla (,) sounded like s'7 as, ga (here) is pronounced like sar in the word sardine, Ch axe sounded like shy as, chat (a eat) is pronounced like shar in the English word sharp (Note «.) Ge and gi have scarcely an equivalent. sound in Eng- ish; they are pronounced in French very like ¢ in ‘the English word measure. HZ in French is sometimes aspirated, as in English, sometimes silent. Tis like g in French, before ¢ or is ju in injure (an sjury) have almost the same sound as eu in the English word measure, PRONUNCIATION, Same. } Some, C before ¢ and é sounds like oh in cheat and in chin, ‘Sce in Talian are pronounced like shia in shape, and sci like she Ch in Ttalian are sounded like k, or ea hard; as, cheto (quiet) is pronounced like the word Cito (Note 2.) Ge and gi in Italian have the soft sound of the Eng- Tish g in gem and gipsy. Gue and gui sound like gay, guoee. Gua are sounded like gear or goal; as guardia, (a guard) is pronounced like goo-ahder, in Italian is silent, Jat the beginning or in the mile of a word is pro- nounced like ¢ in English ; ase, of Jeri, (yesterday,) sounds like e-a spoken briskly’; ‘at the end of a word it is pronounced like ee, Note «.—The letter #in Fronch is not sounded at the end of a word, except somotimes, for the suko of enphony, before another wont beginning with a vowel ‘Note 4. there iano letter I in the Tallan Tanguage, tho hard ¢ and ch supplying its place,PRONUNCIATION, xii SPANIBtT rontvoursn. 4 sn \ Some, } Same (Note «) } Same (Note 6.) before ¢ and ¢ sounds like ¢h in thane and thick, € before a, 0, u, is sounded (as in French) like s when Ch, considered by Spanish grammarians as one the former is marked with the Cedilla, (5) 28, capa Gistinet letter, have the sound of ck in chest; (chase) is pronounced like kah-sah, as, chal (a shawl) is pronounced like chart in Ch are sounded (as in French) like sh; as, charpa (a Charles scarf) is pronounced like skanper, Ge and gi in Spanish have the guttural sound of A: no equivalent in English, Same as French Same. } Same. } same, } t J in Spanish is always guttural si Like j in French. fs, (see general remark below.) S Note a—The Band Vin Spanish have almost the seme sound, and are sometimes written one for the other, according to taste, cexoept before the letters J anil 7, or at the end of @ word or ayllable, when b must always be used. S alvaye has the sound of & in thhe English word send ‘Note b—3 and at the beginning of a word or syllable aro sounded as in English; otherwise they have a nasal sound, ex- ‘cept when the Totter n is followed by fin the same word, when it resembles the ga in French,xiv PRONUNCIATION. rueweut. TmaAtrAN, ™ in Italiz ds like kw; (he is Qu ate pronounced like k, { See as qua (here) is: pro- LX sounds like ds, as in English. { ‘Same as French, Z as in English, but with a hard or soft sound, which cannot be taught by rule. Zs in English, General Remarks.—The liquid sound of Win French corresponds with the gli of Halian, (Note a,) the 2 of the Spanish, and the Zh of the Portuguese, all which are pronounced like gl in seraglio. Note a,—In the Italian word negligere, and a few others, the g is sounded hard.PRONUNCIATION. xv SPANISE, PORTUGUESE, Qu sound like except in a fow words, euch as quando, frequente, &e., which are pronounced kwando, Qu, same as French, frequente, &e. X's pronounced like sh, except when followed by a Same as French, consonant, and in a few words, such as prowimo. in these instances it is pronounced like s8. hein Spanish is sounded like th in thane, \ Z asin English. ‘The gn in the French word seigneur corresponds with the Italian gn, the Spanish wi, and the Portuguese nh, as, seflor and senkor axe pronounced like senyore.COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR2 ARTICLES, A general table is given, showing the manner in which this part of speech is declined. Particular attention should be paid to the Italian method, which varies more than that of the others, for the purpose of perfecting the ouphony of the Ianguase. ‘Several rules which follow will show that the article is often used by foreigners where it is not expressed in English, and the contrary; also, that where sometimes in English the éndejinite article is employed, French and others make use of the definite. It is not practicable to place together all the Definite Article. PRENOH, Ze, tho, before a noun, mase. sing., beginning with a, consonant or HI aspirated. La before a noun, fem, do, do. do. Z’ before any noun begining with a vowel or H mute. Tes before any plural noun, mase. or fern. Du, of or from the, before a noun, mase. sing., beginning with a consonant or H aspirated. de Ta beforo a noun, fem, do. do. de U before any nown beginning with a vowel or H mate, des before any plural noan, mase. or fem, ITALIAN, T0before a noun, mase. sing., beginning with aconsonant, Za before a noun, fem. sing., do. do. Z before a vowel or before ¢ in the plural. Zo before s followed by another consonant (Note a), or before J before a noun, maso. plural, beginning with a con- sonant, Le before a noun, fein. pl. do. do. Gli before plurals beginning with a vowel (except 4 which takes g?) or with « tmpura or 2. Del before @ nown, mase. sing, della before a noun, fem. sing. dello before s impura or & 5 dei before » noun, mase. pl, beginning with a con- sonant. Note a—This ¢ is called by the Italians * impura.” Corticei says that fo should also be used after the preposition per, a per to quale, Z1is eomotimes, tough not often, found before =,ARTICLES. 3 riiles where the article ought to be used, or where it may be suppressed, because they vary in the different languages compared. Tt must be observed that the article likewise performs the part of a pronoun, in which eapacity it is hereafter mentioned. Definite Article. sPANIER, PORTUGUESE, i, the, before a nown, mase. sing. © before a noun, mase. sing. La before a noun, fom. sing. @ before a noun, fem, sing, To, neutral, (for instance, before an adjective used asa ot before a noun, mase. pl. substantive.) cs before a noun, fem. pl. Los before nouns, mase, plural. Jus before nowns, fem. plural. Dil, of or from the, before a noun, mase. sing. Do before a noun, mase. sing, de la before a noun, fem. sing. da before a noun, fem. sing. dle to, nevitral, dos before a nown, mase. pl. dle {os before 8 noun, mase. pl dag before a noun, fom. pl. de las before a noun, fem. pl.4 ARTICLES. FRENCH, Au, to or at the, before a noun, mase. sing, beginning ‘with a consonant or TT aspirated. & la before a noun, fem. sing. do. do. &P before any nown beginning with a vowel or H mute, ‘aux before any plural noun, mase, or fem, STALEAN, dalle befor « noun, fem, pl., beginning with a eonsonant, degli before plurals beginning with a vowel (except ¢ which takes deql’) or with ¢ impura or al before a nown, mase. sing. alla before a now, fem. sing. allo before # impura or & «ai bofore a noun, mase. pl., beginning with a consonant, alle before a noun, fem. pl, do. do. agli before plurals beginning with a vowel (except ¢ which takes ag?) or with ¢ impura or 2 Indefinite Article. Un, a or an, bofore » noun, mase, ‘une before s noun, fem. dun, to or aba or am, before a noun, mase, & ane before # nown, fom. tun before a noun, mase, tuna before a noun, fem. tun’ before a noun, fom., beginning with a vowel. ‘uno before & noun, mase,, beginning with s impura or & aun (or ad wn) (Note a) before a now, mase, @ una (or ad una) before a noun, fem, 4 uno (or ad uno) before a noun, mase., beginning with a impura or & Note ai—The preposition a may ada d before a vowel, or the sake of euphong.ARTICLES. SPANISH, PORTUGUES, ai, to or at the, before s noun, mase, sing. a9 before a noun, mase. sing. é ta before a noun, fem. sing, 6 (Note a) before a noun, fem. sing, 4 los before a noun, mase. pl, ‘aoe before a noun, mase. ph (las before a noun, fom, pl 4s before a noun, fem, pl Indefinite Article! tun or uno, a or an, before a nown, mase, ‘um (Noto b) before a noun, mase, ‘una before @ noun, fem, ‘una before a noun, fom, un, to or at a or an, before a noun, mase, ‘a.m before a noun, mase, d wna before a noun, fem. a uma before a noun, fem. Note a.—Ohserve that d (accented) is a combination of the preposition « and the article a. ‘Note b.—This article ia frequently vweitien with an h, as haan, hua, but not in aecordance with modern usages6 ARTICLES. FRENCH. rau, @un, of or from a or an, before a noun, mase, di un before a noun, mase, une before a noun, fem. dit una before a nown, fom, di uno before @ noun, mase., beginning with ¢ impura or, Agreement with Noun. 1, Mthe article must always agree in gender and num- {sane ‘er with its nom, Examples. Examples. Le gargon ‘The boy. IL signor ‘The gentleman, Les femmes ‘The women. Le signore ‘The ladies, Remark,—The article in French is generally repeated Y gory ‘before every noun, . In a General Sense. 2, "The article is used before all nouns taken in a gen- eral sense, before the names of arts, virtues, vices, - Same, metals, éee, Examples. Examplee, homme est mortel. Man is mortal. Gli womini sono mortali. ‘Men are mortal, Te fer est util. Tron is useful. Il erro 3 utile. Tron is useful. Za vertu est louable, ‘Virtue is laudable. La virtit 2 lodevole. ‘Virtue is laudable.ARTICLES, SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, de-un, of or from a or an, before a nowi, mass. de wm before a nown, mase. de una before a noun, fem. de uma before « noun, fem. Agreement with Noun. } same, } Sane. Examples. Beamples. Et hombre ‘The man, homem The man, Zax mugen’ ‘The women. as mulheres ‘The women, Jn Spanish, a repetition is only necessary for the J g purpose of avoiding obscurity. ame In a General Sense. \ sama \ Same, Evamples. Exampler © homem 6 mortal ‘Man is mortal. Tos hombres gon mortales, Men are mortal. EL biexro os util. Tron is useful. O ferro € util. Tron is useful. Taindustria y ia diligencia Industry and diligence are 4 catidade bom ordenada comega Charity begins at ‘son hijas de Za esperanza, the offspring of hope. por nds mesmos. home.8 ARTICLES, In a Particular Sense, 3. A Noun denoting some particular object tales th eA. . A Noun denoting some pi object takes the pens } Same. Example, Example, F’homme qui vient de sortir, Eceo /a strada. ‘The man who has just gone out. Here is the street In a Partitive Sense. 4, Substantives in a partitive sense, denoted in In Italian, when a portion of what is mentioned is English by “some” or “any,” expressed or understood, meant, the article and preposition are used, but not are preceded in French by the article with the preposi- where no idea of quantity is given (Note a.) tion de Evamples. Examples. Donnez-moi dx pain, Datemi det pane. Give me some bread. Give me some bread, A+til de fa viande ? Non vogliamo pane, Has he any meat? ‘We want no bread. Noto a.—Buommatet writes :—“ Not dioiamo bere ino, Bere iL vino, here del ino: o il primo significa non astenersi del vino, {i eocondo bare tutto il vino di eui si tratta, © ilterzo bere qnalehe quantith ai vino,” (the first signifies, not abstaining from wine ‘the second, drinking all the wino of which mention is mado; and the third, drinking some quantity of wine.ARTICLES. In a Particular Sense. srasism, ponTUaUEsE, }same, } same, Example. Example. Contamos con marchar /a semana proxima. O tribunal do thesouro nacional, We think of going next week. ‘The tribunal of the national treasury. In a Partitive Sense. In Spanish, a noun, in a pattitive sense, does not require the artielo, } Sane, Examples. Examples, Dome Vind. carne. ¥V. quor presunto Give me some meat, Will you have some ham # § Quiere Vind. dinero? Agni estio ovos. Do you want any money? Here are some eggs10 ARTICLES. Before Countries, &e, FRENCH. 5, The article is most. frequently used before coun- tries, provinces, and kingdoms, but this cannot be laid down as a rule, the exceptions being too mumerous, ‘The names of rivers are always preceded by the article, also several islands. ‘The names of eities and towns do not take the article, except le Caire and a few others, Examples, Les nations de “Europe. ‘The nations of Europe. ‘Les guerres de Ja Russie, ‘The wars of Russia, Ln carte de Paris, ‘The map of Paris, 6. When the preposition iv or from precedes the name of s country, no article is required (Note a.) Examples. Demeurer en France, To live in France, 1 vient de France. ‘He comes from Franee, Note a,—Before the names of the great di Je viens de ’Amérique, TranmaN. ‘The article is used when the whole of a country, provines, &,, is meant; but many islands reject the ticle, Examples, La Rrassin 8 un paose vasto. Russia is a vast country. Za Corsica is said; but Malta, Cipro, and a few others are without the article. } sume, Examples, Ella 2 in Francia, She is in France. Vengo @'Inghilterra, T come from England. ions of the world, tho Fronch nse the definite article: as Tome from America,SPANISH, Same as French. } same, Examples, Los rios de da Russia, ‘The rivers of Russia, Los viajes 4 Za China, ‘The voyages to China. ‘Mi viaje & Canton, My voyage to Canton, Examples. Viven en Brancia, ‘They live in France, Viene de Francia, He comes from France, ARTICLES. u Before Countries, &c. PORTUGUESE, In Portuguese, rivers, provinees, and mountaing always take the article ; as o Ganges, o Himalaya, and most islands, as @ Madeira ; also the names of nearly all empires and kingdoms: as @ Russia, a Italia: but Inglaterra, Franga, Hespanha, and Portugal may be used both with and without the article, Cities and towns do not take the article, except o Cairo, 0 Porto, and a fow others. In Portuguese, the article should be used or not, in accordance with preceding rule. Ecconples, Em Londres ; no Porto. In London ; in Oporto. Vem de Franga ; vem da Bahia, He comes from France ; he comes from Bahia,12 ARTICLES, FRENCH, ImAuIAN. 7. When the names of countries are employed adjee } tively, the article is not required. = Examples. Examples, Roi @'Espagne, Tre di Spagna, King of Spain. ‘The king of Spain Vin de Bordeaux. Vino di Francia, Bordeaux wine, French wina, Before Nouns of Weight, é&c. 8, Tho French use the definite article before nouns of weight, number, measure, éc., where in English the $ Same, indefinite article ean be employed. Examples, Example, Un schelling la livre, Lo zacchero costa sei soldi fa bra, A shilling a pound. ‘Sugar costs sixpence a pound. Doux schellings le cent, ‘Two shillings a hundred. 9. In oxpressing time, the French use the preposition ‘The preposition @ and tho axticle are used in Ttae par, Jian, Evample, Example. ‘Pant par mois, Una lira af giomo. So much a month, A pound a day.ARTICLES. 13 spanisin ronvucvTse, } sumo, } tho ari stil accords with preceding rule Examples. Bramples, Ele de Espaiia. © Tmperador do Brazil, ‘The king of Spain. ‘The emperor of Brazil ‘Vino de Francia, ‘A gazeta de Londres, French wine, ‘The London journal. Before Nouns of Weight, &c. | soe. bs Examples. Esample. Seis duros fa libra. Lengos de cambraia a $3 a duzin Six dollars a pound. Cambric handkerchiefs at three dollars & dozen, Dos chetines ef ciento, ‘Two shillings a hundred. } same } ‘por in Portuguese, Evamgle, Example, Seis libras al affo, "Tanto por mea. Six pounds a year. So much a month,ces ARTICLES. Before Names of Deities, Titles, &. FRENOH, ITATIAN. 10. The article is not required before the names “| Samo: the word “house” also dispenses with thé Neen &e., except in a particular ¢ stic}y when signifying home or dwelling. Eeoamples. Examples. Dieu est tout puissant, ‘Manzoni, novellista Italiano, Giod is all-powerful. ‘Manzoni, an Italian’ novelist. ‘Le Due d'Orléans, prince du enng. Dizionario Francese. ‘The Duke of Orleans, a prince of the blood. ‘A Fronch dictionary Grammaire Bspagnole & Pusage des Frangais, In teatro, in casa, in piazza (Note b.) ‘A Spanish grammar for the use of the French. ‘At the theatre, at home, in the square, Rue Belgrave, quartier Pimlico, ‘Voi siote avvocato, You ate a lawyer. Belgrave Street, Pinlico. Firenze, bella citta, Florence, a fine city. Before Names of Celebrities. 11. The French sometimes use the definite article before names of celebrities, such as great poets, but they may aleo dispense with it, the nsago being a mere (5°™* matter of taste, Evample. Example, Le Petrarque, Z’Arioste. Ii Potrarea, 17 Aviosto. Note a.—In all these languages, whon the names of deities &., denote a partioular sense, the articlo is required: as, ‘Te Diva des Chedticns—The God of the Christians, To sono wn principe sforttmato—T am an unfortunate prince, ‘Te will bo observed in the examples that nouns of title, &,, when no name goes before, take tho article, ‘Ta Tialian, the name of any place belonging to the public generally, such a# a square, a church, a theatre, does not o, unlods in a particular sense.ARTICLES. 15 Before Names of Deities, Titles, &c. SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, lone i ‘Same. Examples. Examples, Lope de Vega, poeta espagnol. ‘Deos, typo da universal perfeigio, Supremo Regulador Lope de Vega, a Spanish poet. de todas as cousas ereadas, El principe Alberto, consorte de In reina Vitoria, God, the type of universal, perfection, the Supreme Prince Albert, the consort of Queen Victoria. ‘Regulator of all ereated things. Yo soy Ingles. Angelo Muniz, presidente do tribunal. Tam an Englishman, ‘Angelo Muniz, prosident of the tribunal. ‘Bst6 en casa de su padre. Eu vou para casa, Ho is in the house of his father. Tam going home. Before Names of Celebrities. \ ‘Same. ‘Same. ; Example. Example. BU Tass0, el Ariosto, o Tasso, o Camves,16 ARTICLES. Before Numeral Adjectives. FRENCH. TALIAN, 12, No article is used before ordinal numbers when they follow a Substantive ; nor before cardinal numbers (5.4, ‘used with a noun which does not particularise any ie object. Examples. Examples. George premier, Pio nono. George the frst. Pius the ninth. Livre second. Libro terzo, verso quinto, Book the second. Book the third, verse the fifth, Pai deux freres. Vogtio tre lire. T have two brothers. I want three pounds, Before two or more Adjectives. 13, Two or more adjectives qualifying a substantive san, thi expressed, and another tmderstood, require the article } 1m Teelinty iD general rule, but to be repeated before each adjective, many exceptions are found. Ezample. Esample. Le premier et le second étage, Historia antica o da: modems, Tho first and second floor. ‘Anciont and modern history.ARTICLES, Ww Before Numeral Adjectives. SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, Bae. Same. Examples, Excamples. Pio nono, Dom Pedro segundo. Pins the ninth, Peter the second. Capitulo segundo, verso cuarto. Livro terceiro, eapitulo quarto. Chapter the second, verse the fourth, Book the third, chapter tho fourth, ‘Yo tengo tres eaballos. Eu tenho tres irmios. Thave three horses. Thave three brothers. Before two or more Adjectives. |. ‘he asticte may or may not be repeated in Spanish, Same. J nocovding to taste, Example. Example Za historia antigua y modema, A historia antiga e modema, Ancient and modern history. Ancient and modera history. B AY18 ARTICLES. Before Possessive Pronouns. FRENCH. 14, Substantives preceded by possessive pronouns do not in French receive the article, thus differing from tho Halian rale. Examples. Mon frice et ma scour viendront. My brother and sister will come, ‘Toute sa vie, 8 ses youx, était en avant, All his life, in his own sight, was in the future. ImAuaN, The possessive pronoun before a substantive takes the article in Italian, eeeyt before a noun of kindred or title in the singular number, and not preceded by an adjective. Examples, Tt mio libro 5 ta mia cass, My book; my house, Vostro fratello, ‘Your brother. With Adverbs of Quantity. 15, No article, but only the proposition de, is used with adverbs of ‘quantity, like much, few, more, &e, except after dien in the sense of much, Examples. Beaucoup de science, Much science, Plus de solitude, More solitude. Pai Bien de Pargent, Thave much money. Tn Italian, neither the article nor the preposition is ‘used, and adverbs of quantity become adjectives, Examples, AMfolto pane ; poea birra. Much broad 5 little beer, Molté amici. Many friends. Nou ho abbastanea tela, T have not enough cloth,ARTICLES. 9 Before Possessive Pronouns. SPANIBH, PORTUGUESE, ‘In Portuguese, a noun preceded by a possessive pro- noun may dispense with the article, but frequently (Some ss French, takes it for the salve of emphasis or euphony. J Excamaples. Examples. Deme V. mis medias, No estado actual de seus conhecimentos, ntlo sabem hoje Give me my stockings. ‘oncle andam os seus soldados, ‘Su madre y hermana, In the present state of their news they know not to-day His mother and sister. ‘where their (own) soldiers go, Nascido em nossos pagos, e sob 0 nosso ceo, ‘Born in our courts and under our sky. With Adverbs of Quantity. Hume, \ Same, Examples. Examples, ‘Yo tongo muchos amigos y pocos enemigos. Pouca chuva ¢ muito vento. 1 have many friends and few enemies, Little rain and much wind, iene demasiado dinero. Tem demasiado dinkeiro, He has too much money. ‘He has too much money. ‘Dem bastante paciencia. He has enough patience,20 ARTICLES. With an Exclamation. wreyen. ITALIAN, 16. No article is required with an exclamation where } sometimes a or an is used in English. Example. Pecample, Quel malheur! Che casa bella ! ‘What a misfortune ! ‘What a beautiful house! SUBSTANTIVES. Tt is needless, if not incorrect, to give the declension of a Substantive ; for nouns in the modem Southern Ianguages do not vary, as in Latin, in order to form a particular case; but their meaning is modified by the aid FRENCH, Formation of the Plural. ITAL. 17. The plural of French nouns, whether maseuline 17. Ttatian Substantives all end in vowels, and or feminine, is formed by the addition of an s to the change for the plural as follows :— singular. Such is the general rule, Examples sNoLaR, PouRan. stxoULAR, HLORAT into ¢ as Candela candle candele Bomme aman hommes € into 4, as Padre father padri Femme a woman femmes 6 into i, as Mano hand mani Mont b nutons am Gut noe, rule Except the folowing, which are irregular » Teto ahead ‘ites Din wmo re mille Loup a wolf Joups Dei womini re mila, plural,ARTICLES. 21 With an Exclamation. sPaxist, rormucvnse, } Same. } sume. Eewnple Example, Que bella mager! Que cousa bonita What « bemutifel woman! What a protty thing! SUBSTANTIVES. Of the article and preposition, as shown in the table of tho Article dectined. spaston, Formation of the Plural. PORTUGUESE, 17. Spanish nouns form their plural terminations as 17, Tho plural of Portuguese nowns is formed as follows follows — A noun ending in a vowel (not accented) takes sin A noun ending in a vowel in the singular adds an tho plural to form the plural Evamples, Examples, sorta, runt swoon, riven Hombre man hombres Quadro picture aqnadtos Padre father padres Bai father pais Cana bed amas Comm thing ous22 SUBSTANTIVES. FRENCH, ‘To the foregoing rule there are certain exceptions, a8, follows 18, Nouns ending in al and aid change these termin- ations into ans, Examples. stxovtan, yoomst Cheval horse chevanx Soupirait ent-holo soupirause Although somo words follow the general rale of adding s to the singular, namely Bal, Carnaval, eal, chacal, cérémonial, ‘régal, sandal, attirail, détaily gourernail, Goeantail, sérail, mail, poitrail, and sometimes, though rarely, travail. Bétail and Bestiaue both mean eattle, and are synonymous. 19, Nouns ending in aw and ew add a to form the plural. Bramples, Chateau castle chateaux Lieu place liewx Except bleu, which adds 2. 20, Nouns ending in ow in the singular form their plural by adding ans, according to the general rule, except the wors eaillou, chou, genou, hibou, pou, which take a in the plural ; as, cailloux, é&e, rmaLraN, 18. Nouns ending in co, ca go, ga, for the most part take h before the final vowel, in order to preserve the hard sound of the consonant. Eiiamples, srvocnam, rovnate Antico ancient antichi Barea boat barche Obbligo obligation obblighi Lega Teague leghe But to this rule there are some exceptions : as, Amico friend amici Tedlogo ‘theologian teologi Greco Greck Greci Poreo hog porei 19, Some nouns ending in the singular in 40 drop the 0 to form the plural: as, occkio, eye, occhi, ph 5 ‘others change io into j as, premio, reward, premj, pl. 20. ‘The following terminations are invariable :— 2B (accented) as (htt, town or towns, i 88 crisi, crisis, 6. or pl. A (accented) as virtis, virtue or virtues,SUBSTANTIVES. 23 ‘SPANISH. 18, Nouns ending in consonants (except 2) also those tormivating in 4 or ¢ (accented,) form their plurals by lulding es to the singular, Examples. smounAR puvnat, Cation amon caftones Gaarnicion garrison, guamiciones Saperior superior superiores Ley law eyes Bajé pasha dajdes Hieceyt a few, such as crisis, having the accent on the ponult, and which are invatiable ; also paps, mamé, Wf, which add ¢ to form the plural, 19, Substantives terminating in + change this letter {nto ces to form the plural. Examples. envertan, LVR. Las ight luces ‘Actriz actress actrices PORTUGUESE, 18. Nouns ending in do have three different ways of forming the plural, viz. -— jst, By adding on « asording to the sbove general male: 8s, Trio (brother) 2d, By changing Go into Bes: as, Disposigio (disposition) disposigoes, pl 8d, By changing @o into Ges; as, ‘Eserivao (serivener) irmiios, pl. eseriviies, pl. Remark,—No certain, fixed rule can be established for this termination, 19, Nouns ending in consonants add es to the sin- gular, with certain exceptions, Examples srxouram PooRAte Colher spoon colheres Vor voice yous Seukor sir senhores 20, Those terminating in # in the singular are in- variable in the‘plural,a SUBSTANTIVES. FRENcH, 21. Nouns ending in «, 2, 2, in the singular, remain ‘the same in the plural number. 22, Some words até irregular in the formation of the plural ; such an Giel, meaning heaven in goneral terms, should be, in the plural, ce meaning any perticular sky, should be céels ; as, Sous un des plus beaux eels de ’Europe, Under one of the most beautiful skies of Europe. Gil has two plurals; namely, yeux, when expressing the organ of sight: els in such compound words as ceilde-beouf, (a kind of window.) Aicut, meming. grandfather, is written aiews in the plural; but, when meaning ancestors or grand- fathers, it should be aieux. IrAntaN, 21, There are some nouns ‘ending in o which are masculine in the singular number, and by changing the ‘termination into a become feminine in the plural. Examples, suvounan. vues. Un miglio amile Je miglia Un wovo an egg Je uova 22. Also several ending in o singular, with two ter- minations for the plural ; namely, ¢ mase, and @ fem, Examples, suxovnan, tang, EPMA Braceio ann braced braccia Dito finger ditt dita Ginoechio knee ginoechi ——_ginoechin Grido ay gridi grida_ Labbro lip lobbri Iabbra Membro limb membti —_ membra Muro wall muri mura Oso bone ossi oss Riso, Taugh rit Nisa Remark —Legno, wood, has three terminations in the plural: Zegni, meaning wood in general ; legne and legna, signifying wood for burning.SUBSTANTIVES. 25 SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, 21, Nouns ending in al, ol, wl, change the J into es for the plural, Examples, siwowuan, Puma. Animal animal animaes Sol sun 00s Pal marsh paties Except cal, consul, mal, which ada es + as, cales, do 22, Nouns ending in ef change the into is, Example Parcel, a hidden rock parecis, pl. 23, Nouns ending in change the 2 into s, Example. Fanil fannel fants, pl 24, Nouns ending in em, im, om, um, change the m into as, Examples. Homem man homens Fim end fins Dom don dons ‘Atum ‘tumy atans26 SUBSTANTIVES. Of the Gender. PINCH. 26. The French language has no nenter gender ; therefore, inanimate objects are either masculine or feminine. Remark —Tt is perfectly nseless to attempt giving any rules by which the gender of French substantives, representing inanimate objects can he ascertained, ‘Many grammarians have vainly endeavoured to classify them: but reading and frequent reference to a diction- ary are the only feasible methods of aequirement, Some nous are masculine in one sense and foruinine in an- other, The following are those in most common use 26, Aigle, engle, meaning an ensign or armorial bearing, is feminine as, Vaigle frangaise, Tt is mascu- Jine in ‘all éther senses, 27. Chose, thing, is masculine, when used with the word quelque, except when followed by a verb in the subjunctive mood : as, Quelque chose de grand, Something great Quelque chose que jtate faite. ‘Whatever thing T anay have done, (Gere in the feminine, the verb being in the subjunc- tive.) ITALIAN. Same, ‘The gender of Italian nouns is much more ‘easily subjected to general rules than that in the French lan- gnage. The masculine and feminine are distinguished as follows :— 26, Masculine nouns end ino except mano hand eco echo inme ,, arme arms fame hunger | spame hope | “= inre — febbro fever & madre mother | polvere dust g \ sere axe 4 torre tower | 3 inate — corrente current | gente ple lento eae | 3 mente mind semente seedSUBSTANTIVES. Of the Gender. 27 SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, | san. \ Same. ‘Same, Same, 26, Feminine nouns end 26, Feminine nouns end. in a, except in a, except Guardacosta ceustom-house boat Dia day Gaardaropa wardrobe ‘che ten Tapaboca slap on the mouth Planeta planet and, as in Italian, several words adopted from ee 5 tee Grok: a, and, as in Tialian and Spanish, soveral ‘Pome, poem Clima climate worls adopted from the Greek : as, ‘and names of professions, &e., applying to men, in d, except Clima climate and nouns signifying occupations belonging, Ardid stratagem to men : as, Laud lute Mariola, a porter, Sud south, in ade, except and a fow others, nee a son oxcapt : vainde ceruse Gorrion sparrow in ude, except Mortion steel helmet. Alaiide Inte28 SUBSTANTIVES. FRexost, Chose is also masculine when uscd with autre in an indeterminate sense: as, Autre chose de Bon est yrromis, Some other good thing is promised. Bote that de is employed after chase and before the adjective which qualifies ik In all other senses this noun is feminine. 28. Couple, when speaking of two beings united by marriage, friendship, family, &e., is mascutine : as, Tn couple charmant. A charming couple, When not referring to persons, it is feminine : as, Une couple de pigeons, A brace of pigeons. Tne couple Phenres, A couple of hours. 29. Délice is masculine in the singular woraber, and. ~feminine in the plural : as, Tn vrai aélice, A true pleasure, Mes plus chires délices, My dearest pleasures, TrAUIAN, 27, Feminine nouns end in a, eocape several words derived from the Greek, and names of professions, &e., applying to men: such as, Cima imate Poema poem which, with Problema problem | many others, Tema theme are mascu- Dontiste dentist Tine, Farmacista chemist in u, except Ragh, ragout, and some names of countries ; as Corll, Perl, which are mas- culine, 28, Names of fruit-trees ending in 0, and which aro of the masculine gender, by changing the termination into a, become feminine, and then signify the fruit ; aa, Mandordo an almond-tree, Mandoria almond. 29, To the preceding rule there are some exceptions : the following express both the éree and the /ruid, and are masculine :— Arancio orange Dattero date Fico Sg Pomo appleSUBSTANTIVES. 29 SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, 27. Masculine nouns for the most part end in any 27. Masculine nouns for the most part end in any other letters than @, d, or ion, other letters than a, ade, wie, 28, The following, both in Spanish and Portuguese, are the most common among several exceptions to the preceding rule: custom has assigned to them the feminine gender. It is worthy of remark that most of the words are written precisely the same in both languages, srawisn, onrvaune, sranistt ronrcatser, Cal Time eal | Gente people ‘gente Flor flower flor Came flesh came Nuez mnt oa Peste plague pesto Graz, cross emus Parte part parte Corte court ebrto Suerte fortune sorte Pas peace pan Col cabbage conve Vox ‘voice vox Vex time ves Lux ight Inz Tonigen image imagem Ley Jaw Iek Llave key chavo Fé faith 6 Torre tower torre Nieve snow nove Noche night noite Muerte death morte Liebro hare Icbre nade duck adem Serpiente serpent serpento Base base base Fiebre fever febre Fuente fountain fonte Tarde afternoon tarde Ave fowl aye30 SUBSTANTIVES. FRENCH, 30. Gens, All Adjectives and words relating to this, noun are masculine when following it: as, Ce sont des gens excellent, ‘They are excellent people. And feminine when they precede the word gens: as, Les wietiles gens sont soupgonnenx. Old people are suspicions. When the words certain, tout, quel, tel, immediately pre- cede gens, they are placed in the feminine ; but, if an- other word intervene, they must be in the masculine: as, Certaines gens Wesprit. Certain people of talent. Tous les jeunes gens sont imprudents. All young people aro imprudent. 81. The following are masculine in the first significa tion, and feminine in the second :— ‘Mase Fem. Livre book. pound Manche handle sleeve Mémoire memorandum memory Mode system fashion Page pttendant page of a book Poste place; position for letters ‘Souris smile mouse Tour turn tower Trompette trumpeter trumpet Foile veil sail, ITALIAN, 30. Some nouns are of both genders: as, Tl, or la fine the ond I, or ka folgore the thunderbolt I, or la fonte the fountain 31. There are some few nouns which are masculine in one signification, and feminine in another: as, Mase. Fen. Dramma a play dram weight Margine margin sear Tema theme fear,SUBSTANTIVES. 31 SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, 29, In Spanish, there are several nouns ending in s, 29. There is no correct rule for distinguishing the denoting qualities ‘in the abstract; such are generally gender of nouns ending in Go; although the greater (feminine : a8, part take the feminine gender, a very large quantity are Fluides Hiquidity of the masculine. Liquides Tiguidness32 SUBSTANTIVES. Augmentatives. FRENCH. 32, The French language has not the advantage pos- sessed by the others of being able to augment nouns by the addition of certain terminations called Augmenta- tives; but adjectives must be employed to qualify the object. Examples. Un homme grand a tall man Un vilain homme a disagreeable man, ITALIAN, In Ftalian, the noun may be augmented by changing the last vowel into one or otto: a feminine noun thus changed becomes masculine, Remark.—There are also several terminations, such as accio, astro, azo (a in the fem, :) these imply con- tempt, or convey the idea of some bad quality ; their ‘use should be attempted only by thoso well acquainted with the language, Examples, Tibrone, a great book ‘un bel donnone, a fine woman, Libro, a book ‘Una donna, a woman Diminutives. 33. Almost the same remark may apply here, as in the preceding on Augmentatives ; but sometimes a noun may be mado a diminutive by the addition of ette. Examples. Un petit homme ‘Maison Maisonette a little man a house a small house, Italian Diminutives are:-— ino, ello, eto, masculine ‘ina, ella, etta, feminine. ‘When adding these, the last vowel of the noun is sup: pressed (Note a.) Examples. Libro, a book libretto, a small book Casa, 2 house casetta, a small house Note «.—Some diminutives are irregular in their formation : as eanc, » dog ; cagnwolino, a Little dog.SUBSTANTIVES. 33. Augmentatives. SPANISH PORTUGUESE In Spanish, the nown is augmented by adding tho The terminations in Portuguese (Note a) most com- following terminations to the last consonant, monly used are -— ‘on, ote, azo, for the masenline, ‘ro, carrito, Udo, for the masculine, ‘ona, ota, aza, for the feminine, ona, ota, for the feminine, Bometimes a feminiue noun becomes masculine when __Vilifying nouns, or those expressing contempt, are of ‘wugmented. frequent nse: they mostly end in elo, apo, ara. ‘Phe same remark applies to them as that in the Tialian column, Examples. Examples, Hombre, aman ‘hombron, a tall man Chapeo, a hat chapeiréto, a big hat Muger, a woman‘ mugerona, a masculine woman Maher, a woman maulherona, 9 masculine woman Mosea, a fly moscon, w large fly. Sabio, a learned man sabichdio, a pedant. Diminutives. ‘Spanish Diminutives are :— Portuguese Diminutives are :-— io, tt, too, uelo, masculine, ete, ilo, iho, inho, zinho, maseali ‘lla, ita, ica, wel, feminine. ita, itha, inka, sinha, feminine, Mhose are added to the last consonant of the noun. Evamples, Examples, Lugar, a village Tugarete, or Iugarinko, a Suan, John Fuanito, Yittle Joka Tittle village, Casa, house casita, small house. Cara, a face carina, a little face. ‘Noto a.—The manner of adding these terminations ia vory irrogular in Portuguese when the last letter of the noun is a vowel. After a litle practice, the ear will be the hest guide. = ¢3h SUBSTANTIVES. Compound Substantives. RENOH, 34, In English, there are several compounds ex- pressed by two noms; these in French require the preposition & between them, and sometimes the article, Examples. Moulin ean vwator-mill Machine & vapeur steam machine Pot au lait milk-pot. ITALIAN, In Ttalian, a preposition is also required, namely— da when the idea of use is implied ; @ when wishing to express “by means of,” or Cith Examples. ‘Una camera da letto a bed-toom Bastimento a vapore __steam-boat: Casa a tre torri house with three towers, Plural of Compound Substantives. 35. French compounds mostly consist of two words joined together by a hyphen, a preposition sometimes Intervening. When the words are two substantives, or a-substantive and an adjective, each takes the mark of ‘the plural, except when a preposition comes botween : in which ¢ase the first noun alone is changed to form the plural (Note a.) Verbs, adverbs, and prepositions are invariable, Italian compounds are not, like the French, joined together by a hyphen. The parts compoundéd are made to form one word, which is subject to the rules already given on the formation of plurals, or they aro used separately with a proposition as in preceding ex- amples, the first noun only taking the mark of the plural. Noto a.—Téte-h-této is an exception : it remains the sume in tho plural: ns, dea téted-tete,SUBSTANTIVES, 35 Compound Substantives, SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, In Spanish, tho proposition de is employed, except in ‘Same, fome instances where para (for) is required in order to give the precise meaning (Note a.) Examples, Esamples, Canrto de dormir 1 bed-room Instrumento de vento a wind instrument ‘Maquina de vapor steam-machinery Maquina de vapor steam machinery Botella para vino wine bottle. Papel para eartas, letter paper. Plural of Compound Substantives. ‘The Portuguese frequently join two words by a hyphen, the last word alone taking the mark of the Same, plural ;' but it is correct to follow the rule laid down {or Italian and Spanish compounds, sobe .—Botella de vino means a bottle of wine,36. SUBSTANTIVES. FRENCH. ITALIAN, Beamples, Examples, sINOULAR, . ruvran, stsoutan, Un chienloup a wolf dog des chiens-loups Un Inogotenente a Tioutenant Un grand-maitre a grand-master des grands-mattres Un areobaleno a rainbow (Note a.) Cavadenti tooth-drawer Unare-enciel a rainbow des ares-encciel, Uneure-dents a tooth-pick des eure-dents Un pourboire drinkmoney —_—_ des pour-boire, ‘Note a,—When grand is used with an apostrophe, itis invariatl 5, dea grand!-méres, PLURAL Iuogotenenti carcobalené eavadentisxaviar, ‘Un lugartonionto ‘Un sacadinero Un sacamuelas SPANISH. Examples. a lieutenant a toy tooth-drawer SUBSTANTIVES. PORTUGUESE, Examples, PLURAL. stscunan, Iugartenientes. Um lugartenente _a lieutenant sacadineros —Passa-tempo, or —_—pastime sacamuelas, Passatempo (The latter preferred.) 37 roomate lugartenentes passa-tempos, OF passalempos.38 ADJECTIVES. General Remark —No particular explanation of this part of speech is necessary: the nature and office of the Adjective are easily comprehended, In all languages, it agrees in gender and number with the noun it Formation of the Feminine. FRENCH. 36, Tho feminine of French Adjectives is formed, as a general rule, by the addition of ¢ mute to the maseu- line singular, some adjectives in er and ef accenting the last ¢ of the masculine (Note a.) ITALIAN, ‘The feminine terminations in this language are not: subject to so many variations as in French. Most adjectives end in o and e. ‘Those in o masculine change into a for the feminin¢ Bvamples, Evamples. as, zen, as, Fem Petit lite petite Cattivo bed eattion Etranger foreign trangire Umido damp wnida. Sceret secret secre, ‘Note a.—There are soveral Fronch adjectives isrogalar in the fort jon of the feminine termination ; the principal are:— Dowx, m, — donen, f Poblic,m, publique, Gros, m.—grosse, £ Gentil, m. gol, Fux m. Gaume, em Robo te Beat, m. Bellet Tong.'m. fone,’ Views mi. viille Bae nose, £ Ryvorm. favorite, Mourn,” olla Blane, im, bleh, xprtsym, expen, Komi folle f Nouveaa, m. nouvelle, rang m- tranche’ £——Ggyahe grin Fram, free, f Soon, fetta, Also e large number ending in eur, which have four different, termine rie, eves ions in the fori ne, namely, changing eur into eure, cuss 8, antérieur, m., antéricure, £3 doudeur, i. boudeuee,f &c. For these, a dictionary is the best reference,ADJECTIVES. 39 ‘qualifies, to this effect, varying in termination according to the rules which follow. Tts degrees of comparison are Aiterwards given, and its position in a sentence determined, so far as it is possible to do so by any fixed rules. Formation of the Feminine, spans portvounse, Feminine Adjectives are thus formed — ‘Those ending in o mase, change this letter into a, }same, ote a.) Example. Example, Serio, mass, "serious seria, fom. Famoso, mise, famous fumoea, foi. All other terminations are common to both — J g, genders. jeme, Eoamples, Examples. Habil, —mase, and fem, skilful Feliz, mase. and fom. happy Inferior, inferior Gent, gontecl Elegante, elegant. Breve, short. Note @.—8, only or alone, whon it serves as an adjective, is the only one in o whichis common to both genders, (except numerals, and aotue ia ao z) but it takes for the plural, as: As religiosas estio a¢s com Deos—Nuns are alone with God.40 ADJECTIVES. PRENCH. ITALIAN, 37. Adjectives ending in ¢ mute remain the sume in Adjectives ending in ¢ masculine remain the same in the feminine, the feminine, Bcamples. Examples. Un jeune homme a young man Mase Fen. Tne jeune fille young girl. Amabile amiable amabile 38, Exceptions to tho general rale are as fallows -— ‘Andace audacious audace Aaj. in f change into ve as, Remark—There are some fow adjectives in i which Actif, mase. active, fom, are also invariable in gendor, into se: as, Joyeux, mase, Joyeuse, fom, in on, en, et, cil, et, double the final cousonant and take ¢ mute: ag, : Bon, mase. Bonne, fom, Actitel, mase, actuelle, fom, Formation of the Plural. 39. The plural of Adjectives is formed in the same ) manner as that of Substantives, pSame. Examples, Examples, srravran, suman, sixavtan, ruvat, ‘Un joli gargon a pretty boy des jolis gargons. «Uomo bello. a fino man nuomini deldt Une jolie fille a pretty girl des jolies filles. Donna bella a fine woman donne belle Une belle femme ahandsome —_—des belles femmes Uomo felice. a happy man uomini felict woman Donna felico a happy woman donne felici, Un habit noir ablack coat des habits noirs,ADJECTIVES, 41 SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, With some fow exceptions, such as adjectives derived Ezeept some adjectives derived from the names of eoun- from names of countries, which add a to the masculine. tries, and a few others in or, wm, u, which add a to the masculine, Examples. Examples, Espafiol, mase. espaiiola, fem, Portuguey, mase. portugueza, fom, Ingles, mas. ‘inglesa, fem. Cru, mase. (raw) erua, fern, Remark.— A few adjectives in ao change this termi- nation into d (accented): as, ‘Mao, mase, (bad) ‘md, fom, Formation of the Plural. some } same, Examples. Examples, avian, rurnat, savas, moms, Hombre bello a fine man hombres bells Homem feliz happy man homens felizes Mnger bella aa fine woman mugeres bellas —-Toalha fina fine towel toalhas finas Muchacho feliz a happy boy muchachos felices Autoridad central central authority autoridades cen- Muchacha feliz a happy girl muchachas felices. traces ‘Mulher agradavel agreeable woman mulheres agra daveis,42 ADJECTIVES. Degrees of Comparison. PosmvE, FRENCH. ITALIAN, 40, The Positive expresses the quality of an object | gang, without any comparison, Example. Example. Un beat cheval a fine horse, Un piceolo bambino a small child, Comparanivs, 41, ‘The Comparative is divided into three classes: | namely, of Superiority, Inferiority, and Equality. ‘aes Comparative of Superiority. 42, This, in French, is formed by plus (more) before the adjective, the word than being expressed by que. Examples. Un élément plus universel et ples simple que Y'oosan, An clement more universal and simple than the ocean, Ti avait uno soour plus jeune gue ses frdres, ‘He had a sister younger than his brothers, In Italian, place pit (more) before the adjective, the ‘word than being expressed by aii and by che, as follows:— By di before a proper name, a numeral adjective, or pronoun which is not the subject of a verb follow- ing it, Exanples. EEgli 8 pid rieco di voi e di Bernardo, is richer than you and than Bernard, Pie di tre lire. More than three pounds, Voi siote pit generoso del vostro amico. ‘You are more generous than your friend,ADJECTIVES. 43 Degrees of Comparison. Pournivn spaxisn. ronrvavEss, } same. } same, Evample. Example. Una muger rica rich woman. Vina excellente eleigio am exeellent choice, Compananivn, }same. same, Comparative of Superiority. In Spanish, the Comparative of Superiority is formed by placing mas (more) before the adjective, the word } Tn Portuguese by mats (more) and gue, than boing translated by que. . —_ Examples. - Examples. Til es mas viejo que ella. HB mais forte que seu irmao. He is older than sho is. He is stronger than his brother. ‘Pione mas dinero que yo. Elle 6 mais rico que ella, ‘He has more money than I. He is richer than she is Remark.—The Portuguese frequently place the word do before que.44 ADJECTIVES. RENOM, ITALIAN, ‘Than is rendered by eke before a pronoun which is the subject of a verb following it, and when the com- parison is between two substantives, adjectives, adverbs, ‘or infinitives, Examples. Bagli & pir dotto che io non eredeva, He is more learned than I thought. Si vedono pitt servé che padront. More servants than masters are seen, Ella pitt ricea che bella, She is richer than she is beautiful. E meglio tardi che mai. It is better Iate than never. E meglio ridere che piangere. It is better to laugh than to ery, Comparative of Inferiority. 43, Tho Comparative of Inferiority is expressed by ; ‘moins (less) before the adjective, and fea after a } Tn Tialian, by meno (leas) and che, Example. Example, Bille est moins riche que son frere, Bigli 8 meno ricco che generoso, She is less rich than her brother. He is less rich than generous.ADJECTIVES. 45 SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, Comparative of Inferiority. jin Spanish, by menos (lees) and que, } Same. Example. Example. El oro es menos util que el hierro, 0 ouro 6 menos util que 0 ferro, Gold is less useful than iron: Gold is Jess usefal than iron.46 ADJECTIVES.. Comparative of Equality. Reon. ITALIAN. 44, ‘This is expressed by tho words aussi and que. ‘Tho Italian Comparative of Equality is formed as follows :— Evample. Examples, Qui lance Phomme et ses armées auet loin et aussi vite Egli 8 tanto dotto quanto il maestro, que sa pensée, Or, casi dotto come » ‘Which urges on man and his armies as far and as quick Or, » dotto quanto), as his thought. Or, altrettanto dotto che He is as leaned as the master, The Superlative Degree. 45. Tho Superlative Degree is both relative and abso- Jute, It is relative when expressing an idea of com- parison, and then requires the definite article before the adverbs of comparison, such as more, leas, better, &e., except when a possessive pronoun precedes the adverb, Same ; except that the article should not be repeated, when the adverb follows the noun, Examples. Examples. Les parfams les plus suaves et les plus inconnus arti- Wella pit bassa falda, vaient jusqu’ aux vaisseaux, On the lowest side. Perfumes the most fragrant and unknown reached the Luomo pit dotto. ‘vessels, ‘The most learned man, ‘Son plus puissant ennemi, ‘His most powerful enemy.ADJECTIVES. a7 Comparative of Equality. sPANisit voxtvavest, } In Spanish, by tan and como, } In Portuguese by fio and como, Brample. Example. Tuan es tan rico, como Alberto, Toiio 6 to rico como Alberto, Sohn is as rich as Albert Sohn is as rich as Albert. Before another adjective, evan may also be used in- . stead of como as, Same of quando: a5, ‘les tan rico ewan hermoso. B do vieo quanto bello. ‘He is rich as he is handsome. He is rich as he is handsome. The Superlative Degree. ‘Same as Italian, ‘Same. Beamples, Examples. La mas ingrata muger. ‘A maie viva alegria do povo. ‘The most ungrateful woman, ‘The liveliest joy of the people. Los sucesos mas comunes, Com a conjianga mais expressiva, ‘The most common incidents, ‘With the most expressive confidence,48 ADJECTIVES. PRENCR. ITATIAN. 46, The Superlative Adsolute admits of no compa- \ Kame: it may aloo be expressed by changing 1 rison, and is expressed by means of adverbs, such 88 /ya¢¢ vowel of the positive into dasimo (Note a.) very, infinitely, ke. Beagles. Examples. ‘Mon pire était trés riche. Onesto honest My father was very rich. Onestissimo Bile est tryiniment belle. Molto onesto | very honest, Sho is exceedingly beautiful. “Assai onesto Co que vous dites est parfaitement juste, ‘What you say is perfoctly just, ! 47, ‘The following adjectives, among others, form } ‘their degrees of comparison ixregalacly : In Italian, thus + Poste Comparative Supertatire, Paatve, Comparative, Saperllive: Good bon Better meilleur Best le meilleur Good buono migliore ottimo Bad manvais Worse pire Worst le pire. Bad cattivo peggiore pessimo Little petit. Less ‘moindre, Least Te moindre, Little piccolo minore ininimo, Note —Aahutivn ending in. am 9 ak he liar er in erg, hae in 9 drop both theADJECTIVES. 49 spas, PoRTUGUESE. Jn Spanish the Superlative Absolute is also expressed by means of adverbs, such as very, &e.; or by adding ‘Same, and hy adding dssimo (Note 0.) tsimo to the last consonant (Note a.) Examples. Examples. handsome, Numeroso ‘mumerous, Numerosissimo “Muy hermoso § Yr handsome, ‘Muito numeroso i reny eae }m ‘Spanish thus — . hn Portuguese thus :— Pest, Comparative, Bupalativa sie, Comparative. Sopeatire Good bueno mejor ‘optimo, Good bom melhor optimo Bad malo peor pesimo Bad mao peor pessimo Little pequetio. — menor.—minimo, Little pequeno ‘menor —minimo, Note Note Ble changes into Ui; ¢o changes into gu sz changes into ¢—hefon ino, a changes ino ¢; 96 changes ato gu we ebanges into bi—bafore tina.50 ADJECTIVES, Numeral Adjectives. FRENCH. 48, The Cardinal Numbers remain the same for both genders, except wn, and a fow hereafter noted, 49. The Ordinal Numbers aro as other adjectives, adding an « in the plural. Ordinals are invariable as regards gonder ; they all terminate in ¢, with the ox- ception of “premier” and “second,” whieh make “ pre- miére” and “seconde” for the feminine, ‘caRDnAn XUaEERS, ORDICAL NUMBERS, 1. Un, une Ast, Premier, premidre 2. Deux 2nd. Second, seconde (or deuxi- tme) 3, Trois Bnd. ‘Troisidmme 4, Quatre 4th, Quatrigme 5. Cing 5th, Cinquidme 6. Six 6th. Sixigme 7. Sept ‘7th. Septitme 8, Huit 8th. Huiti¢me 9. Neuf 9th. Neuvitme 10. Dix 10th, Dixitme rrantay. ‘Tho Cardinal Numbers are—like the French—invari, able, with the exception of “uno” and its compounds mille and milione (Note a.) ‘The Ordinal Numbers are as adjectives, agreeing in gender, &e., with their nouns, canprvat NoMBERS, 1. Uno, una 2. Due ‘onDnAL NUMBERS, Ast. Primo 2nd. Secondo Srd, Terzo 4th. Quarto 5th, Quinto 6th, Sesto 7th, Settimo 8th, Ottavo 9th. Nono Oth. Decimo 9. Nove 10, Dieci Note a.—When Cardinal Numbors aro used as substantives, they are declinable : as, ¢ quatéri, i cingui, &, except tre sei, and Aieei, which are invariable ; as, un tre, dus tre, &e,ADJECTIVES. ol Numeral Adjectives. srastsm, PORTUGUESE, In Spanish all Cardinal Numbers except “uno” and In Portuguese all Cardinal Numbers, except wm, one, the compounds of “ciento” are indeclinable, dows, two, and the compounds of cento, a hundred, are indeclinable, same J sume, cunorsst, wows onorvat, owns anos, svunnns, enorsat scamens, 1, Uno Ast. Primero 1. Um, m., uma, fem. Ast. Primeiro, m, a. fem. 2. Dos. ‘2nd. Segundo: 2. Dois or dous, m., 2nd. Segundo duas, fem, 3. Tres 8rd. Tercero ‘3. Tres 3d. Terceiro 4. Cuatro: 4th. Cuarto: 4. Quatro Ath. Quarto: 5, Cinco, Sth. Quinto 5. Cinco 5th. Quinto 6. Seis 6th, Sexto 6. Seis. 6th. Sexto 7, Siete 7th, Septimo 7. Sete, or stte th. Setimo, or septimo B, Ocho 8th. Octavo 8. Oito, or outo 8th. Oitavo: 9, Naove 9th, Noveno, or nono 9. Nove 9th, Nono 10, Diez 10th, Décimo, or deceno 10. Dez 10th, Decimo52 canpnat SOMBER il. 12, 13. i. 15. 16. WwW. 18, 19. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. ‘Onze Dowze ‘Treize Quatorze Quinze Seize Dix-sopt Dixhuit Dixneut Vingt Vingt et un Vingt-deux ‘Vingt-trois Vipgt-quatie ADJECTIVES: FRENCH. onprvat Nownnas, canna SUMBENS, Vth. Onzitme LM. Undiet 12th, Douzitme 12, Dodiei 13th. Treizime 13, Tredicit 1th. Quatorzitme 1d, Quattordiet 15th, Quinzieme 15. Quindiei 16th, Seizi®me 16, Sedici 7th, Dix-septitme 18th. Dichnititme 19th, Dix-nouvime 20th, Vingtitme 21st, Vings et unitme 22nd. Vingt-douxitme 25rd. Vingt-troisime 24th, Vingt-quatritme 17. Diciassette 18, Diciotto 19. Diciannove 20, Venti 21, Ventuno,orVent’- 22, Ventidue 23, Ventitre 24, Ventiquattro ITALIAN, Onpnst NUMBERS, 1th, Undecimo, undicesimo, de- eimo primo 12th. Duodecimo, dodicesimo, de- cimo secondo 13th, Decimo terzo, tredicesimo 14th, Decimo quarto, quattordi- 15th, Decimo quinto, quindieesi- 16th, Decimo sesto, sedicesimo 17th, Deeimo settimo, diciasset- tesimo 18th, Decimo attavo,diciottesimo 19th, Decimo nono, diciannovest- 20th, Ventesimo, vigesimo Bist, Ventesimo primo, vigesimo primo 22nd. Ventesimo secondo, or vi- esimo secondo 23rd. Ventesimo terzo, or vigesi: mo terzo 24th, Ventesimo quarto, or vigest- mo quarto‘CARDINAL SUMHERS, TL. Once 12, Doce 13, Treco 14. Catoree 15. Quince 16, Diez y seis 11, Diez y siete 18, Diez y ocho 19. Diez y nueve 20. Veinte 21, Veinte y uno 22, Veinte y dos 28, Veinte y tres 24, Veinte y cuatro ADJECTIVES. 58 SPANISHL ‘ONDINAT NUMBERS. 11th, Undecimo, or Onceno 12th, Duodéeimo, oF doceno 13th, Décimo tereio, or treceno Lath, Décimo euarto, or eatorceno 15th, Décimo quinto, or quinceno 16th. Décimo sexto 17th. Déecimo séptimo 18th, Décimo octavo 19th. Décimo nono 20th, Vigésimo 21st. Vigésimo primo 22nd. Vigésimo segundo 28rd, Vigésimo tercio 24th, Vigéeimo euarto PORTUGUESE. canDnat, NTODERS, ORDINAT, NEODERS. 1. Onze Lith, Undecimo, or decimo-pri- meiro, 12. Doze 12th, Duodecimo, or deeimo-se- undo 13, Treze 13th, Decimo-tereeiro 1A. Quatorze Ldth, Decimo-quarto 15. Quinzo 15th, Decimo-quinto 16, Dezaseis, or deze- 16th. Decimo-sexto seis 17. Dezasote, or deze- 17th, Decimo-septimo seta 18. Dezoito 18th, Decimo-oitavo 19, Dezanove 19th. Decimo-nono 20. Vinte 20th, Vigesimo, or vintosimo 21. Vinte e um 2st primeiro 22, Vintoe dois 22nd. , segundo 23, Vinte ¢ tres, rd, terceito 24, Vinte e quatro 24th, =~ quarto54 ADJECTIVES. FRENCH, ITALIAN, CARDINAL. oyon, npn. wuacorns, coxmprvan ounens, ORDIAE Nusnns. 25, Vingt-ring 25th. Vingtcinguitime 25. Venticingue 25th, Ventesimo quinto, or vigesi ‘mo quinto 26, Vingtsix 26th, Vingt-sixitme 26. Ventisei 26th. Ventesimo sesto, or vigesi« mo sesto 27. Vingt-sept 27th, Vingtseptiime 27. Ventisetto 27th, Ventesimo settimo, or vie gesimo settimo 28, Vingthuit 28th, Vingt-huitidime 28, Ventotto,or Vent! 28th, Ventesimo ottavo, or vige- otto simo ottavo 29, Vingt-neut 20th. Vingtnenvidme 29. Ventinove 29th. Ventesimo nono, or vigesi- ‘mo nono 30, ‘Trento 30th, Trentigme 30, Trenta 30th, Trentesimo, or trigesimo 40. Quarante 40th. Quarantiime 40. Quaranta 40th. Quarantesimo, or quadra- 5 gesimo 50, Cinguante 50th. Cinquantitme 50, Cinguanta, 50th, Cinquantesimo, or quingua- . gesimo. 60. Soixante 60th, Soixantitme 60, Sessanta 60th, Sessantesimo, or sessagesi- 70, Soixante et dix 70th. Soixante et dixitme 70. Settanta 70th. Settantesimo, or sottuagesi- mo 80. Quatrevingts 80th. Quatre-vingtidme 80. Ottanta 80th. Ottantesimo, Or ottuagesi- mo 90. Quatre-yingt-dix 90th. Quatre-vingt-dixiame 90. Novanta 90th. Novantesimo, or nonagesi- mo 100, Cent 100th. Centiame 100. Cento 100th. CentesimoADJECTIVES. 55 SPANISH. PORTUGUESE. 5 Velnto y cinco spur Vigesino quiito 2. Vintoe eno 25th, Vigesimo quinto 26. Veinte y seis 26th. Vigésimo sexto 26. ‘Vinte e seis 26th, sexto 27. Veinte y siete 27th, Vigésimo séptimo 27. Vinte e sete 27th, septimo 28, Veinte y ocho 28th. Vigésimo octavo 28. Vinte e oito 28th, 4, oitavo 29, Veinte y mueve 29th, Vigésimo nono 29, Vinte e nove 29th, 4, nono 30, Treinta 30th, THigésimo 30, Trinta 30th, Trigesimo 40. Cuarenta 40th, Cundragésimo 40. Quarenta 40th, Quadragesimo 50. Cincuenta Oth. Quincuagésimo 50, Cincoenta 50th. Quinquagesimo 60. Sesenta 60th. Sexagésimo 60, Sessenta 60th, Sexagesimo 70, Setenta 70th, Septuagésimo 70. Setenta Oth. Septuagesimo 80, Ochenta 80th. Octagésimo 80. Oitonta 80th. Octagesimo 90. Noventa 90th. Nonagésimo 90. Noventa 90th, Nonagesimo 100. Ciento 100th. Centésimo 100, Cem, or centa 100th, Centesimo56 ADJECTIVES. PuENo, ITALIAN, ceanorxat, resus, onprxat,soxnuns, canmsay xvwauas, oupixat xumpens, 101, Cent un 101st. Cent-unitme 101. Cent uno 101st. Centesimo primo 102. Cent deux 102nd. Cent-deuxitme 102, Cento due 102nd. Centesimo secondo 200. Deux cents 200th, Deux centidme 200, Dugento, ordue- 200th. Docentesimo eento 1,000, Mille 1,000th. Milligme 1,000. Mille 1,000th. Millesimo ),000. Dix mille 10,000th, Dix millitme 10,000. Dieci mila 10,000th, Decimo millesimo 1,000,000, Million 1,000,000th, Millionidme 1,000,000, Unmilione _1,000,000th, 50, The following are eorrectly speaking substantives, but, expressing the idea of number, may be classed among numeral adjectives, ‘hey are divided into three ¢ Same. Kinds: Ist, Collective, as— Ist, As— . Une douzaine a dozen. Una dozzina @ dozen, Une vingtaine a score. Una ventina a score. Un million a million, Un milione @ million, 2nd, Distributive, as— and, As— La moitié the half, La meta the half. Le quart ‘the quarter. quarto ‘the quarter, 3rd, Proportional, as— Srd, As— Le double the double. Il doppio the double, Te triple the triple, Ti triplo the triple, Le centuple a hundredfold, eéntuplo a hundredfold.ADJECTIVES. oT SPANISH, PORTUGUESE. ‘canppxan NounEns, ‘onpmea woomis, ‘canprnat, wom, ‘OnDINAL UMRERS. 101. Ciento y uno 10st, Centésimo primo 101. Cento e um 01st. Centesimo primeiro 102, Ciento y dos 02nd. Centésimo segundo _—*102. Cento e dois 02nd. , segundo 200. Dos cientos 200th. Docentésimo 200. Duzentos 200th. Ducentesisino 1,000. Mil 1,000¢h, Milésimo 1,000. Mil 1,000%h, Millesimo 10,000, Diez mil 10,000th. Decimo milésimo 10,000. Dez mil 10,000th. Decimo millesimo 1,000,000. Mfillon 1,000,000. Milhao, (Note a) Same Same, Ist, As— Ist, As— Una docena a dozen, Uma duzia a dozen, Una veintena a scare. Uina vintena a seore. Un millon million, ‘Um milo 8 million 2nd, As— 2nd, As— Ta mitad the half. A metade ‘the half, El enarto the quarter, quarto the quarter, 3rd, As— 3rd, As, El doblo the double. © duplo the double. El triple the triple. 0 triplo tthe triple. El ecntuplo a hundredfold. 0 centuplo hundredfold. ‘Note a.—A million of res is expressed by the word conto,58 ADJECTIVES PRENCH. 51, “Vingt” and “cent” tako an ¢ in the except when followed by another number. Examples. Quatre-vingts personnes. eighty persons. Deux cents chevanx two hundred horses. Quatre-vingt-dix personnes ninety persons. Deux cent vingt chevaux two hundred and twenty horses. 52, “Mille,” a thousand, never changes in the plural (Note a.) Examples. Deux mille, trois mille, &c. two, throo, thousand, &o, 53, “Million,” a million, forms its plaral according to the general rale of substantives, ITALIAN. Plarah }«-Veoti” and “conto” are invariable in Ttalian, “Mille,” a thousand, changes into “mila” for the plural. Examples, Due meila, tre mila two, three, thousand, sume, Days of the Month. 54, The French uso tho Cardinal Numbers in men- tioning all the days of the month except the first. Examples, Le premier Janvier the first of January. Le deus Mars the second of March. And it will be observed that the word “de,” of, is omitted, some, Examples. Ti primo di Gennaio the first of January, Li due di Marzo the second of March, But it will be seen that the word “di,” of, is not omitted, as in French. Note a.—In mentioning the Christian era, mille is contracted and written mil; as mil huit cout trois—one thousand eight Ibundred and throo,ADJECTIVES. a) srawistt vonrvavsss. ‘The compound of “ciento” agrees in gender with its canto” substantive in the same manner'as any other adjective, f Same of “conto, Examples. Examples. ‘Dos cientos hombres two hundred men. Duzentos homens two hundred men, ‘Tres cientas mugeres three hundred women, Quatro centas meninas four hundred little girls. “Mil” thousand, is invasiable, as in French, «3fi" a thonsand, is invariable, as in French and Spanish, Examples, Examples. Dos mil, tres mit two, three thousand. Dois mil, tres mit two, three thousand, some } Same, Days of the Month. } same } same, Examples. Examples, Hl primero de Enero the first of January. © primeiro de Maio the first of May. Dos de Marzo the second of March, Tres de Agosto the third of August, ‘The word “do,” of, being used as in Italian—not omitted, as in French, } Same;a ADJECTIVES. “All” with Numeral. FRENCH. 55, “All,” before a number, is rendered in French ‘by “tous” with the definite Article, ‘Examples. Tous les quatre all four, Tous les six all six, Tous les huit all eight. ITALIAN. ATL” in Ttalian, takes the conjunction ¢ (and), ex- cept before a vowel Examples. Tutti e quatro, all four, Putt ¢ set all six, Tutti otto all eight, The Hour, &c. ao, {Te denote the hour, the word “heure” is used Examples. Aue hewre six heures at one o'clock. at six o'clock. ST. “Ago” is rendored in French by “il y a.” Examples, Ty a ane semaine Aly a cing ans a week ago. five years ago. 58. This day month” is expressed by “ds aujourd’hai un mois.” E ° In denoting the hour, the preposition « is combined with the article, and the word “ora” (hour) is under- stood. Examples. All wna della mattina at one o'clock in the morning, Allle quatro della sera atfour o'clock inthe afternoon, “Ago” is rendered by J (makes), 3, or sono, Beamples, Una settimana fa ‘a week ago, Ginque anni sono. five years ago. “This day mouth” is rendered by “da oggi a un mnese,”ADJECTIVES. : a “All” with Numeral. SPANTSE, « All)” in Spanish, before a number, is used with or without the article, as in English. Examples. Todos enatro, or todos los cuatro all four. Todos seis, ot todos los seis all six. Todos ocho, or todos los ocho all eight, vontvovest, } same, Evamples, Todos quatro, or todos os quatro all four. Todos seis, or todos os seis all sis Todos cito, or todos os oit0 all eight The Hour, &. Tn Spanish, the proposition d is used, but not joined to the article, Examples. ‘one o'clock. two o'clock in the evening. Alouna ‘A los dos de Is tarde © Ago” is rendered by “ha” (has) or “hace” (imakes). Examples, Cuanto ba? show long ago # Hace una semana a week ago. Hace algun tiempo some time ago. « Same, may agree with the first noun. Examples. Evamples, Su padre y madre generosos. Seu pai e mai generosoe, ‘His gonerous father and mother. His gonerous father and mother, Bu generosa madre y padte. Sua generosa mai e pai. His generous mother and futher. His generous mother and father, Placo of Adjectives. Adjectives in Spanish generally follow their nouns; With the exception of somo adjectives which always those which always come after agree with the same precede the noun, as in the other languages, the posi- trules given for the French and Italian language. tion in Portuguese depends upon no fixed rule. ‘The ‘Adjectives such as “many,” “few,” &. are placed adjective perhaps most frequently follows the noun ; bofore their nouns, but exphony is generally the best guide : as Um servo publieo de publieos deveres. A public servant of public duties,68 ADJECTIVES, FRENCH. 66, Ist, Thoso expressing names of nations (Note «.) Brample. La revolution frangaite the French revolution. 67, nd, Those denoting eolour. Examples. Des gants noire lack gloves, Des rubans werts ‘green ribbons, 68, 3rd, Those formed from the past participle : Example, Un homme fatigué a man fatigued. 69. 4th, Those expressing some natural or physical quality, a8 “heat,” “cold,” &c, Also adjectives of form. Examples. Un climat chaud Uno chambro earrde a hot climate, a square room, Note a—In all thase Ianguages, when an adjective denotes nationality, ‘when expressing the nation itself, the capital ltter must always be usod, . TrATIAN, Adjectives which come after the noun : Ist, Same, . Example, La tivoluione italiana the Italian revolution, 2nd, Same: Examples. Scarpe werdé arreen shoes, Tnchiostro rosso red ink, 3rd, Same, Example, Un uomo istruito a well-informed man, 4th, Same, Esamples, ‘Tempo wmido damp weather. Una camera lunga a long room, 1 it does not require (as in English) & capital lotter 5 butADJECTIVES, 69 SPANISH, Adjectives which come after the noun, Ist, Same. Evample. El governo inglé the English government, 2nd, Same, Examples. ‘Una casaca negra ‘erciopelo azut a black coat, bine velvet. Brd, Same, Example. Un hombre énstruido a well-informed man, Ath, Same, Examples ‘Tiempo himedo Una mesa evadrada damp weather. a square table, PORTUGUESE, Adjectives which come after the noun, Ist, Same. Bvample. ‘As forgas francecus the French forves, 2nd, Same. Examples, ‘Marroquim verde Em caracteres encarnados green morocco, in red letters, 3rd, Same. Example, ‘Um homer estimado an esteemed man, 4th, Same, Examples. damp weather, Tompo humiddo in the form of a pyramid, Em forma pyramidal70 ADJECTIVES, Adjectives of Dimension. YRENCH, ITALIAN. 70. ‘These are expressed in Fronch as follows : The Italians express dimension as follows : Un mur haut de six pieds, ‘Un muro lungo venti piedi (without tho preposi- A wall sis feet high. tion.) Tne chambro longue de trento pieds ; A wall twonty feet long. or, Une chambre de trente pieds de long, ox, de or, Una camera di venti piedi di lunghezza, Tonguentr. A room twonty feet long, A room thirty feet Jong. 71, The French uso the verb to have” when ox pressing dimension, not the verb “to be,” as in Eng- | Same, lish, Bzanple. Ezample. Co mur a six pieds de haut, Questo muro ha venti piedi di altezza, ‘This wall is six foet high, ‘This wall is twenty feet high.ADJECTIVES. am Adjectives of Dimension. SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, ‘The Spaniards express dimension as follows : ‘The Portuguese express dimension as follows t ‘Un muro de veinte pies de largo (or, de largura.) ‘Un muro de seis pés de alto (or, de altura.) A wall twenty fect long. A wall six feet high, ‘Tres varas de ancho (or, de anchura.) ‘Tres pés de largo (or, de largura.) Throo yards wide, ‘Three feet broad. \ sama | same Example. Enample, La mesa tiene dos pies de altura, A mesa tem tres pés do altura, ‘The table is two feet high, ‘Dh table is three feet high.72 PRONOUNS. General Remark.—Pronowns are classed under five different denominations, namely :—Personal, Possessive, Demonstrative, Relative, and Indzfinite. A separate classification is unecessary for Znterrogative pronouns, as thoy fare only a peculiar form of the Zelalive. In the following table the ablative caso is not added, the pronoun Table of Personal Pronouns, ‘Fist Person, PRENCH. TRALIAN, Singstar Nom. I So, moi. To. Gon. of mo de moi. dime. Dat. to me & moi, me. ame, mi, Ace. mo me. me, mi, Pha N. Wo Nous, G ofas de nous, D. tous Annous, nows. Acc. us: nous, ‘Secoxp Persox, Singuarst N. Thou Tu, tol, Gof thee ae toi. dite D. to thee toi, te. ate, ti Ace, thee te tos tiPRONOUNS. 73 being the samo as in the genitive, and the preposition which accompanies it varying according to the meaning expressed. Table of Personal Pronouns. ‘Finsr Person, SPANISH, PORTUGUESE. Yo. Eu. de mi, de mim, 4 wi, me, amim 5 me. me, 4 mi me; amim, ase, Fem, Nosotros nosotras, Nos. ae nosotros de nosotras, de nds, A nosotros nos, m, and f, & nosotras. 8 nbs 5 nos. Anosotros nos, m, and f 4 nosotras. ands } nos Suconp PERSON. Th. do ti. ati; te, ati; te74 RENCE Prot, N. ‘You Gof you D. to you ‘Ace, you Singstar Mas, N. He Gof him Dd. to him Ace, him Pra tse N. They G of them: D. to them Ace. them Siogue Fem. N. She Ga. of her Dd to her Acc, her Srooxp Pansox—continued, ‘Vous, de vous. PRONOUNS. A vous, vous, ‘vous, TL, lui. de lui. a lui, luk, Ie Tis, ewe, eux, eur, & eux. Tes, Elle, delle. Ini, & elle, ‘Tarp Parson, ITALIAN. Voi. di voi. ayoi, vi voi, vis Eli, ei, e di lui, alui, gli Tui, Io, or ib, Eglino, di loro, a loro. loro, gli, li. Ella. di lei. alei, lo, Ici, Ia,SPANISH, Mase Vosotros de vosotros & vosotros 03, m, and f A vosotres os, m, and £ a ae A 461, le. Te, & a Ellos. de ellos, & ellos, Yes. Jos, & ellos, Ella, de ella, hela Ie, Ia, 6 alla, PRONOUNS. Snoonp Pasox—continwed. vem, vosotras, de vosotras. 4 vosotras, & vosotras, ‘Tum Person, PORTUGUESE, Vos. de vos, a V68 5 vos. a ¥635 ¥os. Bik, delle, alle; Ihe. alles 0. Elles, aelles. a elles ; Ihes, a elles 08. Ella, della. alla; Ibe, alla a.76 PRONOUNS. ‘Tarep Pensox—eontinued. RENCE, ITALIAN, Prorat Pee N. They Elles, Elleno, Gof them elles, Gi loro. D. — to them eur, & elles. a loro. Ace, them Tes, oro, le. Wi orton pepsin Sgaieseyest Aacarig then Myself moi-méme, io stesso me stesso, Thyself toiméme, ‘tm stesso te stesso. Himself Iuiméme, cali stesso se stesso. Herself lleméme, ella stessa se stessa, One's self soi-méme, se atesso Ourselves nous-mémes, noi stessi noi stessi. Yourselves ——_-vous-mémes. vol stessi voi stessi, soi-mémes. ‘Themselves 4 eux-mémes (m.) eglino stossi so stessl. lles-mémes (£) elleno stesse so stosse, So is usod in the third person before a verb, as Si in Italian, as Il se latte he flatters himself, Siloda he praises himself,PRONOUNS. ‘Tump Pexson—continued. 7 SPANISH. PORTUGUESE. Ellas, Els. de ellas. dellas, 4 ells, les. acllas ; Thes, las, & ellas (Noto a). a dlas; a8, Nontotirg rused Aig, an when Nomistve orused Active and wed wien Somitsasuans, “saa hauia San R gal, acme ‘yo mismo mi mismo, ‘eu mesmo mim mesmo, ‘tu mismo ti mismo. tu mesmo, ti mesmo, él mismo si mismo. elle mesmo si mesmo. alla misma si misma. mesma ai mesma, ‘si mismo, si mesmo. nosotros mismos (m.) . nés mé . wets tne Ls jesmos (m.) 6s mesmas (€) ‘yosotros mismos (m.) 3 , i ‘y6s mesmos (1, retoe meee 68 (m.) v6s mesmas (£) ellos mismos (m.) cles mesmos (m.) cllas mismas (£) Same. ellas mestnas (£) Se in Spanish, as Se in Portuguese, as Se aplaude he praises himself, Elle so ama he loves himself, ‘Note a.—Tho Spanish language has also « newer pronoun, Zo or ello, used in the singular number only.78 PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns, Nominative Case, FRENCH, ITATIAN, 72, Personal pronouns in the nominative case are In Italian, personal pronouns are generally omitted in always expressed in French, differing in this xeapect the nominative, exeept for the sake of emphasis or to from Italian and other languages. avoid ambiguity. They are given hore in order to show the agreement of the verb. Evamples. Examples. Jo parle, Ispeak. To parlo I speak, ‘Tu palés thou speakest ‘Tu canti thou singest. TL boit ho drinks. Eqli beve he drinks. Elle chante she sings. Ella balla she dances, Nous donnons we give, Noi diamo wo gi ‘Vous dansez you dance. Voi cantate you sing, Lis or eles dorment they sleep. Belinoorelleno sono they are. 73. Tn sentences which are interrogative the pronoun usually follows the verb, : ® } same, ‘whan expressed. Examples, Examples. fitesous persuad6? are you persuaded ? Avete voi il libro? have you the book? stil heureux! is he happy? Possiamo noi entrare? may we enter?PRONOUNS. 9 Personal Pronouns, Nominative Case. SPANISH, PORTUGUESE: Same, Same, Examples. Examples. Yo he visto L have seen, Eu cumpro I accomplish. ‘Tu has venido thou hast come, Tu mandas thou orderest. El habla he speaks, Bille fala he speaks. Ella eondena she condemns. Ella eome sho eats, Nosotros somos wo are, ‘Nis temos amiado vwe have loved, ‘Vosotros temeis, you fear, és amnais you love, Ellos, elas, han they have, Elles ; elas s%0 ‘thoy are, Y same, } sume Examples. Examples, {No os ella mi hermana? is she not my sister? Quantos filhos tem ella? how many children has she ? iBBstan ellos aqui? are they here? Que idade tem elle ? how old is he?80 PRONOUNS. IRENCH. TALIA, TA. Moi, toi, Ini, eux (u.), clles (£) are employed in ‘tho following instances -— bd Fenn eT to Te oe ‘The Tialians, in all these instanees, uso the pronouns, 3d, When joined by a conjunction fo a noun or} 3% tt, &¢,, except after a comparison, because then the aaa pronoun is goveed by a preposition, Aid, Whon followed by qui, que, seul, or a participle present, ih, When following Tt is, it was, &e. Examples. Examples, Qui frappe a Ja porte? Chi ha fatto questo ? (Who imocks at the door) Aoi (Who has done this) Zo (L) Jo suis plus riche que Zui Min sorelia ed To (an.) siamo pit richi di lu, Tam richer than he. My sister and I axe sicher than he, ‘Ma scour et moi. My sister and T ‘foi qui. suis son frdve, who am his brother. ‘Taui seul Ya fait, Ho alone has done it. ‘Ewe voyant que la chose était inutile, ‘They secing the thing was useless. Crest moi. TtisLPRONOUNS. al SPANISIL PoRreauEsE, In Spanish the pronouns yo, tu, ée., are here emn- ‘ ployed without exception. See ae Examples, Examples. iQaien Mama & la puerta? Yo, Quem 64 Ex, Who knocks at the door? I. Who is it? T. El es mas joven que tu. Ello 6 mais xico que ta, He is younger than thou. He is richor than thou.82 PRONOUNS. yrnNon, 75. “Tua,” thou, is employed in addressing relations and friends’ with whom we are very intimate. Tt ean also be used by a master to his servant, and in any ease where inferiority is distinetly acknowledged ; likewise, asa mark of contempt. In all other instances vous” is employed; as Comment vous portez-cous Madame t (or Messiours.) ‘How do you do, Madam (or Gentlemen.) 76. When “vous” is not made use of in a plural sense, the adjective or participle is put in the singular number, and agrees in gender with the person ad- dressed. Esamples, (Addressing a man) Vous étes étonné. * ‘You are astonished, (4 awoman) Vous étes estimée, ‘You are esteemed. RATTAN. ‘Tho second person singular is used by the Italians in the same manner as “tu” in French, but when address- ing a superior, or one with whom they are not familiar, they use the third person, as follows: Come sta ella? How do you do, Sir? (or Madam.) (applicable to either lady or gentleman.) Come stanno Le loro Signorie ? How do you do, Gentlemen ? (or Ladies.) In Italian the adjective and participle agree with the title, . Example, FE olla sodaisfatta? ‘Are you, Sir, or Madam, satisfied? ‘The rules which direct the use of personal pronouns in the nominative case having been given, we will now, before proceeding to those of the dative and accusative cases, offer some remarks on what is usually found some- what dificult in the study of foreign languages—namely, the right application of pronouns as direct and indirectPRONOUNS. 83 SPANISH, Same as regards second person. ‘The Spaniards in formal conversation use usted,” abbrev. of vuestra merced (your worship), and in the plural “ustedes” : they apply to both gouders, the verb and possessive pronoim being both pat in the third ‘person, as iBste 5 eu libro de Vind. Seitora? Is this your book, Madam? 4.Como estan Vids, Sefiores ? How do you do, Gentlemen ? Remark.— Usted” is contracted in writing thus, ‘Vind,, and an is added for the plural. ‘The adjective and participle agree, as in French, with the person addressed, not, as in Italian, with the title. Example. i Estfi duena, Seitora? ‘Are you well, Madam? PORTUGUESE, Same as regands second person singular and plural. ‘The Portuguese, in formal conversation, use the words ‘Vossa Meret (Note «.) (your worship): they apply to both genders, the verb and possessive pronoun being both put in the third person, as in Spanish, Etamples. How do you do? (applicable to gentlemen or ladies.) Que idade tem sew irmao? How old is your brother? ‘Como estiio vmees. ? Remark, —The abbreviation is—V, Vm., or Vee. plural, Vmces. } Same Esample, A senhora esti boa? Are you well, madam? objects, or regimens of the verb. A little attention bestowed upon this subject at the outset will materially assist ‘the learner. expressed or understood, as, I love him—je aims The pronoun is in the aceusative ease when governed by the verb without a prepo: ‘The action of the verb here falls immediately on the ‘tion either ‘Note a—Pronouneod familissly thus : yossmessay, alzo wosoay,84 PRONOUNS. pronoun fim, which therefore becomes the direet object, ‘The pronoun is the indirect object when it admits of a preposition expressed or understood, and another word in the sentence receives the direct action of the verb, as, “I gave him the pen—Io gli detti la’ ponna.” In this ease the pen was given ¢o him, the preposition to being understood, consequently the pronoun Aim is put in the dative case, Another example ; “I wrote to her—Yo le eseribs,”—her is in the dative case, because something written to her is understood. It may be noted here that the Spaniards and Portuguese frequently add a preposition and another pronoun to do away with any ambiguity when the indirect regimen, as in the Inst example, ean convey two different meanings ; Ze in the dative is the Accusative Case. PRENOH, ITALIAN, 77. Personal Pronouns in the accusative ease, or, In Italian, thus— in other words, as direct objects of the verb, are thus expressed in French : smGULAR. Puna sIncULAR, ruvnat me mo us nous, me mi us a thee te you yous, thee i you vi him le them les him lo or il them (m.) Ii, gli her Ia m, and £ her la them (£) le and are placed before the verb in simple tenses, and } ‘before the auxiliary in compound tenses, aPRONOUNS, 89 same in both genders, to distinguish which it is more correct to say, “Yo le escrib{ & ella—I wrote to her,” Yo le eseribf d é—I wrote to him.” ‘Were the English words “T give him.” literally translated into any of the foreign languages here treated—for instance, jo le donne—they would mean that the man himself is actually given, and not that something understood is given to him, This shows the great importance of studying the dlistinetion betwoen personal pronouns as direct objects in the accusative case, and as indirect objects in the dative case. Accusative Case. SPANISH, In Spnnish thas sINarLAR, PLURAr, ‘nos (m. and £ me ome Smit us) & nosotros (m: 4 nosotras (£) os (mand £) thee te Ati you 4 a vosotros (1n.) La vosotmas (£) him Ie sa them (m.) los ellos her lalla them (LZ) Ins Glas } same, } PORTUGUESE, In Portuguese thus : sxsarnan, sromat, me me amim us nos ans (Note a.) theo to ati you vos av6s him 0 acllo —them(m) —os._—aelles her a alla them (fem) as —_acllas, ‘They are placed sometimes before and as frequently after the verb. Note a—Observe that nos and vos, in tho accusative ate, aro writton without the aecont, which they always take in the ANoininative, and after prepositions,86 PRONOUNS. PRENCH. Examples, Ul me connait, He knows me. ‘Vous no la verre pas. ‘You will not see her, is nous ont flattés They have flattered us. No Tes connaissea-vous pas? Do you not know them? TATIAN, Examples. Exli mé domanda, He asks for me, Non la sorprenderete, You will not surpris Ci hanno ingannati. They have deceived us Non Ui eonoseete! ‘Do you not know them # hor. Dative Case. Personal pronouns in the dative ease, or in other words, as indirect objects of the verb, are as fallow: 78, (WWhen the preposition is understood.) me me us hous thee te you vous im hii Pe nn Examples, Te parle lhe speaks to me, Je dui donne I give to him, Nous Zour éerirons we will write to them, } same, (Preposition understood.) me a us a the = soa vi i go} tem le Eeamples. Eli mi parla Te speaks to me, To gli soriver® Gi patlano 1 will write to him, they speak to us,PRONOUNS. SPANISH. Examples, Estos versos me inspiraron, ‘hese verses inspired me. Te amo mucho. T love thee much. ‘Algo os ha impulsado 4 venir. Something has impelled you to come, Yo Los tengo aqui, Thave them here. Dative Case. } same. . (Proposition understood.) mo” mb us nos thee te you 08 him a a } { them — les Evamples. Te dive T will tell thee. No os debo nada El les da alguna cosa T owe you nothing. he gives them something, } same. ar PORTUGUESE, Beamples, © C60 wos guarde. Heaven preserve you. Conhego-a de nome. Limow her by name, Como! J n08 deixat What! ‘do you leave us already? Bu as darei ao gravador. I will give them to the engraver. (Preposition maerstoo.) me me us thee te you him ‘them her ime m, and & Eramples. Que 208 havia. dado o conde. Which the count had given you. Nada Zhe posso dizer. Tean say nothing to hian (or her.)88 PRONOUNS, rnexcu, rmanax, 79. (When the preposition is expressed.) (Proposition expressed.) Tome Amoi To us nous Tome amo Tous noi » thee — toi » you A vous » theo ate you avo » him Ali js them (m,) 3 eux phim ahi yy them, 1 » her delle »» them (£) alles »» her alei m, and, f 9 1% Example, Example. Adressez-vous & mot address yourself to me, Scriverd a lei I will write to her, With the Infinitive Mood. 80, In French the personal pronoun is placod before ‘The pronoun is placed aftor the infinitive, which then a verb in the infinitive, ‘suppresses its final ¢ or re when the verb ends in rre, Examples. Examples. Jo vais Le voir Lam going to see him, Possiamo parlargti we can speak to him, Ti faut Zes vaincro We must conquer them. Voglio condurla I wish to conduct her. be placed cither next to the one that governs it, or it may. ‘When the pronoun is employed with two verbs it ean Same, beseparated from it. The formes, howover, is preferable,PRONOUNS. 89 SPANIBI, (Proposition expressed.) Tome ami Tous 4 nosotros, & nosotras (f.) nm thee Ati 4, you & vosotros, & vosotras him él 3, them (m,) ellos j her fella ,, them (f) & ellas Brample. No diris nada dé thou shalt say nothing to him. PORTUGUESE, (Preposition expressed.) Tome amim Tous a née » thee ati » you avs } him alle » them (m.) a elles » her alla 3 on (C) wel Beample. Falla a v6s he speaks to you. ‘With the Infinitive Mood. In Spanish also the pronoun is placed after the verb in the infinitive, and is joined to it, Examples, to instinct me, without having given you. Para ensefiarme Sin haberos dado } same ‘The Portuguese pronoun is placed either before oF after the infinitive, to which, in the latter case, it is united by a hyphen, If pnt Before the infinitive, the pronoun is joined by a hyphen to the verb which pre- cedes. Examples, Devo-vos dizer. Tonght to tell you. Vindo wisita-tu (Note a) © eonhect-la, Coming to visit and become acquainted with her. ‘The pronoun with two verbs may also precede them both. Note a—The final ¢ of the yerb is suppressed when the infinitive is followed by the pronouns elle, ella, elles, ellas, and these are clunged into To, Ia, ls, Tas, Sonne waiters place an accont on the vowel before the r which is dropped : eéo (to see him, being a contraction of verlles)90, PRONOUNS. FRENCH, ITALIAN, Examples, Examples. On peut Zee vainere Voglio parlargli . 4 or, On Les peut vainere } Weean conquer them. gy, Gi voglio parlare } dish’ to peste to lit With tho Imperative Mood. 81. Personal pronouns, whether divect or indirect, accompanied by a verb in’ the imperative mood, (except in the third persons singular and plural,) are placed ( S%™¢- immediately after the verb when employed affirmatively. ‘The pronoun, in such a ease is joined to the verb by In Ttalian the pronoun is joined to the verb when a hyphen, following it, Examples. Examples. Snivons-es let-us follow them. Dammi give me, Dites-moé tell me, Mandatect send us, Banve-ot save thyself Permettetemi allow me. Observe that in the above instances moi and toi in- __Remark,—When a verb onds in a vowel accented, of stead of me and to are used; but when followed by en, has only one syllable, the initial letter of the pronoun ey are written m’, ¢, as is doabled, as Damrat (give me), parlonmné (he spoke to Donnez mien give me some. me, “Gli” is excepted, as Digit (tell him). 82, Whon the imporative is negatively employed, the? pronoun precedes the verb, Pame. Example. Eeample. Ne mie dites pas ccla ! do not tell me that ! Non ci mandate via do not sond us away.PRONOUNS. 1 SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, Examples. Bwampte, Voy & dare el libro Depois de the ter feito atravessar os jardins. co, Le voy 6 dar el libro. ‘After having made him pass through the gardens, ‘Tam going to give him the book, With the Imperative Mood. ‘Same. Same, . ‘Tho pronoun is joined to the verb by a hyphen, asin } ‘Same as Italian, ma vP Examples. Examples, Dime con quien andas, ‘Tell me with whom thon goest. Deixa-me leave me. Dejadme salir, Let me go out, Dai-me azeite give me some oil, Salvemonos. Let us save ourselves. Faga-nos uma salada make us a salad. ‘Renark—When nos and vos are joined to the verb in the first and second persons plural, the final letter of the verb is suppressed, as above. } Same, } same. Brample. Example, No nos desanimenos Let us not be discouraged. Nilo me toque do not touch me.92 PRONOUNS, FRENcrt. ITALIAN. 83. When two prononns accompany the imperative, one in the accusative or direct, the other in the dative or indirect object, the accusative is put first when used / affirmatively, and second in a negative sentence, cvzept | with the third person as an indirect regimen. ‘The Italian rule differs, the dative or indirect regimen being always placed first, Examples. Examples. Donnez-lemoi give it me. Datemelo give it me. Dites-le-leur ‘ell it to them, Mandategtielo send it to him, Ne me te donnez pas. do not give it me. Non me lo date do not give it to me. Ne /2 leur dites pas do not tell it to them, Non glizio mandate do not send it to him, perative verb in affirmative, and before in negative Remark.—Both the pronouns are put after the im Same, sentences,PRONOUNS. 93. SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, sm as Italian, Same, Eecamples. Esamples. Vuelvemelos, i. give it to me. Return them to me, Dai-mos give them to me. Enséiieselos (Note a). Show them to him, (her, or thom). Remark—Mo and mos are contractions of me o and No me los vuelve. me os, as explained further on. Do not return them to me, No se los enséiie. Do net show them to him, } some \ Same. ‘Note a.—When two pronouns in Spanish follow each other aa above, so is used for the éadiveet xegitnen in the third person vingular or plural : this isto avoid unpleasant repetition of sound,98 PRONOUNS. It, They, Them. FRENCH. 84. As French nouns denoting inanimate objects are cither of the masculine or feminine gender (having no neuter), it follows that the pronouns relating to them, and which in English are expressed by it, they, them, must be the same as those employed for persons—viz., il, elle, and plurals, as subjects, le, Ia, les, as direct ob- jects, or in the accusative ense, In answer to the ques- tion, ‘Oa est Io livre? (where is the book) the Freneh reply, Zl est sur Ia table (it is on the table)—livre being masculine. But when asked, Of est lx plume? (where is the pen) the answer is, Bile est ici, donnez-Ja-moi (it is here, give it to me)—plume being feminine. 85, Great cantion must be used in the employment of these pronouns : they assume the same gender and number as the substantives to which they relate when ‘the noun is determined in a phrase ; for instance, Fites vous la reine ? (are you tie queen 1) —Jo Za suis (I am) —meaning some particular queen. But if the question be, Btes vous reine }—meaning « queen—the reply is, Je le suis, ITALIAN, Same rule applies with regard to lo, la, i, Ie, and ne, in the accusative; but the nominative need not be expressed Examples Dov’ 2 il libro? whore is the book ? E sulla tavola it is on the table, ‘We can say, however, Eigli 8 vero itis true. or, ® vero The Italians would answer to similar quostions, “Zo sono,” “noi siamo,” &e,, and employ the pronoun “lo” also in refereneo to something of which the gender is not denoted, as “To Zo so (I know it).PRONOUNS. 95 It, They, Them. SPANISH, PORTUGUESE, Same of 0, a, 0s, as (Note @), in the accusative, ‘These, when accompanied by the pronouns me, te, lhe, hes (indirect regimons), are thus used :— Mo, ma, mos, inas, instead of me o, me a, me 08, me as, or m’o, de. ‘To, ta, tos, tas, instead of to 0, te a, te os, te as, or to, fe, Lho, ha, thos, Ihas, instead of Ihe o, The a, Ihe os, the as. ‘That is, the pronoun in the oblique ease drops the e, and is joined to the accusative: Nos and vos change the s into /, as Nolo, vola, nolos, &e. Same of el, lt, Io, los, las, in the accusative, ‘The nominative need not be expressed, as in Italian, The same of the Spanish, who also employ the pro- noun “lo,” as “Yo lo creo” (I think ft); Ya fo | Same of the Portuguese, who employ the pronoun O, sabia” (I kmew it already). ‘as, Eu o entendo ; or, Entendo-o (T understand so.) When two or more pronouns accompany a verb in a simple tense, the nominative should be expressed if they are placed before the verb, but may be omitted when following: a3, Ew to darei, or dareito Twill give it thee, Noto «The pronoun oo, after a ver Sn the thd person pure ao ako tho letter n for tho mak of enphony tu, amonothay lov it (or him,) “The preerto Qefinite of fuer (eo make) is thus anged, en fio} ele thos fzemot (, hi Avoid) insted of eu fio, ox His (bchold) ts ello, ela, Verbe ending in r+, dr, often change those tbr to Uetoo the pronoun, forthe sake of euphiony.96 PRONOUNS, PREC. TTALIAN. Etos vous Zee hommes? (are you the men") nous {es sommes. Etes vous dee hommes? (are you men) nous Ze sommes, ‘When le is invariable it is equivalent to 0 or i in English. Agai Jo Te ervis Te Le sais ‘The Italians frequently use ci and vi in similar ing “to” or “of it,” “of them,” é&c. Some of its Ps .tancos 86. The particle “ y” is of vory frequent use, express. various applications will be seen by the following Examples. Examples, ‘Ty pense 5 jy consens, Mi ei sono al fine tisoluto. Lam thinking of #5 T consent co zt Lam at last resolved upon it N’y faites pas attention. Non vf 2 remedio. Pay no attention to it ‘Thore is no remedy for it On va y répondre ; or, On y va répondre, Non @ via da wscirci. They are going to answer it. ‘here is no, way of getting out of i Pronez cette lettre ct y mettez, un cachet. Take this letter and put a seal upon it Ty va de ma vie, It is as much as my life is worth. Nole—As a rule, y fs used only in relation to things ; but some of the best French writers, and amongst thom Madame dé ‘Sévjgné and Racine, eraploy it also in relation to persons.PRONOUNS. SPANISH, make use of the usual pronoun with a-prepositio for instaneo,— “Jy pense,” which in French means, “I am think. ing of it,” is translated into Spanish, Pienso en ello.” Again, Fioz-vous-y ” (trust in him), is ren dered by “Fiese vd. de dl.” \ ‘The Spaniards havo no corresponding word, but 9, roRTUGvESE, Samo: for, “Tam thinking of it,” a Portuguese would say, Penso nisso (om isso).98 PRONOUNS. RENCH. aTALIAN, 87. OF or by him, her, &e., and some, aro often ox- pressed by the pronoun “en,” which is of both genders | “Ne” is employed by the Ttalians in like manner, and numbers, Examples. Exuonples, T faut en parler it is necessary to speak of it. Questa signorina vi piace, ne parlate frequentemento, Vous pouvez en profiter you may profit by t This young lady pleases you, you speak of her fre- Faime trop la valeur pour I love courage too much to quently. en dire jaloux be jealous of it. Quella matin € penton pote mori Ten était chési, ot ‘That complaint is dangerous, he might die of it Ti était chéri Pew } hho was beloved by them. paitate di moneta: ne-avelo? Si ne ho, Allez-vous-en go away from here. You speak of money; have you any? Yes, I have somes Andatevens, Go away.PRONOUNS. SPANISH. ‘Tho same remarks as to proceding rale apply here. ba Spaniards would write, de él, en ello, ot esto, &e. ¢ S*™* Examples. ‘Me alegro de ello. Tam glad of it, Quero disso, ‘Me admiro de esto, wonder at it, Lembroame delle. 9 PORTUGUESE. Examples, ‘T wish some of this, T remember it (or, am mind- ful of it.)Too PRONOUNS. Possessive Pronouns. The usual but, strictly speaking, incorrect system of calling the words my, thy, his, her, our, your, theiv, pos sessive pronouns, will be adopted in this work for the sake of convenience. Bescherella ‘raves, in their “ Grammaire Nationale,” place under the heading of ‘possessive pronouns” mine, thine, &e.; correctly separating from this classification my, ly, &e, which they, with a fow other grammarians, denominate “ possessive adjectives,” the latter always necompanying a noun expressed, whilst the words mine, thine, &e., stand in the place of a noun, conveying at the same time the idea of the object expressed, and to whom it belongs : they are, therefore, to all Conjunctive. FRENCH, Trartan, sixovnan. muvee snioonan, moat. Mose Pot, oth gover. ine Pen, Mast. Baan Mon ma Mes my mio a mia Imiei le mio my ton ta tes thy Timo Ia tua Itnoi le tue thy son sa sos his, her, its Tlsuo la sua Tsuoi_ le sue_ his, her, its notre notre nos our Mnostro Ia nostra —-‘Tnostri Je nostre our votre votre vos your Livostro Ia vostra I vostri_Je vostre your dear leur Jeurs their loro laloro Lloro Ie loro their (Note «) Note «.—Sometimes the best wsitens dispense with the article before a possessive pronoun. Baccaseia says : “ho fatto mie Hgesle mercatnazie” —T havo made my Title trae; and Dante writes “aio ® cht mpera che nocira raglan" &a.—he it and ‘who expects that our reason, &, Before a noun of title or kindred in the singular number, possessive pronouns (exeept lore) drop the article: as, dov & vostro Siete 7 whoo is your brother] Should an adjective or other word intervene of the noun be a disinutiv, ssh as frateling, thoPRONOUNS. iol Possessive Pronouns. intents and purposes, pronouns, We will, however, distinguish the two classes hy naming the first “ Possessive Pronouns Conjunetive” and the last “Possessive Pronouns Disjunctive.” It may also be here remarked, that ‘the Eronch, Italians, and others, contrary to tho English, make the pronouns agree with the thing possessed, as sa mation,” which words, isolated, mean either /is or fer house; but the context shows the gender of the possessor. ‘Phe Possessive Pronouns Conjunctive are as follows — Conjunctive SPANISH. PORTUOUESE, snvounan. numa. sovautan, ronal. Mae Fem, Biase, Fem, Mas, Fam. Dias, Foam Mi mai Mis mis my Meu minha Meus tminhas. my tw tu tus tus! thy tou tua tous tuns. thy st st sus sus his, her, its, seu sua seus sas his, her, their their nosso moss ossos—nossas our nuestro nuestra —nostros nucstras our vosso -vossa. = Voss0s—Yossas.—your vuestro. vuestra —uestros_vuestras your sow sua seus suas his, her, their sw su sus sus his; de, or theirLoz 88, The equivalents of my, thy, &o., agree in gender and number with the substontives to which they relate, ‘The following examples will show their application, presen. Evamples. ‘Mon pare my father Ta mire thy mother Son attention his or her attention ‘Leur enfant their child Notre fortune Nos frtres Vos scours Ses bontés Leurs voitures ‘Lours richosses our fortune roomate ‘our brothers your sisters his favours their carriages their riches PRONOUNS, I fame Observe that bofore a noun beginning with a vowel or % mute, mon, ton, son, are used for the sake of euphony, whatever may be the gender of the nown.— ote a) TATTAN, Examples, siscurar, Il mio coltello my knife Ta tua casa thy house TL suo baule his trnic La loro tavola ‘their table T miei amici my friends Lo vostre cortine your eurtaing T sai letti his beds Lo loro tavolo their tables ‘Noto «.—Tho possessive pronoun lour, which tokesan ¢in the plural, must not be confoanded with the personal pronoun, which is invaviable,PRONOUNS. 103 SPANISTE PORTUGUESE, In Spanish, these pronouns, exeept nuestro and euestro, are common to both genders. They all add s for the Same as French, plural, Evamples. Examples. smovtar, sixovbar, Mi easn my house ‘Minha mai my mother ‘Tu sombrero ‘thy hat ‘teu pai thy father Su memoria his memory sua mobilia his furniture Nuestro libro four book nosso amigo our friend ‘Vuestra made your mother ‘voss0 dever your duty Sa valor their courage sua desgraga their misfortune ronan muvmate ‘Mis libros ny books ‘Meus livros my books Tus virtudes ‘thy virtues ‘thas casas thy houses Sus hijos is sons seus parafogos his screens Nuestras casas our houses nossos amigos our friends ‘Vnastros sombretos your hats ‘vossos deveres your duties Sus costumbres their habits suas desgragas their misfortunes Remark. —When employing se or sus a personal pro- noun is frequently added in the genitive ease, by which all doubt as to the possessor will be avoided, as ae libro de ella, her book, Same; as sew livro della, her book.104 PRONOUNS. FRENCH, ITALIAN, 89, These pronouns accompanying two or more sub- stantives should be repeated before each, although this } In Italisn they are always repeated before each noun, rule is not always adhered to. Example. Example. Son frdve et sa scour (his brother and sister) Mio padre, mia madre, ed i miei fratelli sono venuti is more genoral and moro eorroct than ses frére et sosur. My father, my mother, and my brothers have come, qualifying the same noun, and both having an analogous 90, When a pronoun is employed with two adjectives Same. meaning, it need not be repeated. Ezamples. Excanples. Nos sages ot doctos pres. It mio dotto e sagsio padre. Our wise and learned fathers ‘My learned and wise father. Son bon et digne ami. H mio buono ed eccelente amico, His good and worthy friend. My good and excellent friend,PRONOUNS. SPANISH. ‘The Spaniards more frequently than not repeat the pronoun, As in English, however, they are guided by the emphasis required, It is better, as arule, when the first noun is in the singular number and the second in the plaral, to repeat the pronoun, making it agree, of course, with its noun ; also when the nouns are of different genders. Examples Ha perdido sx padre, sv madre y sus hermanos, He bas lost his father, his mother, and his brothers Observaba mucho todos mis pasos palabras y movie mnientos, He observed much all my steps, words, and movements, Para Ievar mi ropa y mis dueados. Po carry my clothes and my dollars, \ Same, Examples. Mi sabio & (Note 1) inteligente hermano, My wise and intelligent brother. Afi util y ventajosa compra. My useful and advantageous purchase. 105 PORTUGUESE Same. Escamples. Todos os povos das provincias tinham sua cidade, seu contro. All the people of the provinces had their city, their contre ‘Vio morret todos of seus filhos, netos © contempo- raneos. His sons, grandsons, and contemporaries, he saw them all die, fs. Escamples Meu sabio o intelligente irmio, My wise and intelligent brother, ‘Seu bom e digno am His good and worthy friend, Note a.—The conjunction 9 changes into ¢ before a word bogianing with i or Ai,106 PRONOUNS. FRENCH, PALIN, 91, ‘Tho article instend of a possessive pronoun is used when a personal pronoun in the same sentence }Same, clearly indieates the possessor, Evamples. Eramples, Poi mal & la téte my bead aches. Si ruppe i braceio he broke his arm, Tales yeux rouges he has red eyes. ‘Mettiti i eapello put on thy hat, Cavatevi le searpe take off your shoes, 92. The French in such phrases as “A frind of ‘The Italians say— mine,” “a book of yours,” express their meaning hy ‘Un de mes amis, Un mio amico ; or, uno de? mici amici Un de vos livres, ‘Un vostro libro ; or, uno dei vostri libri. ‘The pronoun in Italian precedes the title, and takes 93, In speaking to a person of his relations, they say, Jan article as a word intervenes between it and the noun, as Monsieur votre pare, IL vostro signor padre, Madame votre mire, &e La vostra signorn madre, &e.PRONOUNS. 107 SPANISH PoRTUGuEsE, tsa. J sme Examples. Examples, Me ducle Za cabeza muy head aches. Déome a garganta, El se ha roto la pierna he has broken his leg, My throat aches. Faré Vim, bom de metter os pés em agua quente, ‘You will do well to put your feot in hot water. ‘The Spanish say— ‘The Portugnese say— Un amigo mio, Um dos meus amigos. Un libro vuestro, ‘Vin dos vostos livros. | oe thoy employ the third person, and say Su sofior padre, © senhor sew pai. Sn sefiora madre, A senhora sua mai,108 PRONOUNS. Disjunctive, Prexen. ‘The following is a list of these pronouns :-— ITALIAN. Tn Ttalian the same as the “ Conjunetive,” which serve for either my or mine =— SINGULAR, Le mien Ja mienne (mine). Tl mio Ia tionne (thine). LL two Ja sienne (his, hers, its), Tl suo Le nbtre (Note «) In ndtre (ours). TI nostro To vitre Ja votre (yours I vostro Le lear Ja leur (theirs), IL loro ‘Mase. axe ‘Fem, Mase, Les miiens Jes micnnes. Timici Les tiens Tes tiennes. T tuoi Les siens Tes siennes. I suoi Les nétres T nostri Les votres } for both genders. I vostri Tes leurs Toro 94, These pronouns agree in gender and number with } g thn eject pose } sme. Examples. Un cheval comme fe mien Une main comme la sienne Nos amis ot les vdtres Vos livres et les leurs a horse like mine, ‘a hand like his, our friends and yours, your books and theirs. mio eavallo ed it vostro Min sorella e da. vostra Le ste ease e Le nostre I suoi libri ed ¢ foro Note a —Obsorve that nétre and xdsr, proseded Ly the article, take a circumflex Ja mula (mine), Ja tua (thine), la sua (his, hers, its), a nostra (ours), Ia vostra rr), a loro (theirs). “gs Je mie, Te tue, Je sue, le nostre, Jo vostro, 1p loro. Examples any horse and yours. my sister and your his houses and ours. his books and theirs, cont.PRONOUNS. 109 Disjunctive. SPANISH ‘he Spanish are as follows : saxovraR, Mase Fem, 3 ( Mio ania (mine). Tayo ‘tuya (thine). Suyo suya (his, hers, its). id the Article, Nuestro nuestia (ours). Vuostro vuestra (yours) 2 \ Suyo suya (theirs). The plural is formed by simply adding » to the singular, sme Braanples, Vuestro caballo ye mio your horse and mine, Su hermana y fa euestra his and yours, Mis criados y los rwestros my servants and yours. Vueostros amigos y dos suyos your friends and his. PORTUGUESE, ‘The Portuguese disjunctive pronouns are as follows -— dase. Fem g ( Mew minha (nine). 2 | Tea tua (thine). 2! Seu sua (his, hers, its) 8) Nosso nossa (ours). = | Vosso vyossa (yours) = | Seu sua (theirs). Pupeat, ‘The plural is formed by adding s to the singular, Examples. Vosso cavallo © @ mew your horse and mine, Sua in his sister and yours, ‘Meus criados e os vossos my servants and yours, ‘Vossos amigos e os seus your friends and his,no PRONOUNS. rrowot ITALIAN, 95. A question as to whom a thing belongs is asked Th Ttalian thus: and answered in tho following manner : Examples. Bramples. A. qui est ce livre? whose is this book? ‘Di chi 8 questo libro? whose is this book ? Crest fe mien, or Crest ¢ mot it is mine, Bani it is mine. Gest A Monsieur B— it is Mr Brs, E del Sige, B— it is Mr B's. ‘As seen in the above examples, these pronouns do not ‘take the article when they come after the verb to be” in the senso of Belonging to. 96, Le mien, le tien, &c., are also employed sub- stantively to denote what belongs to us in the shape of property or substameo, and are necessauily in the singular masculine, TL mio, il tuo, &o,, are used in like manner, Example. Example. Tiest soignenx di sien. Vieni, ¢ domanda if tus. He is careful of his own (property.) Come, and demand thine own, 7. Les miens, les tions, é&c., are used substantively to signify relations, friends with whom we are very in- 0 7 : it 1-1 miei, i tuoi, &e,, follow the same rale, timate, retainers, ééc., and are always in the masculine ural. ” Brample. Example, Crest A nous & payer pour los erimes des nétres. Il re vodendo Ia battaglia perduta, ¢ abbandonato dai It is for us to pay for the erimes of ours (friends) soi, &e, ‘The king seeing tho battle lost, and abandoned by his ‘own (troops)PRONOUNS. ui SPANISH. Ta Spanish thus : Eecamples, {De quien es este libro? whose is this book? Mio mine Es del Sr, B. it is Mr B's, } Samo as Ttalian, HI mio, et tuyo, &e, follow the same rule. Baample. Ha cuidado del sya. He takes eare of his own, ‘Los mios, los tuyos, dve,, follow the same rule, Keample ‘Ha atendido & 1a subsistencia de los suyos. We has provided for the subsistence of his relations, PonTuavESR, Tn Portugueso thus : Examples, Do quom 6 este livro! whose is this book? Bo men it is mine E do Senhor B— it is Mr Bis ‘The article should be used in Portuguese, thus distor ing from Italian and Spanish, ‘Same ot o meu, o teu, dee, Example, Ha enidado clo sex. He takes care of his own, 03 mous, o8 teus, &e,, follow the same rule, Example. Todos 06 meus morrextio. All my relations are dead,12 PRONOUNS. Demonstrative Pronouns. On reference to the lists of pronouns and examples which follow, it will be observed that the Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese divide their demonstrative pronouns into three classes, while the French language admits of only two: in the latter, “this” and “that” are both expressed by the smo word, the place being denoted by the addition of an adverb, For instance, the equivalent of * this book” would be ca livre ; dhat boy,” ce gargon, To indicate an object understood, the French would say for the English word “ this” (meaning here, close to,) FRENCH. TrAraaw, In French, Demonstrative Pronouns are expressed _ Tn Italian they are divided into three classes, as as follows: follows : Maes en. js . mt ; cote an this, that, i ao ie Th whish indleate the prosinity of an object Cela calle ie \@ person who speaks, as— i solle-st this tase. singular. em, singu eelle-la that Questi, this man "Gostei this woman this Costui or person, or person, that Questo this Questa this Mase. a Pr Ces. ces these or those ‘ies bh actpery Coux celles those Saat Bese Questo these Court cellesci those oth genders, Ceux la celles] those Costoro these men, women, or persons,PRONOUNS. 113 Demonstrative Pronouns, « eclui-ei,” or, “eclle-ci” (fem.), and for the word “ that” (meaning there, at a distanee,) “celal.” The adverbs of place, ici (here, contracted) and Ia (there) are added. AN the other Ianguages have special words to express “this” and “that,” as, in Italian, * questo libro,” this book, quella casa,” that house ; they do not, therefore, nioed an adverb of place, except for the sake of eniphasis or to designate more particalarly the place of the object pointed at.—(Note a.) sans ronavavnsE } Same. } same. } same, } Same. (Note b.) ae. tem. Keates Mos, Pa Neate, Este esta esto this Tete esta isto this Estos ostas (no plural) these Estes estas (no plural) these Note a.—When referring to two diffevont eubjocts gone before, expressed in Tinglish by the formen" former” is expressed in French, by celui ; Telian, Ly queslt ; Spanieh, by aquel ; Portuguese, by aquell ‘French, by esluiet ; Talian, by questi; Spanish, by este» Portuguese, by este. "Note When te preposition de or em accoxapanies a demonstrative prououn, they generally form oue word, as deste, of this now, of that; dagelles, of those,» Somliimos de iy expressed by d’, as seo, of this, it ind “th Tatton,” the ‘and the dation” in4 ronNon. 98. Cet” is employed before a noun masculine singular beginning with @ vowel or & mute, Examples, Ge livre, cet homme, cette femme, et cés choses. ‘This (or that) book, man, woman, and things. Votre choval et celwi de votre frdre. ‘Your horse and that, of your brother. Votre opinion est celle de tout le monde. ‘Your opinion is that of all the world. ‘Vos pleurs ot ees de votre pore. ‘Your tears and those of your father. Vos lettros et eefles qui sont adrossées & mon ami ‘Your letters and those addressed to my friend. Celué qui vous parle. He who speaks to you. Cet owvrage est ectii dan bon pare 5 or, Cet ouvrage est Vom bon pere. ‘This work is that of » good father, Fens cebui-ci, mon pore celwi-ti, T had this, and my father that. Lim préfere eenare’, eb Pantre eenm2d, One preters these, the other those. ‘Note a.—Quosta ie contrasted in tho following instances :— ‘Stamane } Stauattina { In Tieu of quostu matting, &e, ‘this morning. PRONOUNS. ITALIAN, Bxconplis. * Questé che non vuol parlar ‘This man who does not wish to speak. Questo cavallo mi piace molto, "This horse pleases me much. Questa pera 2 dolce. ‘This pear is sweet. Questi giardini sono pincevoli. "Dhese gardens are pleasant. Queste tavole sono ben fatte, ‘These tables are well made. * Quosti in the first example is only used in the nominative singular, and always refers to a person, Questo and its variations are applied to things as well to persons.—(Note «.) 2nd, Those indicating the proximity of an object to the person spoken to : Mase. Slagutar Cotesti, cotestui that person, or man, Codesto, eotesto that. Stosora this evening, Stanotte conight.PRONOUNS, 115 SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, Beamples. Examples. Ahora bien ; esta inteligoncia, esta cioncin, este gusto Todos estes objectos devem ser examinados. perfeccionado, este language no podian ser, &s. All these objects should bo examined, ‘Well ; this intelligence, this learning, this perfect taste, sta carta 6 favoravel. this language could not be, dec. ‘This letter is favourable, YA esto" mi décids. Isto dou-so prineipalmente no meio din. And T decided on this. ‘This happened principally in the middle of the day. * Tho Spanish Imguago has a distinct nenter pronoun ) used in an indeterminate sense as above ; that is, no par- 7 Same, ticular object being pointed at. J } same. } some. Mac Fem, Nauta, Maso, em. Nonle, Ese est cso. that Esse essa isso” that Esos esas_(no plural) those Esses esas (no plural) those116 FRENCH. Ge quiily a deo vra ‘What (or that which) is true, Ge sont nos méthodes qui nons égarent. It is our systems which mislead us. Ce furent les mémes personnes, "hey were the same persons. Est-ce wn si grand malheur ? Ts it such a misfortune? Ce west pas un sot; or, Tl n'est pas un sot He is not a fool. Crest vrai; or, Test vrai, Itis true. est chair, Ie is clear, Le plas grand des plaisirs éest Ia reconnaissance, ‘The greatest of pleasures is gratitude. Epargner les plaisirs est les multiplie ‘To be sparing of pleasures is to multiply them, Ceci me plait. ‘This pleases me. Cela est vrai, ‘That is true, 99. After celui, celle, &e., it is usual, in sentences where a participle past follows, to place between them and the latter the pronoun gz, followed by the auxiliary PRONOUNS. rau om. Singstar, ‘that person, or woman, that Cotestei Codesta, cotesta ase. Pro Codesti, eotesti those Cotestoro Pom. Phat Codeste, eateste those persons Examples. Cotesti non mi piace. ‘Phat person does not please me, Quanto vale cotesto pannot ‘What is the value of that cloth? Ho bisogno di estesta poms J want that pen. Datemi cotesté libri, Give me those books. Coteste earte sono mie. Those papers are min Cotesti (first example) applies to a person, and is uscd only in the nominative singular. Cotesto and its variutions refer to things as well as to persons, 3nd, Those indicating the remoteness of an object oth fiom the person speaking and the person spoken to. Mase, Bingatar. ‘that person or man, that ‘those Ques, or colui QuelloPRONOUNS. SPANISH. Bramples. Fise Wibro que tiene Vind, en In mano. ‘That book which you have in your hand, Quedaos esta tarde eon nosotros y contadme como ba nacido en vos esa aficion é Ia lectura, ese sentimionto de la poesia, y esos descos por conocer é los hombres, Remain with us this evening, and tell me how you have acquired hat affection for reading, that poetical sentiment, and those wishes to know mankind. Eso es cierto, ‘That is certain, } sume, sea, Fem, eater. Aquel aquella aquello that. ‘Aquellos —aquellas no plural) those. uy PORTUGUESE, Kxanples, A nenhuma das tres ordens Gregas, nem & essa dos Tomanos, To none of the three Greck orders, nor to that of the Toman, At6 o ultimo seculo offence a historia a existencia permanente dessas aldeias e dessas eidades. ‘To the latest aze history shows the permanent existence ‘of these vitliges and. cities. Bm eonsequencia disso, In consequence of this. Niko fago caso disso. Tdo not mind that, } sume, sin, Pe Nant Aquelie aquelia —aquillo—— that, ‘Aquelles —aqucllss (ao plural) those.us prosen. verb, as in the above example, “ vos lettres et celles qué sont adressées X mon ami,” although vos lettres et celles adressées 2 mon ami” would be grammatical. Tt is bettor, however, to adopt the former method. 100. “Ce” as a prononn is used in a variety of ways, ofore the verb “étre” in most of its tenses, in the sin galar or plaral, or coming after the verb, as the examples show: fidtce” is employed for both uumbers, for it would hot sound well to say “ furent-ce” ov “Fuscent- c.” Estoce should also be said instead of seront-ce. 101. Particular attention must be paid to the use of cet instead of West, When an adjective follows the verb, and it is necessary to use que or de after, id must bo employed, not ee; as, IU est juste quvun meurtrior périsse (it is right that a murderer should perish) ; i st aisd de faire (it is easy to do). C'est is gencrally used between two substantives, and between two infini= tives where the equivalent of ce in English would be left out: as, Le plus grand des plaisirs cest, de. og6tor, cost mourit, 102, Cecé and cela are only employed in respect to ‘things. In familiar conversation ga is said instead of ceela, a ga ira; comment sa vail,” Cela is sometimes PRONOUNS. ITALIAN, om, Singular, Colei that person or woman, Quella that ai, Pir ur, Poa Quelli or quer those Quelle ‘those Coloro, ‘those persons. Examples. Queglé che parla 8 mio padre, ‘Phat man who (or he who) speaks is my father. Quel ragazz0 3 molto cattivo, That boy is very wick Quelle casa ® bellina, hat house is pretty. Quei modelli sono perfetti. Those specimens are perfect, Quelle signorine sons sortite. Those young ladies have gone out. Quegli (first example) applies to @ person, and is ouly used in the nominative singular. Quetlo and its variations refer to things as well as to persons. ote—Quello is used in the singular at the end of a phrase, and before s impura, or z: quell’ before a vowel quel before a noun masculine, beginning with a simple consonant ; quelli in the plural is used at the end of aPRONOUNS. SPANISH. Evanples. Aquel libro, y apuelta carta que estan sobre la mesa, ‘That book and that letter which are on the table. Yo no soy de aquellos amos ingratos y duros. ‘Lam not one of those ungrateful and hard masters. Aqueltas mechachas que Vins Ia vemana pasada, ‘hose girls whom we saw last week. Aguello (neuter) es malo, ‘That is bad. Remark. —In Spanish the definite article is often em- ployed as a demonstrative : as, Tos (or aquellos) que son sabios son felices. ‘Those who are wise are happy. Remark. —Estotro, esotro, &e,, and the word oéro (other), varying according to gender a c., compounds of este, es, are occasionally employed, 1d number, 119 PORTUGUESE, Examples. 0 nome daquelle principe feliz. ‘The name of that happy prince, Nem estes conhecem aguellee Nor do the latter know the former (or, these know those) 1 bondade de nos mostrar aquetlas eartas, & aguelde documento. Have the goodness to show ws those letters, and that doeument. Same: as, ‘Deve missto diversa, « de prineipe philosopho, e de principe legislador. He had a varied mission, that of a prince-philosopher nd that of « prince-legislator. Rewuerk.—The word outro (other) is often joined to these pronouns, thus :-— Esst'outro ; essoutra ; aguellotros (this other, ée.) ‘They sometimes are written in one word, as Estoutro, &e. ‘Ten120 PRONOUNS. rnENcH., roplacod by oz; but the former partienlarises more dis- tinetly : as, Cola est veal, or Cest vrai. ITALIAN. phrase; queqli before a vowel, # impura, or 25 quei, oF qu? before any other consonant. ‘Remarks.—Costui, costel, evstoro, eolui, eolei, coloro, are employed chiefly in poetry and in elevated diction ; also as denoting contempt in ordinary conversation, Questo and quello are frequently ase in an indeter- minate sense, somo substantive being understood : a8, In qnesto egli sopravenne, At this moment he came up, Non gli dite quello. Do not tell hima that. Relative Pronouns. In French the relative pronouns are as follows :— Jn Ttalian they are-— Qui, que, quai, leguel, dont. Che, quale, oui, 103, Lequet is eompasod of quel and the article le, Quadeis used with the definite article in the following and varies in gender and number as follows :— manner — SINGTEAR, srxovnAR as. Yon. tase, Pa. Lequel Anqquelle which, Th quale Ja quale which, Dagnel —de laquelle of which, Del quale della quale of which, Angul laquelle to which, ‘Al quale alla, qualo to which, pov. FuUnab, Lesquels —lesquelles.-— which, T quali Je quali which, Desquels —desquelles. of which. Dei quali delle quali of which, ‘Ausquels — auxguelles to which, ‘Ai quali alle quali to which,PRONOUNS. 121 SPANISH. Ponruavesn, Relative Pronouns, Tn Spanish they are,— In Portuguese they are,— Que, quien, cual, cuyo. Que, quem, quad, cujo. Cual is also employed with the article, as fol- Qual is also employed with the definite article, as ows :— follows — srscutan, . Yom ase E Ja enal whieh, O qual aqual which. Dal enal de Ta cual of which. Do qual da qual of which. Al cual, fla cual to which. ‘Ao qual 4 qnal to which. Los cuales _ las cuales which, Os quaes fas quaes “whieh De los cuales de las cuales of which. ‘Dos quaes das quaes of which, Alos cuales Glas cuales to which. Aos quaes 4s quacs to which,PRONOUNS. prenen, ITALIAN. 104, Qui expresses who, which, and that, as the sub- Jeet or nominative of a verb, and ‘relates to’ persons and» Che in like manner, things. Beamptes. Eeamples. Lhomme qui parle Il titolo eke 8 dato, ‘The man who speaks. ‘The title which is given, La femme gini chante. La donna ee canta, ‘The woman who sings. The woman who is singing. Lo cheval gui vient. Le signorine che parlano, ‘The horse which is coming, ‘The young ladies who are speaking. 105. Qui (whom), accompanied by preposition, ) may take the place of lequel, laquelle, &c., but only Cui and chi in like manner. when referring to persons, Examples. Beeamples ‘Les hommes avec qui je eansais. Gli uomini d cut parlava, ‘The men with whom T was speaking. The men to whom I was speaking. Venfant 2 qui je parle. Di chi sono questo cose’ ‘Phe child to whos I speak, ‘Whose things are these? 106. Qui is called absolute when it has no antecedent expressed, and then relates only to persons. } Chaifelloga sanereales Exanaples, Baamples, Qui est-il} who is he? Chid di lat Who is there? Qui cherehes-vous ? ashom do you seek ? Chi non sente In gelosia eertamente non ama. Qui fiappe Ala portet who knocks at the door? Who does not feel j lousy certainly does not love.PRONOUNS. 123 SPANISH, PORTUGUESE. few same, } Que + same, Evaiaples, Bramples. Beltran que fu6 el segundo. Os que meditan outros futuros. Deltran, who was the seeond, ‘Those who consider other futures, Mi madre que era de genio menos aspero, A actividade que o distingue. My mother, who was of a temper less severe, ‘The activity which distinguishes him, Los libros que estan aqui. ‘The bouks which are liere. i Quien, in like manner. tom, in like manner. Examples. Example, Los hombres con quicnes™ habl6, © principe « quem obedecemos, The men to whom I spoke, ‘The prince whom we obey. * Quien has a plural termination, but does not vary Remark.—Quem, unlike quien, in Spanish bas no fn form on account of gender, change in the plural. Yuin + sumo, } Quem + same Examples, Evample, 1 Quien le ha dicho 4 Vmd.? who told you? Quem 6} who is it! 4Quien Hamat ‘who calls? Quen bate & portal who knocks at the door?184 - PRONOUNS. Pnuxer. mana 107. Qui, although invaviable in form, earties with it the gender, number, and porson of its antecedent ; } Che s same. the verb which follows must, therefore, likewise agroo. J Examples. Exampler Clost moi qui Vas fait Son to che lo dco Tt is I who have dono it. Teis I who say it. Nous qui sommen satistiits. Noi che siamo sovldisfatti We who are satisfied, We who are satisfied. 108, Que exprosses whom, which, and that, when in the accusative ; or, in other words, when relating to an object which is the direct regimen of the verb, It then refers both to persons and things, Che and cui aro both used in the aceusative, the latter sometimes in preference, in order to avoid any ambiguity. Che xefers to persons and things, cui to persons only, Bramples, Bararples. ‘Dhomme que vous voyes. ‘Lawviso che egli confermava, ‘Phe man you seo (or, whom you see). ‘The news which he confirmed. Les chovanx gue vous vende, La compassione che sentivano. ‘The horses which you sell. "The pity which they felt. Les serviees gu’on’a rendu, Lamicd exi® tanto amava mio padre, ‘The services which have been rendered. ‘Tho friend whom my father loved so much, Remari—In English the pronoun is frequently not * Fad cle been hero used it would not have been cexpressed—in French always, And obsorve that gue clearly understood which was loved, the friend or the drops the ¢ before a vowel or & amute and takes an father. apostrophe. Qué nover changes,PRONOUNS. 125 spaxtsit \ ou, sae, Examples, Soy yo que lo digo. Tis I who say it. “Nosotros que somor satistechos, ‘We who are satisfied. d Que, or quien, are used. Que refers to persons and ings gen to porons only. Recamples, Las mugeres que vimos or, las mugeres d quienes vimos, The women whom we saw. La proteccion que la Providencia nos habia dispensado, ‘The protection which Providence had given us. PORTUGUESE, \ on sam, Examples. Sou eu que o repit It is I who repeat it, Mos que somos rieos. We who are rich. Same of gue and quem, Beamples, As mulheres gue vimos ; or, @ quem vimos, The women whom we saw. O livro que leio, ‘The book which I read126 PRONOUNS, PRENOH. ITALIAN 109. Que is a relative absolute when no antecedent is expressed, and then refers only to things ; gui, as before } Che follows same rule. said, to persons and things. Examples. Examples, Que chercher vous 11 Che vorvest dire! ‘What are you looking for there? ‘What would you wish to say? Que voulez-vous que je fasse ? Che avete fatto questa mattina ? ‘What do you wish mie to do? ‘What have you done this morning? 110. Que is also used in a sentence expressing ad- seu } oe is ere used in ike manner. Extamples. Examples, Quil est bon ! Che bella casa § How good he is! What a beautiful house ? Qieelle est belle ! Che bellvomo ! ‘How beautiful she is! ‘What a fine man ! 111. Quoi is both relative and absolute, and has re- ference cay thane } ce or quale would be here employed Eranples, Examples, Les choses & quot. Le cose alle quali. ‘The things to which, ‘The things to which, De quoi vous plaigner-vous t Di che parlatet Of what do you complain? Of what do you speak?SPANISH, i Que, same, Excamples, £.Que es eso? What is that? 1.@ue es lo que ha hecho la sefiora? ‘What has the lady done? } Que would also be employed hore, Framples. Que desgracia! What « misfortune ! Que ella enset What « beautiful house ! fue and cual would be used in Spanish, Examples, Las cosas 4 Jas cules, ‘The things to which. 1A que piensa Vd. Of what aré you thinking? PRONOUNS. ue, se, J 17 PORTUGUESE, Examples, Que faz elle? What is he doing? Que vos parece ? What do you think ? } Que in like manner. Examples. Que lastima ! What a pity 1 Que hello templo ! ‘What a fino tomple! } Que and qual would be used in Portuguese. Examples, Do quat ialla Vm. Of which do you speak # As consas &s guuaes ‘The things to whieh.128 FRENOH, 112. Quel, which, whom, is the only relative pronoun which takes the article, forming a compound word, as shown in the preceding table, where it will also be ob- served that the definite article Ze is joined to the pro- noun, and varies according to gender and number. This pronoun as a relative refers to persons and things Fevamples. ‘Lhomme sur Zequel je compte. ‘Phe man on whom I count. Les espSrances & lexquelles il se livre, ‘Tho hopes to whieh he gives himself up. Fai regu une lettre de mon frére laguelde est sur In table, T have received a letter from my brother, whieh is on the table, Remark —Qui pnd, que frequently tae the pace of lequel, &e., but the latter pronoun should always be used when the antecedent is separated by other words, as in the last example. 113. Quel, with and without the article, is sometimes absolute, and mostly employed in interrogative sentences, Iequet marking a distinction between two or moro ob- jects, PRONOUNS. JTATIAN. Quale corresponds with the French word guel in 80 far that it takes the article, which, however, is never joined to it. Guele diffors from the French in having the same termination for both genders; namely, quale in the singular, and quati in the plural number. It refers to persons and things, Fecarnples, Si volsoro al fancinllo il quale rifert, &e. ‘They turned to the boy who related, éc. Alla quale rivelazione furono presi da spavento, ‘At which revelation they were taken with foar, \ a romark applies to chi, ele, and ext, \ Quate sing. and Quali pl. are used in Tike manner,PRONOUNS. SPANISH. Cual takes the article as in the Italian equivalent, tnd, like the latter, has the same termination for both genders, Cuat, singular namber ; cuades, plural. It refers both to persons and things, . Beamples. A mi protector, el cual mo dijo, ‘Lo my protector, who said to me. Ala eneva de la cual ninguno se atrevia & sacar la cabeza, ‘To the cave from which no one dared to withdraw his head. Same of gue and guien, -Cual singular, and cuales plural, seme, 129 PORTUOUESE, Qual, same. Quat, singular number ; Quaes, plural, Ue refers both to persons and things, Examples. Todos os officiaes, aos quacs 8.M. conceden a honra, All the officers to whom HM. conceded the honour. E cem outras cousas, entre as quaes. Aud a hundred otiver things, among which, Same of gue and quem, Qual, singular, and guaes, plural, same,130 rnnsem, Bramples. Quet est votre projet? ee ‘What is your project’? Quelles sont vos raisons t ‘What are your reasons ? Laquelte de ees denx choses est: préférablet ‘Which of theso two things is preferable? Remark,—It also expresses admiration, pity, &., as Quet dommage ! ‘What a pity ! 114. Dont exprosses whose, of whon, of which, amd relates in gender and number to persons and things, Becomples. La femme dont la beauté est admirable, ‘The woman whose beauty is wonderful. Thomme dont vous parlez. ‘The man of whom you are speaking. Les récompenses dont vous étes digne. ‘The rewards of which you ave worthy, 115. Ce que expresses what or that which. Example. Ce que vous dites ost vrai. ‘What you say is truc, PRONOUNS. ITALIAN. Examples, Qual 8 quella delle mode} ‘What is that among the fashions Quate pit vi piace fra quelle cose # ‘What pleases you most among those things? Clwi_ expresses whose, and is used with or without a preposition, the article boing placed first. Tt has not ‘the varied signification of the French word, dont, Examples, B un uomo il cued (or, i! dé cur) coraggio 2 grande. He is a man whose courage is great. Ta cui casa, Whiose house, Cid che or quel che in like manner, Beample. Cid (or quel) che dite & vero, ‘What you say is true,PRONOUNS. 131 SPANISH. Examples. 4 Ouales gon. sus motivos de vd? ‘What are your motives? £ Cual de dos tres quiero va. Which of the three will you have? Cryo oxprosses whose and of akich s it varies in tor- mination according to the gender and number of the object to which it selaes, and fs used with and withost le and preposition “Examples, Morian casi todos aquellos euyos nombres so apuntaban cn él, Nearly all those died whose names wore written in it, ‘ros ensas cuts rentas mane{é. ‘Three houses, the rents of which he managed. Zo que in Spanish. Beample Lo que digo os vordnd. What T say is trae, PORTUGUESE, Examples, Quaés sto seus mnotivos ? What are his motives? Qual dos tres quer Vin.? ‘Which of the three will you have? Cujo, same, Examples. De nossas rondas, ewjia maior parte & absorvida, Of our rents, the greater part of which is absorbed. O senhor de ciyja casa venho. The gentleman from whose house I come, 0 que in Portuguese, Example, 0 gue digo € verdade, What I say is trae,132 PRONOUNS. Indefinite Pronouns. renxom. Quiconque, queteongee Whosoever, whatsoever. Autrais “Another's, others, Personney nail, acre. No one, noboiy. Quetgu’un. Somebody, some one, sore. Chacun. ach, every one. Te. Such, Tout. All. run Vatre. Each other, one another, both. TPATIAN, Chiungue, chicchessia, qualunque, qualsisia, qualsivoglia, chocchessia, checcht, Whosoever, whatsoever. Altrui. Another's, others. Mersuno. No one, nobody. Aleuna, quitlerno, qualcheduno, Somebody, some one, some, Ornsno, ciascuno, etascheduno. Each, every one. Tale. Such, "utto Lun altro, ‘Each other, one another, both, 116. Quicongue is for both genders, bub has no plural, Chtungue: and refers only to persons. Chiceheasia, § SBE THC. Example. Example, Quiconque veut ere homme doit savoir redescendre. Chinngue ha detto questo non ha detto Ia veritd, Whoover would be a man aust know how to fall again, ‘Whoever said this has not told the truth,PRONOUNS. Indefinite Pronouns, _ SPANISIT. Quienguiera, cualquiera. ‘Whosoever, whatsoever, Ageno. Another's, others, Winguno, nadie, No one, nobody, none. Alguno, uno, alguien, algo. Somebody, some oue, some. Cala, cata uno, cada cual. Exch, every one, Tul Such, Todo. All, every. Tno—{a, a, y}—otro. Each other, one another, both Quienquiera + sane rule, except that it is sometimes, but very rarely, in the plaral, which is quienesguiera, Example Quienuiera que sea. Whoever he may be. 133 PoRTuGUESE, Quemauer, quelquer Whosoever, whatsoever, Alheio, outvem. Another's, others, Ninguem, nenhum, nenkeuns (pl No one, nobody, none. op Alguene (sinz.), Wns (pl. mase.), hum or sum, alguen, algo. Somebody, some one, some. Cada, cada um, cada qual, Each, every one. Pal. Such, edo, tudo, All, every. Tne our. Each other, one another, both. Quenguer is invariable, and refers euily to persons. Brample. Quemquer que seja. ‘Whoever ho may be.134 PRONOUNS. PReNCH amattaN, LIZ. Queleongue sorves for both genders, takes ans — Quadunque, qualsisia, quatvivogtia, serve for both in the plural, and refers both to persons and things. genders, and refer both to persons and things, They Tt always follows the substantive, follow tho general rule of adjeetives, sometimes preced- ing, and as frequently following, the now, Exanpless EBxanples, Tn homme queleangue, In qualungue stato io mi trovi. Whatever man. In whatever condition T may be. Tiny a projet quefeongue, Non vedo porsona quatsivia (Note a). ‘Photo is no project whatever, T see no one whatever. Cheechessic and cheeehé are used without a substantive, and refer only to things. “Examples, Non aver bisogno di cheechessie, Not to have nood of anything whatéver. U8, Autrai is mostly usod in a vague sense, when we speak of others in genoral, without partieularising ( Atérui is employed in the same sense, but may individuals, Tt ig invariablo in gendor and number, fet wid or without » preposition and nearly always acconrpanied by a preposition, Example Foanples. Le bien @antrut. Esser largo dellalirui. “Another's goods, ‘To be free with another's property. Mal jager Pauérus. Non fare altrué quel che non vuok por te. ‘To judge ill of others, ‘Do not to others what thou wouldst not for thyself. Note a.—Alemo{a) is horo moro froquontly used : as, Non vodo persona adeuna, Qualaiaia, qualsivoglia, and checchemin, are rendered in the plural by qualsisiano, qualsivogiiano, and eheoshossiano,PRONOUNS. 135 SPANISH. Cualquiera (sing.), eualeequiera. (pl.), serve for both genders, and refer to persons and things. ‘They gen- erally precede @ substantive when expressed before a verb. Examples. Cuatgriera que guste Vd. Whichever you please, Cualeaguiera cosas que digan de mi. Whatever things thoy may say of me, Ageno in the same manner, but has besides a fem nine and a plural termination. Beamples. Lo ageno : or, el bien agens. ‘The property of others. ‘Léjos nos hallames de nuestras tierras, no conoeidos de nadie en las agenas, We find ourselves far from our own Jands, and unknown in others by anybody. PORTUGUESE, Qualquer (sing.), quacequer (pl.) Same as Spanish. Examples. Quagner que seje 0 fim. ‘Whatever may be the end. Quaesquer cousas que digo de mim, Whatever things they may say of me, Alfeivo : same as ageno, Spanish. Outrem invariable. Branples, Quando interprote de alheias sensagbes, When intorpreting the feelings of others, © atheio, ‘The property of others, Nao faze a cutrem o que nito te fizessem a ti, Do not to others what thou wouldst not for thyself,136 119. Personne is equivalent to aucun or nul individu, and, unlike the substantive perscane (n person), which is feminine, has always a masculine signification, express- ing the ‘idea of mankind in gonoril. In a negative seuse it is accompanied by the particle ne, Breanples. Personne n'est parfait. No one is perfect. Un'y a personne, ‘There is no one, 120. When used without the negative, personne means any one. Example, YY actil personne? Is there any ono? 121. Quelgu'un has two significations, absolute and relative. In the former, having reference to no parti- cular substantive, it is always masculine, and adds $ for the plural number to each word. PRONOUNS. IPALIAN, Nessuno (mase.), nessuna (fom.), takes the negatir non only when following a verb. Eearmptes, ‘Ma non vide nesseno. But he saw no one, Nessun mi conosee, Nobody knows me, } Some of ness, Beanple Vid nessun? Js there any onet Qualeuno, quatchedino, aleuno.—The frst two of these yonouns are used only in the singular number, and refer woth to persons and things. They change the o into a for the fominine. Alouno varies in gender and number as an adjective, and relates to persons and things,PRONOUNS. , SPANISH. Ninguno, Nadie. "The first, like its Ttalian equiva ent, changes the final o into a for the feminine, Nadie is invariable. They take the negative no only when following a verb. Examples. No conozeo & winguno, T know nobody. Ninguno (or Nadie) pareeis, No one appeared. ‘The Spanish would use the word alguna, Exanple. Alli estit alyuno Is any one there? Alguno, wno, alguien, algo. ‘The first two are both absolute and relative, agreeing, as the latter, in gender and number with the noun to which it refers, whether of persons‘or things. Algwien is invariable, and refers to persons only. Algo is also invariable, and refers to things only. It takes de before an adjective, and que before an infinitive, 137 PoRTUGUESR, Nenkum, Ninguem. "The first changes thus: renkium, mase., nenlorna, fom. ; plural, nenkrns, mase., nenhamas, fem.” Ninguem is invariable. ‘They take the negative, ‘ndio, only When following a verb, a8 in Spanish, Examples. Nao custam lagrimas a ninguem, ‘They cost tears to nobody. Ninguem est abi, Nobody is there. J th tgs wh rn ln Example, Alguen esté ahi’ Is any one there? Algum, oem oF wn, algnem, algo. The first two are both absolute and relative, agreeing, as the latter, in gender and number with the noun to which it refers, Whether of persons or things. Alguem is invariable, and refers to persons only, Algo is also invariable, but seldom used.138 PRONOUNS, yneNen. Examples. Quelgu'am ati jamais douté sérieusement de Fexistence ‘le Diew? ‘Has any one over doubted sotiously the oxistenee of Goa! Quelques-uns ont fait, &e, Some have done, é&e. In a relative sense, when referring to some noun ex- pressed, it agrees with the same in gender and number Brvanaples. Quetqwvun de ces messieurs. Some one of these gentlemen Quetqu'une de ces dames. Some one of these ladies, Quetquer-uns do ces messienrs. Some (or any) of theso gontlomen, Quelquesunes de cos choses. Some (or my) of these things. ote—As absolute it rofers to persons only ; ns relative, both to persons and things. 122. Chacun is both absolute and relative ; from its nature, it is used only in the singular mumber. TTARIAN, Bramples Ecli guardava se qualouno (or quateheduno) axrivasse, He looked about to see if anybody arrived. Sto in aspetto di qualewno (or quateheduna) Tam expecting somebody. Quateuna di queste signore ‘Some one of these ladies, Ho visto alcuni dei vostri amicl. have sean some of your friends. Alcune di queste signorine mi hanno detto. Somo of these young Jadies have told me. Prendete aleurte di queste mandorle, ‘Take some of these almonds. Ognuno, Ciascuno, Ciascheduno. Same rule,PRONOUNS. SPANISH. Exaraples. 4. Que puede decir eo ? What can one say ? Algunos (ob unos) lo saben, Some know it. i Wiene Vd. algo de bueno ? Have you anything good? pTiene Va. adgo que decir ? Have you anything to say? Remark,—Alguno, relating to a nown masculine, fre- quently suppresses the last vowel, and can be written alguite 139 PORTUGUES. Examples, Querem-se en ams aos outros. ‘They love one another well. En tenho alguma cousn que fazor, Thave something to do. Fazer 0 xo alguem mania, ‘Po do what one orders. ‘Tor que fazer com alguem, ‘To have to do with somebody. Cada, Cada uno, Cuda cual. Cada, cade wn, cada qual. Same rule, Same rule.110 PRONOUNS. FRENCH. TARTAN. Examples Examples. Chacur a son défaut. Onnuno Ia Yoda. Evory one has his fault, Every one praises her, Chacun de ces hommes, Il generale comandd che eiascuno (or ciascheduno) se Each of these men, mrandasse vin. Chacrne deo ces femmes. ‘The goneral ordered that every one should go away. Each of these women, a o pany. 123. Tel is oth absolute and relative : as the latter, _ Tale, or Tal, mase. and fom. sing., Tati, maso, and it vaties in gender and number, like an adjective, fem, plural, aro both absolute and relative (Note b.) Examples. Examples. el qui vit: vendredi, dimanche plenrera, Tal ride oggi il quale domani piangord. He who laughs on Friday will ery on Sunday. He laughs to-day who will ery to-morrow. el homme, teller choses. ale womo, tali cose. Such a man, such things, Such a man, such things. 124, Tout is properly speaking an adjective, some- times also an adverb ; it is, however, freuently em. ployed as a pronoun, and is then invariable in its inination (Note ¢.) “| Tutto is also used as an adjective and an adverb, but, unlike the French equivalent, has « plural form ; in the examples it is an indefinite pronoun, Exvanaples Exumnples, Tout me platt ‘Everything pleases me. Tutto wii piace. Everything pleases me. Jo sais tout Tknow all. Tutti parlano cost, Al speak thus. Noto a.—To expresa ald when conveying an idea of plurality, a noun must be added ; as, Tout le monde le aait—All know it, Note b.—Cotale, sing —cotali pl, (sueh) are saldom now used.PRONOUNS. SPANISH Examples Quo se eontente eada ano (or cada cual) con si poco 6 stt mucho, Let every one be content with his small portion or his abundance. Cada hombre, eada muger. Each man, each woman, Tal, mase, and fem. singular; Tales, mase, and fem. plural, are absolute and relative. (Note a.) Examples. Tal amo, tal criado. Like master, like man. Encontrs vigorosos sostenedores, tales como los Stes, B&O. He met vigorous supporters, such as Messra B. de C. odo, same rule as Italian, Eoamples. Es todo de oro. Todos le perdonan, Ttis all of gold. All pardon him. wu PoRTvaUES, Examples. Este, cada ver, se aproximava mais, ‘This, each time, approached nearer. Cada homem, cada mulher. Eneb man, each woman. Gada qual no seu oficio. Every one to his trade. Tal, wase, and fem. singular; Taes, mase, and fem. plural, are alsolicte and relative (Note a.) Examples. Essa é harmonia, ta! como hoje a entondemos. ‘This is harmony, such as we to-day understand it. al homem, taes cousas. Such a man, such thi 1 Todo is also used as an adjective and an adverb; J ‘tudo in an indeterminate senso, and expressing totality. Examples. Todos havemos de morer. Em tedo que diz. Bin tudo on etn parte, ‘We must all die. In all that he says. Altogether, or in part. Note a.—Fulano also means such a one, in an absolute senso ; but is now seldom sod.ug PRONOUNS. rrexcn. TATA. 125, L’un Vautre. This pronoun, as it is generally called, varies in form, according to the gender and number of the object to which it relates, in the follow- Lun Valtro, Same, as follows : gia ) smovnan. srxctA L'un Pautre, masculine Linn Valliro, masculine. Dune Cautre, feminine. Luna Valtra, feminine, rurnate rua, Les wns les autres, masentine. Gli uni gli altri, masculine. Les wncs les autres, feminine, Le une le altre, feminine, should be in the singular number, being rendered in English by “eack other.” Several persons or things being signified, tho plural form must be employed. (Exceptions to this rule are sometimes found among the best French writings.) When only two objects are referred to, Cun Vantre i of fun Caltro. Examples, Examples. Cas deux hommes se détestent Cun Cautre, Questi due uomini si detestano l'un Zaltro, ‘These two men detest each other. ‘These two men detest each other. ‘Toutes ces femmes s'aiment les nes les autress Quoste donne si amano Je wne le altre, All these women love one another, ‘These women love one another. 126. Hun et Pauire means both, and must not be con- } 7, founded with Cun Zautre. ° } DemoreiPabro.. ‘Bame, Examp) Esanple Eun et Pautre sont & plaindre. Lruno e Valiro merita vicompensa, Both are to be pitied. Both merit a reward,PRONOUNS. 143, SPANISM. PORTUGUESE, Uno—{&, 0, y}—otro. ‘The Spanish have no expres- sion corresponding exactly to the Zun Zauére of the French and the 2itn Vadtro of the Italian, In order to give the same meaning, they must connect wno and otro by a conjunetion or preposition, according to the sense, thus forming a pronoun which relates both to persons and things, and varies in form to agree with its object in gender and number, Same of wm and outro, Examples, Beanples Esos dos hombres se aman uno 4 otro. Esses dois homens amio-se nar & outro. ‘Those two men love one another. ‘These two men love one another. Cuando nos estabamos despidiendo Jos unos y los otros. Numas e w'outras vecobia mais agrados do que dinheiro. ‘When we were taking leave of one another, ‘Among them he received more pleasure than money. } om ¥ ofro can be employed to express the word both. } Same of ume ¢ outro, Example, Eoanple, Que uno y otro téman. Um e outro vem. ‘Let both fear, Both are coming,at PRENGH. Remark—A verb following this pronoun should be in the plural number, as soon in the last example. 127, When a preposition precedes Pun, the same should be repeated before Zauire. Example, Il parle de Pun ot de Cautres He speaks of both. Remerk—Both is also rendered in French by tous deus, tous tes deus, anid deux & tee fois, 128, Both, as used in English bofore two nouns, adjectives, or pronouns, is omitted in French, and ren- dered as follows : Examples, Bt Io riche et lo pauvre vont également des doulenrs & Ja mort, Both the rich and poor pass equally from afictions ‘unto death, TL est renommé tant par son esprit que par ses richesses. He is renowned both by his talents and by his riches. Noto a.—It is obvious that with Uhe Tlalians this mode of after Panos PRONOUNS. ITALIAN, Remark. —Unlike the French rule, a verb following ‘the pronoun is placed in the singular number. (Note ) }same, Example To parlo dell’ uno ¢ dall altro, T speak of both In Italian, by Puiti ¢ due, ambidue, mase., ambeduey fom.; entrambi, wnase., entrambe, fem. ambo, mase, and fem. bs Examples. E per mate o per terra, Both by son and land, B famoso tanto per la saviozza del padre che por la propria, He is famous both on account of his father’s wisdom and his own, using tho vorb i elliptical, In the example, marta is understoodPRONOUNS. SPANISH, Remark.—A verb following this pronoun is placed im Y gag tho plural number, as in French, " same, } same, Example, | Conozeo al weno ¥ al otra I know both. Tn Spanish, by Los dos (mnase.), las dos (fem.) ; amos (mase.), ambas (fern,);entrambos (mase.),entranebas(fem.) \ Same, \ Same, Examples. Ella es hermosa ¢ inteligente. She is both bouutiful and intelligent, ‘Tanto por mar como por tiers, Both by sea and land. PORTUGUESE, Example, Drama e Coutra parte, ‘On both sides, In Portugnese, by Ambos (mase,), ambas (fem.) ; 08 dois (mase.), as duas (fet.) Examples. Ella € formosa e intelligente, She is both handsome and intelligent, ‘Tanto por mar eomo por terra, Both by sea and land,M46 preNon. 129. On,—one, they, people, we. This pronoun has no corresponding equivalent in other Ianguages—that: is, none which has so varied an employment. Although it is essentially of the singular number, om more fre- quently conveys an idea of plurality ; but the verb which accompanies it must adeays be put in the third person singula Examaples. On avait eslomnié eet homme. They had slandered that man. Comme il parlait ainsi, on entendit un bruit, ‘While he was this speaking, a noise was heard On s'étonna a'abord, on finit par sindigner. People were at first astonished, and finished by being indignant. 130, Although the verb re in the singular number, on adinits of either a singular or plural sub- stantive after the verb. “Benmples, On n'est pas un volew One is not a robber On west pas des voleurs. We are not robbers. PRONOUNS. TARTAN, In Italian, to express vaguely, they, people, &e., the pronoun sf is used, accompanied by an active verb in the third person singular, Example Si prevede, (or) si dice che Ia Francia oé armera alle fronticre, ‘They foresee, (or) people say that France will arm at the frontiers, Tf thore be an acensative (in English), it may become a nominative in Italian, the verb then agreeing with it in number. Examples. ‘Sé vede una porsona, hey see a person ; or, a person is seen. AS¥ vedono molte persone, ‘They see many persons ; or, many persons are seen,PRONOUNS. SPANISH {sam with the pronoun ee, Example, ‘Se eree, (or) se dice que es hombre de juicio. Thoy think, (or) people say that he is a man of sense, } Same. } soa Examples. Se ha recibido el libro. hoy have received the book ; or, the book has been received, ‘Se han recibido los libros. ‘Phoy have received the hooks; or, the books have been received. ur PORTUGUESE, {son with the pronoun se, Exaraplee. Fallacse em guerra. ‘Whey speak of war. Quo se diz na e6rte ? What do they say at court? Evamples, No centro 2f.se uma bandeja de prata, In the contre a silver tray is seen, No centro wha-se tres bandejas de prata, In the centre three silver trays aro seen,us aesen, 131. On follows the ver only when used in a parens thesis, or interrogatively, and is then connected by a hyphen. Examples. Elle était, dit-on, Ia fille dun Ttalien, She was, they say, the daughter of an Italian, No dit-on past Do they not say # 132, When a verb which precedes on ends ina vowel, the letter ¢ should be placed between them. Example, Ne penset-on pas? Do they not think Note—When on is procededl by any word which is not a verd, it takes 2, except at the beginning of a sen- teneo: as, Sa maison, dod Zon voyait la mer. His house, from which they viewed the sea, ‘This rule is better avoided when a word which follows on begins with 4 We should say, Si ow & pense, and not Si Con Le pense. PRONOUNS. amatay, They, people, &ey can also be understood, not ex: pressed, a verb in the active voice being employed in the third person plural. “Example, Provedono, (01) dicono cho la Francia si armera alle frontiere. They foresee, (or) people say that France will arm at the frontiers.SPANISH, lame Brample. Dicen que es hombre de juicio. ‘They say that he is 8 man of sense. PRONOUNS. t game PORTUGUESE, Ezample, Dizem quo ests ferido mortalmente, ‘They say that he is mortally wounded. 149150 ‘VERES. Generat Remarks—Tho equivalents of tho auxiliary verbs “To have,” and “To be,” are fully conjugated. Doth in their simple and compound tenses. As these verbs are in constant’uso, and assist in the formation of all others, the learner is recommended to commit to memory the auxiliaries in the language or languages under study. ‘For the purpose of showing the agreement of the verb with the personal pronoun, the latter is expressed in ‘tho present tense indicative mood of tho verb “To have ;” but, as before remarked, the personal pronoun in the nowinative ease is usually suppressed in the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese languages. Tn French, it is always expressed, except in the second person singular, and the first smd second persons plural of the imperative mood. Regitar Verbs are all conjugated in the sume manner as the models which come after the verb ‘To be 2” Verb To Have. SIMPLE TENSES. Infinitive Mood. rRnxen, ITALIAN, Prereat Tessent, ‘rescnt To have, Avoin. Avere. Partiiple Present, Partie Poocont Paticple Present, Having. ‘Ayant. ‘Avendo. Pareiple Past Parilelpe Past, ‘Patilpe Past Had. Ku, “Avuto, Indicative Mood. Present, Prosent, Beeson, have. Fai, To ho. "Phow hast. To as, ‘Ta hai. Ho, or she, has, la Beli ha, We have. ‘Nous avons, ‘Noi abbiamo, You have, ‘Vous avez, Voi avete. ‘They hove. Is ont. Ealino hanno.VERBS. 1 these show how the termination at the top of each column should be changed in order to give the right inflection, It is needless to add the compound tenses, whieh aro simply formed by the auxiliary and past participle. Irregular Verbs.—Remarks on these are made in the Preface, to which the student is refered: it must, however, be repeated that the verbs are arranged alphabetically as regards the English word ; this plan will be found convenient, frequent reference being required. As there is more irregularity in the moods and tenses of French verbs than in those of the other languages, the former are fully conjugated ; the latter show only those tenses which are irregular, Verb To Have. SIMPLE TENSES, Infinitive Mood. SPANTER, poRTUGURSE, Presa resent. Haber tenor. Haver ter. Parisien Partepte Present, Habiendo teniendo, Havendo tendo. Pantsple Past Pantipe Pat Habido tenido, Havido tido, Indicative Mood. reson Present ‘Yo ho tengo. Bu hei tenho: ‘Tu has tienes. ‘Tu has tens. Elba tiene. Elle ha tom. Nosotros hémos tenénos N6s havemos, or hemos tomos. Vosotro habéis ten Vos haveis, or heis tendes Ellos han tiguen, Elles hao vd or téem,102 Tmpertect Lind. "Phon hadst, He had. We had. ‘You had. They had, ites Dotti, Thad. ‘Thou hadst, ‘He had. We had. You had. They had. tore T shall, or will, have, ‘Thou shalt have, Fre shall have. We shall have. ‘You shall have. ‘They shall havey ‘VERBS. Indicative Mood—continued. RENCE, Tnpertect avais, "Pa avais, avait. Nous avions, ‘Vous av Ts avaient, PreteiteDefaes Tens, ‘Ta ens. Dent, Nous eftmes. ‘Vous efites, Us curent. ture, Taurai, ‘Ta auras, Thaura, Nous aurons, ‘Vous aurez, ‘Us auront, IPALIANs Imperfect, Aveva, or avevo, Avevi, Aveva. Avevimo, “Avevite, Avévano, Protorte Dott, ‘Avremo, “Avrete, ‘Avranno.Habia Hablas Habia Habfamos Habiais Habfan Hubo Hubiste Hinbo ‘Hubimos, ‘Hubisteis ‘Hubiéron Habré Habras Habré, Habrémos Habréis Mabran VERBS. Indicative Mood—continwed SPANISH, Anperfct, teniamos, tentais. tonfan, ‘Preterte Deiat, tuve. ‘tuviste, ‘tayo, tavimos, tuvisteis, tuviéron. Futur, tondré, tendras, tondré. tendvemos, tendreis. ‘tendran, rorrucupsn, Tnppateet Havi Havias Havia Haviamos Havieis Haviio Proteite Dette. Houve Honveste Houve Hoavemos Hlonvestes Mouverao atu, Haverei Maveras Haverd Haveremos Iavereis averio 138 tinha, ftinhas, tinha, tinhamos, tinkeis, tinho. tive, tiveste, tove. tivemos. tivestes, tiverio. terel. teras. ter. toremos, tercis, terio.I should, or would, have ‘Thou wouldst have, He would have, We would have, You would have. They would have. Have (thow.) Lot him have, Let us have. Have (ye.) Ta tac ave, Protent ‘That Tanay have. ‘That thou mayst have. ‘That he may have. ‘That we may have. ‘That you may have. ‘That they may have. VERBS. Conditional Mood. FRENCH, Faurais, Pu aural TL aurait. Nous aurions, ‘Vous auri Us auraient, Imperative Mood. Aic. Quill ait, Ayons. Que tu aios. Quill ait, Que nous ayons. Quo vous ayer Quills aient. ITALIAN. Avrei Avresti. Avrebbe. Avremmo, Avreste, Avrebbero. Abbi. Abbia, Abbiamo, Abbiate, Abbiano. Prescat, Abbia, Abbia, ‘Abbia. Abbiamo, Abbiate, Abbiano.VERBS. 155 Conditional Mood. SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, Habria tendria, Haaveria tori Habrias tendrias, Haverias, terias, Habria tondria, Haveria teria, Habriamos tendriamos Haveriamos teriamos, Habriais tondriais, Haverieis terieis, Habrian tendrfan, Haveriaio teri, Imperative Mood, Ten, Ha (not now used) tem (tn) Tenge. Haj tonha. Tengémos, tenhamos. Tonéd. tende, "Téngan. Hajio tenhido. Subjunctive Mood. Present, Patare Provent Future, Present Posse Prosent Patare Hiya si hubiére, Tenga si tuvfere, Haja 0 hover. Tonha se tiver. Héyas —sihubieres © Tongass tuvferes, Hajas se houveres —Tenhas_se tivores, Hgya si hubiere, Tenga si tuviére. Maja se houver Touha se tiver. Hayimos si hubiéremos. ‘Tengémos si tuviéremos, __Hajamos se houvermos, ‘Tenhdmos se tivermos, Hayéis si hubiGreis, —Tongais si tuviGrois, Hajais se houverdes, ‘Tenhais 60 tiverdes. Héyan si hubiéren. —Tengan__ si tvieren, Hajio se houverem. —Tenhiio se tiverem.16 Imperict ‘That T might have. ‘That thow mightst have, That he might have. That wo might have, Phat you might have. ‘That they might have, Past Pat To have had. Having had. roteit Tete, have had. ‘Thou hast had, He has had. We have had. ‘You have had. They have had, VERBS. Subjunctive Mood—continued, FrENen, Shapefect Que feusse Quo ta esses, Quill ett, Quo nous cussions Que vous eussicz, Quis eussent, COMPOUND TENSES. Infinitive Mood. ast Patliplo, Avoir eu, ‘Ayant eu. Indicative Mood. ‘Prelate Inti, rai ew, Tuas eu. Hacn ‘Nous avons ea, ‘Vous avez. eu, Ls ont eu, ITALIAN, epee Avesse. “Avessimo. Avoste. Avossero. ast Pastiips, Avere avnto. “Avendo avuto. Proterte Tndeite, ‘Ho avuto, Hai avato, Ha avuto. Abbiamo avuto, ‘Avete avato, ‘Hanno avato,VERBS. 17 Subjunctive Mood—continued. SPANISH. PORTUGUESE, ent Pata Present, Future. Preseat Patore Present, vutare in 7a. in se. in ra. in sex in ra, in se, Hubiéra —_hubiése, Taviéra ——tvidse. Houvéra —_honvesso. Tivéra ——_tivesse. Hubieras —hubieses. —-Tuvieras_——_tuvieses, HouvGras — houvesses, tivosses. Hubiera —_hubiese. Tuviera ——_tuviese. Houvéra —_houvesse. tivesso. Hubiéramos hubiésemos, Tuviéramos tuvi Howvéramos houyessemos, tivessemos, Hubierais bubiescis, Tuvierais.—_tuviseis, Houvoreis—_houvesseis, tivesseis. Hiubieran —hubiesen. —Tuviéran —tuaviesen. ~—» Houvérdo-—honvessem, —Tivériio_tivessem, COMPOUND TENSES. Infinitive Mood, Past Parti, ‘Post Paiste Haber tenido, Habiondo tendo. ‘Ter tido, ‘Tendo tido. Indicative Mood. Prete Tadeo, Protarie Tad, He tenido. Tenho tido, or havido, Has tenido. Tons ido, Ha tonido, Tem tido ‘Hemos tenido. Temos tido 3, ‘Habeis tenido. Tendes tido yyy Han tenido. Tmtido1 8 Phuperteok, ‘Thnd had. ‘Thou hadst had, ‘He had had. We had had. ‘You had had. "They had had. Pretrito Ante Thad had. ‘Thou hadst had. He had had. We had had. ‘You had had. ‘They had had. Future Anterior, Tshall have had. ‘Thou shalt have had. He shall have had. ‘We shall have had. ‘You shall have had. ‘They shall have had. VERBS. Indicative Mood—continued. FRENCH, Phupertet, Pavais eu. Tu avais eu. avait eu. Nous avions en. ‘Vous aviez eu Tis avaient eu. Protarte Anterior, ‘Fens en. "Tu eus on. Tleut en, Nous efimes eu, ‘Vous efites eu. Us eurent eu. Jaurai eu. ‘Ta auras eu. Tlaura eu, Nous aurons eu, ‘Vous aurez ew. Us anront ea, ITALIAN, Piupertot, Aveva avuto. ‘Avevi avuto. Avova avuto, Avevamo avuto. Avovate avuto, Avevano avuto. Protorte Anteion, Ebbi avuto. Avesti avuto, Ebbe avuto, Aveo avuto, ‘Avesto avuto, Ebbero avuto. Future Anterior, Avid avuto. Avrai avuto, ‘Avr avuto. Avremo avuto. Avrete avnto, Avranno avuto,SPANISH, Prapertoct Habia tenido. Habias tonido. Habia tenido, ‘Habiamos tenido, Habiais tenido, Habian tenido. retorive anterior, Hube tenido. Hubiste tenido, ‘Huo tenido. ‘Hubimos tenido. Hubistois tonido. Hubieron tenido. ature Autedon, ‘Habré tenido. Habras tenido. ‘Habré tenido. ‘Habremos tenido, Habreis tenido, ‘Habran tenido. VERBS. Indicative Mood—continued. PORTUGUESE, Paperect Tinha tide, or havido, Tinhas tido Tinha tido ‘Tinhamos tido ,, Tinheis tido Tinhao tido 5, reterite Anttion. Tive tide, Tiveste tido 5, Tove tido | ‘vemos tido ,, Tivestes tido ), vero tide, Fatave Aatiron Tori tido eras tido Tera tido ‘Teremos tido 5, Tereis tido Torio tido 5, 159160, VERBS. Conditional Mood. FRENOTL, ITALIAN. T should have had. Pourais en. Avrei avuto. ‘Thou shouldst have had. "Tu aurais eu. Avresti avuto, He should have had. Taurait ou. Avrebbe avuto. ‘We should have had. Nous aurions eu. ‘Avremmo avato, You should have had, ‘Vous auriez ew. ‘Avreste avuto. ‘They should have had. Tis auraient cu, Avrebbero avato, Subjunctive Mood, Protste Pretnte retest That T may have had. Quo Faie eu. Abbia avuto, ‘Phat thon mayst have had. Quo ta nies eu. ‘Abia avato, ‘That he may have had. Quill ait eu. Abbia avuto. ‘That we may have had. Que nous ayons @ ‘Abbiamo avnto, ‘That you may have had. Que vous ayer eu. Abbiate avuto, ‘That they may have had. Quills aient eu, ‘Abbiano avato. Pupertet epee Papert ‘That T might have had. Que jfeusse en. Avessi avato, ‘That thou mightst have had. Quo tu ousses eu. Avessi avuto, That he might have had. Quill eit eu. ‘Avesse avuto. ‘That we might have had. Quo nous enssions ov. Avossimo avato, ‘That you might have had, Que vous eussiez eu, Aveste avato. That thoy might have had. Quills eussent eu. ‘Avessero avuto,