World of Animals Book of Big Cats and African Wildlife 2nd Edition

NEW
TM
SPECIAL
Welcome to
TM
BOOK OF
BIG
CATS
AFRICAN WILDLIFE
Tread carefully into the treacherous world of big cats,
and stare into the yellow eyes of a killer as we track
down incredible predators like the Siberian tiger, the ultra
rare Bornean bay cat, and the enigmatic black panther.
We travel from the snowy mountains of Central Asia, to
urban areas of Northern America, to tropical rainforests
of the Amazon to discover what goes bump in the night,
with beautiful illustrations and photography of the most
elusive members of the big cat family. In the second part
we take you to the heart of Africa on a safari to meet
the most iconic creatures, from the flamboyant flamingo
to the regal rhino. We even unveil the secrets to the
ultimate trip to Kenya to get up close and personal with
these animals yourself.
TM
BOOK OF
BIG
CATS
AFRICAN WILDLIFE
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World of Animals Book of Big Cats & African Wildlife Second Edition
2016 Imagine Publishing Ltd
ISBN 9781785462580
Part of the
bookazine series
Contents
Big Cats
10 Wild cats of the world
Enter into the world of some of the most beautiful mammals
18 Interview
Discover what its like to work with cats from two experts in the field
20 All about African lions

Get close and personal with the king of the savannah
32 Endangered Asiatic lion

Slightly different from its African counterpart, this lion is near extinct
34 Lion evolution
Where did the lion get his iconic manes and roar from?
36 Lion conservation
How can we keep the king of the jungle on its mighty throne?
40 Tigers vs. lions
90 All about cheetahs

One of the fastest animals on the planet, you better be sure to capture this
cats beauty before hes out of sight
100 Double life of the cougar

This Northern American cat is closing in on urban areas and cities in order
to survive
106 Senses of the Eurasian lynx

This incredible creatures senses are incredibly adapted
112 Spotters guide to the Iberian lynx

The Iberian lynxs curiosity can ensure you a special encounter
114 Bornean bay cat

One of the rarest animals alive today, the Bornean bay cat has almost
never been seen in the wild
The ultimate showdown with the two most famous felines
42 Endangered Siberian tiger

Read the numbers about just how endangered this big cat is
44 Tigers and man

Discover our troublesome relationship with tigers
50 All about leopards

Delve deep into the story of this spotted feline
60 Secrets of the snow leopard

Get closer to one of the most beautiful creatures on earth
66 Amur leopard: Back from the brink

This rare big cat is making a comeback
72 Sunda clouded leopard

Meet the closest modern relative to the sabre-toothed tiger
74 All about jaguars

It may look like a leopard, but this big cat of the rainforest is unique
84 Mysteries of the panther

This sleek onyx feline is the source of many legends
African Wildlife
118 African Safari
The Big Five of Africa are the true icons of this beautiful continent - take a
tour of the land and its wildlife and see what it takes to travel to Kenya
126 All about African elephants

These gentle giants are more like us than youd expect, and exhibit
intricate social behaviours
138 Journey with giraffes

Discover how the long-necked inhabitants of the savannah live an
interesting life
148 Saving the iconic rhino

Tough as they may seem, the African rhinos are under threat, but all is
not lost
156 Zebras: Strength in numbers

These striped animals are amazingly adapted to the African wilderness
Thinkstock
Big Cats
From African plains to frozen tundras, big cats have
learned to thrive and keep their cozy spot at the top of
the food chain - get close to these amazing felines here
Big Cats
10 Wild cats of the world
Enter into the world of some of the most beautiful mammals
18 Interview
Hear from a big cat keeper and a tiger expert
20 All about African lions

Get close and personal with the king of the savannah
32 Endangered Asiatic lion

This lion is set apart from its African counterpart
34 Lion evolution
Where did the lion get his iconic manes and roar from?
36 Lion conservation
40 Tigers vs. lions

42 Endangered Siberian tiger

Read the numbers about just how endangered this big cat is
44 Tigers and man

Discover our troublesome relationship with tigers
50 All about leopards

Delve deep into the story of this spotted feline
60 Secrets of the snow leopard

Get closer to one of the most beautiful creatures on earth
66 Back from the brink: Amur leopard

This rare big cat likes his environment frosty
72 Sunda clouded leopard

Meet the closest modern relative to the sabre-toothed tiger
74 All about jaguars

This big cat sets itself apart from its other spotted counterparts
84 Mysteries of the panther

This sleek onyx feline is the source of many legends
90 All about cheetahs

One of the fastest animals, be sure to capture this cats beauty
100 Double life of the cougar

This Northern American cat is closing in on urban areas
106 Senses of the Eurasian lynx

This incredible creatures senses are incredibly adapted
112 Spotters guide to the Iberian lynx

The Iberian lynxs curiosity can ensure you a special encounter
114 Bornean bay cat

One of the rarest animals alive, its almost never seen in the wild
50
Dreamstim; ThinkStock
90
84 20
Big Cats
Wild cats of the world
WILD
CATS
OF THE WORLD
As stealthy as ninjas, as strong and fierce as the best predator
out there and with breathtaking beauty to boot, the felines are
an incredible bunch
Big cats are a superior group of animals.
Theyre intense predators, all carnivorous
meat-eaters and none of them take prisoners.
Whether thats a gigantic male Siberian tiger
weighing 300 kilograms (660 pounds), or a
tiny black-footed kitten weighing just a few
kilos, each cat has a dont-mess attitude
about it that has ensured it a spot at the top
of the food chain for thousands of years.
Despite their differences in size and

appearance, all big cats have similar
characteristics that make them so
recognizable and iconic. Lithe, muscular
bodies, pointy ears, slit-like luminous eyes,
pointy teeth and the incredible ability to
land on their feet are just some of the classic
cat attributes found in every member of the
feline family.
11
Big Cats
The big cat all-stars
Cheetah
Check out the fastest, strongest and most

powerful felines around
Found across Africas plains and

grasslands, cheetahs are the fastest
thing on four legs, or in the animal
kingdom for that matter. These speedy,
spotted cats can go from 0-60 miles
per hour (0-96 kilometres per hour) in
just three seconds. They are agile and
nimble at speed, able to make quick
turns in order to snare their prey.
All the members of the family felidae, from the

one curled up on your lap to the most majestic
lion king in the Serengeti, share some common
characteristics. However the felidae also has
members that are incredibly diverse, and ones that
can show off some truly awesome talents. Here
are some of the cat familys biggest and best
Eurasian lynx
As one of the most distinctive big
cat species, the Eurasian lynx sports
a thick fluffy coat with attractive ear
tufts. Found in the forests of western
Europe, Russia and central Asia, the
lynx is a super stealthy hunter and can
use its effortless agility to track down
large prey.
Black jaguar
Found across South America, the black jaguar
plays a large part in ancient culture. The name
jaguar is derived from the Native American
word yaguar, which means he who kills with
one leap. These big cats will sometimes climb
trees and lie in wait in order to ambush their
unsuspecting prey. Although many of these cats
appear to be pure black, on closer inspection
youll see that they actually have spots.
12
Snow leopard
Found far away from their warm-weather namesakes,
snow leopards live high up in the mountains of Central
Asia. Their fur is a greyish-white to camouflage them
against the chilly backdrop and their wide, fluffy paws
function as excellent snowshoes. A long, agile tail also
helps the leopard to keep balance as it leaps from icy cliff
top to rocky crag.
Tiger
The majestic tiger is one of the most
distinctive big cats, with its thick coat
of sumptuous stripes. Unlike many of
its cousins, Tigers enjoy a swim, and
they are as acute a predator in water as
they are on land. Powerful and muscly,
a tiger can easily stalk and ambush
large prey.
Clouded leopard
Tropical rainforests of Southeast
Asia host this elusive big cat
that sports both the largest
canine teeth and
the longest tail
(relative to body
size). Named for
their cloud-like
spots, they are
very vocal and
communicate
with all manner
of purrs, growls,
moans and roars.
Leopard
Lion
Undisputed and undefeated rulers of the
African plains, lions are on of the only cat
species to live in social groups. Known as
a pride, a male lion guards his harem of
lionesses that are almost always related.
The ladies go out to hunt, and then men
stay home and play with the cubs.
Often to be found high up in the

treetops, leopards are nimble predators
who like to eat their kills up high. Their
beautiful spotted pelt offers up a
perfect camouflage for treetop living,
although leopards are also comfortable
stalking prey on the ground, or even
taking to water to snack on fish as well
as crustaceans.
13
Big Cats
Serval
The cat with the largest ears

SERVAL
Leptailurus serval
Class mammalia
Territory Sub-Saharan Africa

Diet Rodents, birds, reptiles
Lifespan Up to 19 years
Adult weight 7-18kgs (15-40lbs)
Conservation Status
LEAST CONCERN
The slightly gangly-looking serval is one of the

most endearing-looking wild cats out there. It
has the longest legs and largest ears of any cat
species, relative to body size. These lanky legs are
excellent for leaping, jumping, and reaching into
holes to pull out some juicy rodent prey. Similarly,
the oversized ears perched atop its head are used
for expert hunting acting as great big satellite
dishes sensitive enough to even pick out prey
burrowing underground. The servals long neck
sometimes earns these wild felines the nickname
giraffe cat, it enables them to peek over the tall
Savannah grass on the lookout for predators and
prey stealers alike, such as leopards and hyenas.
Distinguishing features
Huge ears
Long neck
Lanky legs
Bobcat
The cat with the greatest range
Found all over the USA, bobcats live
in forested or swampy areas. They are
stealthy, yet unfussy hunters, and can
deliver a deathly blow to their prey of
mice, rabbits, squirrels or even things much
larger than themselves with a pounce that
can cover three metres (ten feet) with the
utmost of ease. These cats are so named
for their short, bobbed tail, and they have
super soft, plushy fur that keeps the cat
toasty all year round. Although they usually
make their home in wilderness areas, these
prolific big kitties have also been known
to infiltrate the fringes of towns and cities,
taking advantage of the dinnertime spoils
served up on a garbage-bin platter.
BOBCAT
Felis rufus
Class mammalia
North America
Territory North America
Diet Rabbits, squirrels, mice
Lifespan 10-12 years
Adult weight 5-14 kg (11-30lbs)
Conservation Status
NOT EVALUATED
14
Bobcat habitat
Urban bobcats
Despite a huge habitat, bobcats, like
foxes, oen inltrate urban areas
Ocelot
The cat thats both spotted and striped
Ranging from southern Texas to the northern reaches

of Argentina, these small and beautiful felines are only
about twice the size of a regular housecat. They prefer to
slink their way through vegetation, and so are known to
live in rainforested, jungly areas where there are plenty
of places to both hide and seek. This cats gorgeous
coat features mottled bands and leopard-like spots
as well as striking flashes of white around the
eyes. These peepers are also incredibly sharp,
as ocelots have superb vision
six times better than our feeble
humanoid eyes, with a field of
vision thats 70 degrees wider;
all the better for hunting with.
OCELOT
Leopardus pardalis
Class mammalia
Territory Central and South

America
Diet rodents, reptiles, fish
Lifespan 14 years
Adult weight 7-16kg (15-34lbs)
Conservation Status
LEAST CONCERN
Ocelots have superb

vision six times better
than our feeble eyes
50-200cm
6cm
30-45cm
Lifespan
While the ocelot can live up
to 20 years old in captivity,
this spotted felid usually only
reaches between seven and ten
years of age in the wild.
15
Big Cats
European wildcat
Falling numbers
The cat that looks the most familiar
Iberian lynx
You would be forgiven for thinking

that these cats are just an
exceptionally large version of
your friendly neighbourhood
tabby living in scrubland, forests,
marshes and along coasts. Their
dark, striped markings, cute-as-abutton faces and extra fluffy tails
make them look almost identical
to those that lovingly share our
sofas. However, underestimating the
European wildcat can be disastrous,
as these wild moggies are bad to
the bone! Although theyre known
to be the ancestor of our pets, they
can be rather vicious and are icecold hunters. The biggest threat to
European wildcats is interbreeding
with domestic cats, and its not
known how many genetically
pure populations are remaining.
One thing we do know, though,
is that this is one kitty that can
take care of itself!
= 100
1990
2015
Tiger
= 100
figures based on India
2006
2015
Cheetah
= 100,000
1900
2015
Lion
= 40,000
EUROPEAN WILDCAT
1940
2015
Felis silvestris silvestris

Class mammalia
Territory Europe
Diet Rats, squirrels, birds
Adult weight 2.3-7.2kg (5-16lbs)
Conservation Status
LEAST CONCERN
16
Underestimating
the European
wildcat can
be disastrous,
as these wild
moggles are bad
to the bone!
Caracal
The cat that was once tamed

Caracals are unique wild cats that
occupy similar home ranges to cheetahs
and were once conditioned by humans
to hunt. Caracals have incredibly fast
reflexes and powerful, springy back
legs these cats can jump up to three
metres in the air and snatch a flying bird
out of the sky. Caracals share the same
colouring as cougars and lions theyre
one of the few wildcat species not to
sport markings. Their most distinguishing
feature is the jet-black ears topped with
tufts that cut a striking silhouette. Its
thought that these tufts may be a helpful
camouflage in the grass, or may be used
to communicate with other caracals.
CARACAL
Caracal caracal
Class mammalia
Territory Africa, Middle East,

Asia
Diet Birds, rodents, small
antelope
Adult weight 8-20kg (18-44lbs)
Conservation Status
LEAST CONCERN
Wild cat extremes

MOST ENDANGERED
South China tiger

In the 1950s, this tiger subspecies was once
numerous in its home range. However, the
following few decades saw it hunted as a
pest, and it is now functionally extinct, with no
sightings in the wild for 25 years.
MOST ADAPTED
Canada lynx
This cat is highly suited to its mountainous
home, as it sports some thick fur for warmth,
tu y ears for hearing prey, super-sharp claws
for climbing and incredibly strong hind legs to
aid jumping and pouncing.
SMALLEST
MOST ELUSIVE
Black-footed cat
A tiny little South African wild cat, it measures
35-40 centimetres (14-16 inches) long, and is
found in Botswana, South Africa and Namibia
in grass plains and scrub desert, and are
known to be tenacious and feisty hunters.
Scottish wildcat
Britains very own wildcat species can be found
(if youre very, very lucky) roaming the Scottish
West Highlands. Looking like a rather beefy
housecat, these felines are a dwindling species
with only around 35 purebreeds le in the wild.
17
Big Cats
Interview with a
Big cat keeper
With eight different kinds of big cat to look after, Ian Jones reveals
what its like to be a zookeeper at Paradise Wildlife Park in Broxbourne
Whats the best part of your day?

Checking all the cats in the morning, as
some are always very talkative and they
are happy to see you. There is nothing
better than getting a morning hello chuff
from a tiger.
Whats the worst?
Locking everything up and saying
goodnight in the evening.
What is it like having to cater to so many
different kinds of diet?
Its important to treat all the animals as
individuals and not just be species specific.
However, we do look at each of the species
natural history and with all big cats they
are built to stave and gorge in the wild,
meaning they are capable of eating large
amounts in one sitting and then going
several days, if need be, without eating
again. So to help simulate this natural
behaviour we feed them in a similar way.
On average, our lions and tigers only eat
one big meal every three days, whereas our
jaguars, leopards and snow leopards eat
every two days.
Its important to
treat all the animals
as individuals
and not just be
species specific
18
Do you have a specially designed

enclosure for each big cat species?
We try to provide the cats with
enclosures where they are able to exhibit
natural behaviours. With climbing cats
like leopards and jaguars, we provide
apparatus so they can climb and get up
high to relax in the branches. We provide
pools for tigers and jaguars to swim or cool
off in as these are generally the only big
cats that like water. All of the enclosures
have private areas that the cats can hide
in to be away from the public if they want
to. The more choices we give the cats, the
better their welfare generally is.
Contrary to popular
belief, most big cats
in zoos and wildlife
parks were born and
raised in captivity
rather than the wild
Tell us a little bit about your different

breeding programmes
We currently have breeding programmes
or EEPs (European Endangered species
breeding Programmes) for four of our
cat species: our cheetahs, jaguars, snow
leopards and the Amur tiger sub-species.
All of our breeding cats are currently quite
young, but we hope over the next few
years to get breeding recommendations
and contribute towards these programmes
in the future. All captive breeding
programmes are there to ensure we keep
a strong genetic diversity should we ever
need to supplement the wild populations.
What you need to

become a big cat keeper
If youre interested in becoming a
big cat keeper then really all you
need is a passion for animals,
advises Ian. Its more of a vocation
than a job but remember animals
do require huge amounts of time
and sacrifice. Most zookeepers
work long hours, as animals
require care seven days a week
(including Christmas!). If youre
looking to pursue an academic
route, look into zoology, animal
behaviour and conservationrelated degrees. However, the
best kind of experience will be
hands-on. My advice would be
to volunteer somewhere first,
wherever you can, adds Ian. Youll
get a good idea of what you are
letting yourself in for!
Visit
www.pwpark.com
for more
information on
the work Ian and
his colleagues are
doing at Paradise
Wildlife Park
Feeding routines vary

across different species
some are fed from a
distance while more
domesticated animals
are fed close-up
Paradise Wildlife Park
What does a day in the

life of a big cat keeper
usually entail?
Our day-to-day duties
include morning checks
of the animals to make
sure they are all fine and
healthy and their enclosures are safe and
not damaged. We then do daily cleaning
to make sure everything is looking nice
for visitors and the cats have nice beds to
sleep in. After that, we do daily food prep
for the animals that need feeding that day,
as not all the cats eat every day. We also
prepare and provide different enrichment
items for them on a daily basis and we train
our cats for various veterinary procedures
using positive reinforcement.
Interview
Working in
Tiger conservation
Esther Conway of 21st Century Tiger talks about saving these majestic
big cats and why everyone has something to bring to conservation
Why help tigers
over all the other
endangered animals on
the planet?
I like to think that by
protecting wild tigers,
we are protecting
whole swathes
of forest and all the other plants and
animals that live alongside them. The
tiger is such an iconic animal its one of
the first that a child learning to identify
animals will remember. Those stripes are
imprinted in our minds and have been for
centuries. That is why they have inspired
countless artists and writers across many
different cultures and why tigers are vitally
important to save.
What are the biggest threats that tigers
face today?
Humans are the biggest threat to the tigers
survival. Deforestation is being driven by
our demand for food, timber and paper.
Tigers are poached to satisfy the desire of
some to own a part of something rare and
special, or because they believe the tiger
has the power to cure their ills.
Growing populations across Asia are
pressurising the forests as they are cut
down for roads, railways, industry and
housing. The remaining tigers are squeezed
into increasingly small areas that are
isolated from each other.
To challenge these threats, conservation
focuses on strengthening the front-line
defences, training rangers and park staff,
investing in anti-poaching patrolling and
the technological support they need to
be effective. The tigers habitat has to be
conserved; corridors for safer passage
must be policed, laws strengthened and
upheld. Communities need to be involved
you cant save the tiger if local people dont
think the same way. To do all this, finances
need to be made available.
What does 21st Century Tiger do on a dayto-day basis?
21st Century Tiger is essentially a funding
mechanism for wild tiger conservation.
Our role is to send money to international
NGOs working across Asia to protect wild
tigers. With the help of a team of respected
scientists and conservationists around the
world we are able to select appropriate
projects for funding.
To raise money for these projects,

21st Century Tiger spends much of its
time communicating to the world zoo
community and members of the public.
We love the emails we receive from people
inspired to fundraise for wild tigers. Weve
had stories of sponsored haircuts, cake
sales, marathons, skydives and even a
giving up meat for a week challenge.
Are you involved with re-releasing tigers?
21st Century Tiger occasionally gets
involved in the release of wild tigers, if the
animals have been rescued after being
injured or caught in a snare, and are fit
enough to be released. Releasing a tiger
is a complex operation involving many
individuals, from the regions highest
political official to the ranger on the
ground. Permissions need to be sought
and release grounds identified. You cant
release an animal unless you are sure it will
not conflict with another tigers range, that
there is enough prey and that the area is
well protected.
How are tigers in zoos helping inform
conservation in the wild?
Good zoos have a very important role in
tiger conservation. Not only do they raise
money but crucially they enable people
to engage with tigers; to hear, to see, to
smell them. Zoos have the ability to inspire
people to think about animals in a wider
context, rather than simply an exhibit.
On a practical level, knowledge is shared
between staff in zoos and those working in
the field, with advances in animal welfare
and veterinary medicines. Managed
breeding programmes ensure that there is
a strong gene pool in case reintroduction is
ever considered, though this is a last resort
scenario. Conservation of the existing wild
population is our main concern.
The tiger is such

an iconic animal
Those stripes are
imprinted in our
minds and have
been for centuries
Earn your stripes

Want to do more than make a donation? Here are three steps
towards a career in tiger conservation
Back to school
While a degree isnt a must, it will provide you with a firm
grounding in your chosen field and invaluable technical
expertise. Esther recommends that if you want a career
working on the ground you need a sound background in
science and maths at quite a high level as there is now so much
amazing new technology.
Get on a plane
Arguably, experience is even more important than educational
credentials. Travel to tiger conservation hotspots like northern
India to better understand the underlying issues (both for tigers
and their human neighbours) and to acquaint yourself with the
local language and culture. Better still, sign up for voluntary
projects to get some hands-on experience.
Think outside the box

You dont need to be a field conservationist to help conserve
tigers, Esther points out. Tigers need people with expertise in
marketing, fundraising, administration and finance to make the
behind-the-scenes run smoothly. The trick is working out how
your skill set can best be put to use.
Monitoring of tigers in the wild is a time-consuming,
expensive activity, involving direct observation,
ground surveys, camera trap images and DNA
sampling of droppings
Find out
more about 21st
Century Tiger and
ways you can help to
protect tigers at
www.21stcentury
tiger.org
19
Big Cats
20
African lion
All about
The African lion
Richard Du Toit/Minden Pictures/FLPA
With claws like switchblades, a vice-like jaw

and a larynx adapted to produce a fearsome
roar, the lion is Africas most notorious predator
21
Big Cats
Trachea
Inside a lion
A lions larynx is positioned

low in the trachea and can be
pulled towards the ribcage,
producing a deep roar.
Lions are specialised killing machines.

They have free-floating shoulder
blades, switchblade-like claws that can
be unsheathed from their paws and
huge jaw muscles that allow them to
clamp their prey and suffocate it
LION
Panthera leo
Class Mammalia
Sight

and western India
Diet Carnivore
Adult weight 120-250kg /
265-550lbs
Conservation Status
Lions eyesight is
similar to humans
in daylight, but
vastly superior in
the dark.
Spine
Eye socket
Skull
VULNERABLE
Canine
Mandible
Teeth and jaw
Claw
Carnassial
A lion has huge canines

for grabbing prey during
a hunt and scissorlike carnassials to slice
through meat. The jaw is
slightly offset, preventing
the teeth from bashing
together as it bites.
Retraction
Lungs
When the
tendons are
relaxed, the lions
claws are hidden
from view inside
the paws.
Pivot point
22
Forelimb
The underlying bone
structure of a lions
forelimb is the same as
our own, but adapted
to form paws with
retractable claws.
Elastic ligament
JUVENILE
INFANCY
Birth 0 months
Most lion cubs are born blind,
weigh around 1-2kg (2.24.4lbs) and are covered with
spotted fur for camouage.
Heart
Protraction
To expose their
claws, the tendons
above and below
each digit are both
pulled taut.
Open eyes 2-3 weeks

The lion cubs open their eyes
aer approximately two weeks
and their milk teeth begin to
come through.
Meeting dad 6 weeks

When the cubs have become
slightly larger and stronger, the
lioness will introduce them to the
rest of the pride.
MATURITY
Weaning 2-3 months
Before weaning, lion cubs will
suckle from any lactating female
in the pride. Two-month-olds
begin to share meat aer a kill.
Learning to hunt 1 year

Young lions practice hunting
on any moving target, oen
chasing each other in order to
perfect their technique.
Adulthood 3 years
Infant mortality is high in
lion populations, where
only around one in eight
cubs reaches adulthood.
Digestive system
Tawny fur
Meat is an easy-to-digest,
energy-rich food source,
so, like other carnivores,
lions have a relatively short
digestive system, capable of
extracting around 70 per cent
of the energy from their food.
The distinctive colouring

of a lion resembles
the dry grass of the
savannah, enabling
lionesses to approach
their prey without
being seen.
Mane
Females are attracted
to the males with
the biggest, darkest
manes. A sign of high
testosterone, this
indicates the lion can
defend his pride.
Paws
Testicle
Kidney
Spleen
At rest, a lions paws

are soft and silent,
but when hunting or
fighting, they extend
their claws, like a
switchblade, to grapple
prey to the ground.
Scent marking
Lions urinate backwards,
allowing them to mark trees
and bushes as a warning to
rival males.
As they approach their

prey, they run, pounce
and grab it around the
neck with their jaws
Liver
Bladder
Folded skin
The skin on the underside
of an Asiatic lions abdomen
is folded. As it eats, the fold
stretches out, allowing its
stomach to distend, enabling
it to eat huge quantities of
meat in one sitting.
Tail
Closest family
Closely related to the lion are
Paw
Bachelors 3 years
When males reach
maturity, they are driven
from the pride by the
dominant lion.
Taking over a pride 3+ years

Brotherhoods of young males
challenge existing dominant lions
for the right to their pride and
their territory.
Hind
Reproduction 4+ years
Females usually have their first
litter of cubs by the age of 4,
remaining fertile for the majority
of their life
Leopard
The smallest of the
big cats, but what the
leopard lacks in size,
it makes up in speed
and agility. Leopards
can reach 58km/h
(36mph) and have
strong jaw muscles.
Jaguar
The jaguar is the
only member of the
Panthera genus found
in the Americas. Black
jaguars as well as
black leopards are
commonly known as
black panthers.
Tiger
The largest cat
species, the tiger can
be found in territories
in Siberia, India and
Southeast Asia. Their
stripes are like our
fingerprints, unique to
each individual.
23
Big Cats
Cub care
Its hard out there for a young lion
Male lions are unpredictable, rough and sometimes
aggressive, so for the first six to eight weeks, a lioness
cares for her new cubs on her own. She often chooses
to give birth to her vulnerable, blind young under the
shelter of a rock, or in thick undergrowth. After about
two months, the cubs are ready to meet the rest of the
pride. Lionesses share parental duties, and all lactating
females in the group will assist with feeding until the
infants are weaned. If a mother is killed, her sisters will
often take over and raise her orphaned young.
Play is incredibly important in cub development,
allowing them to practice the skills required to become
competent adult hunters. The cubs watch the females
hunt and will attempt to chase anything that moves,
from ants to birds and even baboons. They quickly
learn which of the local wildlife is worth stalking, so by
the time they reach adulthood will rarely waste time
attempting to hunt animals that are too large, too
dangerous, or too quick to escape. Sometimes the
females will bring small prey back for the cubs to
practice on, re-releasing it to allow them to hone
their hunting skills.
Males are aggressive, but will tolerate their own
cubs, even allowing them close enough to feed.
Their most important parental role is protecting
their offspring from rival males, who will kill any
existing young cubs if they succeed in taking over
the pride. When the lionesses are hunting, the
males stay behind to protect their offspring.
When threatened, females will corral the prides
cubs, picking them up by the scruff of the neck
and moving them to safety. By the time they are a
year old, they are able to be left alone and at this
point will begin attempting to catch their own food
in earnest. Initial attempts are often clumsy
and unsuccessful, so until they have become
competent hunters the pride will share food with
the young lions.
If a mother dies, her sisters

often take over and raise
her orphaned young
24
Mating and
reproduction
A lionesss choice of mate can
determine the lifespan of her young
When a rival male takes over a pride he will kill all of the
prides cubs so that resources can be diverted to raising
his own offspring. Due to this, it is of vital importance
to a lioness that she chooses a strong mate, capable of
defending her cubs until they are fully grown. Lionesses
prefer lions with thick, dark manes a sign of high
testosterone, and an indicator that the lion is strong
enough to protect his pride.
Females are in heat several times a year, and cubs
are born year-round. When a lioness is fertile, she seeks
out male attention, and will mate every 25 minutes for a
period of three or four days to maximise the chance of
conceiving. Despite the female initiating mating, she can
be aggressive, so the male holds her by the scruff of her
neck to protect himself. Lion gestation lasts for 110 days,
and lionesses give birth alone, in secluded dens, to protect
their newborn cubs from danger. Litters vary in size from
one to four cubs, or as many as nine in rare cases, but
it is unlikely that the whole litter will survive in such
instances because a female lion can only feed
four cubs at a time.
The fierce competition between male
lions means that most are driven from the
pride when they reach adulthood. These
lions often form small brotherhoods that
co-operate to take over a pride of their
own. Female lions reach sexual maturity
RIGHT
Lioness
and have their first litter by the age of
mothers do
four. They usually stay within their home
whatever they
pride and by the time they are mature
can to make
sure their
an unrelated dominant lion will be in
cubs reach
charge, ensuring genetic diversity.
adulthood
The first few

weeks of life
Born blind
Suckling
Lion cubs are extremely

vulnerable for the first few
weeks. They are blind and
cannot walk, so they must be
kept hidden in a secluded den.
A female lion can only feed

four cubs at a time. Cubs
born into litters larger than
this frequently succumb to
starvation and die.
Single parent
To protect her cubs, the
lioness raises them alone for
the first few weeks, keeping
them hidden from the pride
and other predators.
Lion cubs are born blind and are unable to walk

until they are three weeks old, so they remain in
the safety of their den. The lioness cannot leave
her cubs for long periods, so she withdraws from
the pride, hunting in the local area to maintain her
strength so she can produce enough milk. She
frequently moves the cubs to a new den to prevent
the smell from attracting predators like hyenas and
snakes, waiting until the cubs are big enough to fend
for themselves before bringing them out
into the open to meet the pride.
She frequently
moves the cubs to a
new den to prevent the
smell from attracting predators
Camouflage
Lion cubs are born with fur and have dappled
spotted markings, helping them hide from
predators in the savannah grass.
25
Big Cats
26
African lion
A guide to hunting like a true apex predator
1. Stalking the prey
2. The attack begins
3. Locked in
4. Takedown complete
Lionesses hunt in teams. They

have limited stamina, so they
flank their target, remaining
hidden while inching closer.
When close enough, they will

pounce, joining together to take
down an unsuspecting member
of the herd.
They grab the prey around

the neck with their immensely
strong jaws, preventing it from
biting or kicking back.
Their jaw strength will break the

preys spine or crush the trachea
in a vice-like grip that can be
held for up to ten minutes.
27
Pete Oxford/Minden Pictures/FLPA
How the lion hunts
Big Cats
Female lions are responsible

for hunting and raising cubs
Big cat behaviour

Cats, domestic and wild, are usually solitary
creatures. However, lions inhabit an expansive
environment, and their prey travel in large
groups, so in order to survive they have evolved
a co-operative social system. Lions live in prides
consisting of several lionesses, usually sisters, and
one or more outsider males. The males defend the
territory, while the females work together to hunt
and raise the cubs.
They do exhibit many behavioural similarities to
domestic cats, including eating grass to help with
regurgitation of fur balls, and resting for around
20 hours a day, hiding from the scorching African
sun in the shade of rocks and trees. However,
lions have evolved their own particular set of
behavioural adaptations.
The defining feature of the Panthera genus
of big cats is their ability to roar. Lions have a
large larynx, with vocal folds similar to those of
a domestic cat; as air moves through the folds
they vibrate, generating a sound. The difference
between lions and cats is that their larynx is
much lower in the throat, extending the distance
from the voice box to the mouth and nose. Strap
muscles attached to the ribcage can be used
to pull the larynx further downwards, extending
the windpipe like the slide on a trombone, and
producing a deeper sound, giving the threatening
28
ABOVE Two lionesses nuzzling

each other affectionately
Lions are unusual felines and live in large social groups
illusion that the lion is much larger than it is. This

sound carries over long distances, warning other
males in the area to stay away.
Roaring is not the only way that lions defend
their territories; the males in the pride patrol the
area every day, spraying a combination of urine
and pheromones on bushes, trees and rocks to
scent-mark the boundaries of their home and
hunting grounds.
Female lions are responsible for hunting and
raising cubs. Male lions are hampered by their
large manes and stocky stature, while the smaller,
lighter, more agile bodies of the lionesses allow
them to move silently as they stalk their prey.
Lions have relatively small hearts for their body
size, and cannot run for long distances, so they
use a combination of stealth and teamwork to
take down their prey. During hunting, groups
of females flank their prey, working together to
surround their target. They slowly inch closer,
walking on the soft pads at the bottom of their
paws to avoid alerting their target.
The social interactions between members of
a lion pride help to ensure that the individuals
function as a team. Lions use peaceful and
affectionate rubbing and licking to bond with
one another and will call for lost members of the
group, ensuring the pride remains together.
Diet and feeding

The lion is an apex predator, at the
very top of the food chain.
An average male
lion can eat over
30kg/66lbs
in one sitting.
Thats over
25% of
its body
weight.
Around
90%
of their diet
consists
of large
mammals,
including
zebra and
buffalo.
Occasionally
they
supplement
their diet with
scavenged
carrion, killed
by other
animals.
African lion
Life in the lion pride

After a hunt or a
fight, females will
keep their distance
from males to
avoid conflict.
Lions live in co-operative social groups, working together

to hunt, fight, survive and raise their young
Father and cubs
Feline sisterhood
Male lions are tolerant of their young

cubs, allowing them to steal small
mouthfuls of food. However, as they
mature the males become increasingly
aggressive, eventually driving any
upcoming males out of the pride.
Each pride has several lionesses,

usually sisters, who work together to
hunt and raise their cubs. The males
are almost always unrelated outsiders
who have fought with other males to
take over the territory.
Passing the time

Lions spend the majority of the day
resting in the shade, avoiding the intense
African sun. Young cubs remain close to
the lionesses. Older cubs are often left
unattended, spending their time honing
hunting techniques and playing.
Lionesses are
constantly on the
lookout for danger
lurking in the
undergrowth.
Cubs spend
much of their
time playing, but
are more careful
around the volatile
adult males.
Raising cubs
At about 6 weeks old, cubs are
introduced to the pride and begin
learning the skills required to hunt.
Ruling the pride

The dominant male often has the darkest
mane. He provides protection, patrolling their
territory and using a combination of roaring
and scent-marking to maintain the perimeter.
BELOW The females of the pride bear the responsibility
of hunting for the male and his cubs
ABOVE The
roar of a
lion can be
heard from
a distance of
8km (5mi)
29
Big Cats
Ruling the savannah

Safe lion-habitats are shrinking due to farming, hunting and poaching
The vast majority of the remaining lion population is found
in eastern and southern Africa, but numbers are estimated
to have dropped from as much as 400,000 in 1950 to
between 16,500 and 47,000 today. Numbers in Asia are
smaller still, with Asiatic lions driven close to extinction.
In other regions, farming, hunting and poaching have
driven populations away. Steady conversion of their
habitat into farmland reduces available grazing for prey
animals, forcing lions to attack domestic livestock. This
results in retaliation by farmers, and is having a significant
impact on population numbers. Living in close proximity
to humans, and our animals, has also introduced disease
into the lion populations, including distemper (from
domestic dogs), and tuberculosis (from cattle
and buffalo).
Lion habitat varies from grassy plains to forests and

thick brush. The most successful lion prides live around
river confluences, where water is plentiful. An abundance
of water attracts prey animals providing a year-round
food supply. Acacia trees provide shade, and the lions
tawny fur enables them to hide in the dry savannah grass.
The territory of one pride can range from 20-200
square kilometres (52-520 square miles), and a pride
may move up to 9.5 kilometres (six miles) each day. This
vast range is difficult to defend alone, and led to the
development of the unique social structure of these big
cats. There are over 1,000 African lions and nearly 100 of
their Asiatic cousings in zoos across the globe. Breeding
programs are underway to preserve threatened lion
subspecies, and reintroduce them into the wild.
Sharing parenting duties

Groups of females work
together to protect cubs from
danger in their environment.
Conserving energy
Lions rest for up to 20
hours a day to avoid
overheating in the sun.
Environmental threats
The biggest environmental threat to the lion populations is humanity
30
Poaching
Africa supplies lion bones to Laos,
Vietnam and China, where they
are ground into a paste and used in
traditional herbal medicine, along
with the bones of other big cats.
Crops
As the agricultural industry develops
in Africa, lion territory is being
fragmented and destroyed as it is
turned over to become farmland for
growing crops.
Cattle
Prey animals eaten by the lion are
herbivores, and they compete for
space with farm animals. Where
there is competition for land, cattle
farmers poison, trap or shoot lions.
Inbreeding
Fragmentation of lion populations
due to habitat erosion leads to
isolation. Small populations
gradually become inbred,
threatening future generations.
The most successful lion

prides live around river
confluences, where water
is plentiful
African lion
Nearest
neighbours
Lions may be a top predator,
but they share their home with
dangerous creatures
African honeybee
African honeybees are more
aggressive than their European
counterparts, and threatened hives
will swarm more readily, sending
out drones and chasing their targets,
including lions, for great distances.
Baboon
Baboons are ground-dwelling primates
and are sometimes hunted by lions.
But the lions are poor climbers, so once
the baboons reach the trees they are
usually safe and will throw sticks and
foliage at their grounded attackers.
Lions and
humans
Big cats have been kept as pets, exhibits and
curiosities for centuries. The ancient Egyptian
temple at Taremu housed live lions as a tribute to
Maahes, the lion prince, and the animals were even
kept at the Tower of London. They have been hugely
popular in zoos since the 18th century, and there
are over 1,000 lions currently in captivity around the
world in various wildlife establishments.
Historically, humans have treated the fearsome
predators very poorly, keeping them captive in
cramped conditions and using them for brutal
entertainment. Lion-baiting pitted the cats against
other carnivores in combat a practice that,
shockingly, continued in England until as late as
1825. Circuses also frequently used lions as part
of their act, and some still do to this day. Captive
lions in modern zoos are much better cared for, and
many are oen involved in breeding programs that
are designed to protect threatened subspecies.
Lions do not usually hunt humans, but there have
been some recorded instances of man-eating by the
big cats in history. In Tanzania, it is estimated that
lions kill up to 70 people a year. It is thought that
sick or injured animals prey on humans because we
pose less of a challenge than their usual prey.
In our culture
The lion is an iconic animal figure in human culture
The Lion King
Disneys 1994 lm The Lion King
centres around a conict between
three male lions, Scar, Mufasa and
Simba, as they ght for dominance
and territory at Pride Rock.
Aslan
In C S Lewis The Chronicles of Narnia,
Aslan is the powerful King of Beasts
and acts as a mentor and guide to the
children aer they step through their
famously magical wardrobe.
African elephant
Lions share their home with the
largest land-dwelling animal, the
African elephant. These herbivorous
giants are much too large to be
threatened by the cats and will
trample cubs if they get in the way.
Elsa
The 1966 lm Born Free (based on the
book of the same name) follows Elsa,
an orphaned lion cub, as she is raised
by humans and released into the
Kenyan wilderness.
31
Alamy; Corbis; Getty; Naturepl.com; Peter Scott/The Art Agency; Thinkstock
Spitting cobra
Several species of cobra in Africa are
able to spit venom from holes in the
tips of their fangs. If the venom gets
into the eyes of a lion it can cause
permanent blindness, an injury that
can prove fatal in the long run.
Big Cats
Endangered
Asiatic lion
ASIATIC LION
Panthera leo persica
Class Mammalia
Territory Gir Forests, India

Diet Antelope, deer, goats
Adult weight 200-275kg
(440-606lb)
Conservation Status
ENDANGERED
Asiatic lions once roamed across Asia, Southern

Europe and the Middle East, but hunting and
drought during the 19th Century left these big cats
close to extinction. They are now restricted to a tiny
forest region of the Gujarat State in India, but thanks
to 50 years of conservation efforts, the population
has been significantly boosted, and in 2010 there
were just over 400 living in the wild. However, as
they outgrow their refuge in the Gir Forest, they are
increasingly coming into conflict with humans.
The causes of
extinction
Hunting and poaching
The original decline of Asiatic lions has been liked to the
spread of firearms across Europe and Asia. The lions were
hunted for sport until the practice was banned in the
early 20th Century. Today, Asiatic lions are still stalked by
poachers, and thanks to their restricted habitat, they are
easy to find.
Accidental death
With little space in their forest reserves, the expanding
population of Asiatic lions is being forced to move into
inhabited areas. In such close proximity to humans, they
face a new set of challenges; the lions are involved in road
and rail accidents, fall into open wells, and are sometimes
even killed by frightened farmers.
Drought
Drought was a major contributor to the original decline
of the Asiatic lion population, and today, the problem is
compounded by human activity. Illegal mining operations
in the Gujarat area have diverted the water supply, leaving
the lions and their prey with little to drink. The thirsty
animals are following the water and migrating away from
the safety of the reserves.
What you can do

777:3,/2'3500/2453,)/.3
Check out the Lions 400 program at ZSL London Zoo, which aims to establish a
breeding program for Asiatic lions, and to support rangers and veterinarians on
the ground in India.
32
Asiatic lion
India
An interview with
the expert: saving
the Asiatic lion
Dr Gitanjali Bhattacharya is the South and
Central Asia programme manager at the
Zoological Society of London (ZSL)
The Asiatic lion population has recovered
from the brink of extinction to 411 individuals
(2010 census). They occupy remnant forest
habitats in the two hill systems of Gir and
Girnar, part of the Gir Conservation Area in
Gujarat, India. With such a tiny population
remaining in a small pocket of forest, they
are particularly vulnerable to the threats of
disease and potential conflict with humans.
Asiatic lions used to range from the Middle

East to India, but are now restricted to the area
in and around the Gir Forest, measuring just
20,000 square kilometres (12,400 square miles)
Territory in 2015
Territory in 1800
Land of the Lions is part of Lions400, ZSLs

public fundraising campaign, which will also
support ZSLs international projects to protect
wild Asiatic lions in the Gir Forest in India.
Land of the Lions will open in spring 2016,
and will provide state-of-the-art facilities
for a breeding group of endangered Asiatic
lions. Initial work on the new enclosure began
in November 2014, and is expected to take
16 months to complete. At ZSL London Zoo
more than one million people each year come
into contact with Asiatic lions, including more
than 100,000 school children.
Asiatic lions can be distinguished from their African

cousins by their short manes; their ears are always
visible through the fur
33
FLPA
The decreasing habitat
The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is

setting up a collaborative project with the
Gujarat Forest Department and the Wildlife
Institute of India focussing on strengthening
patrol based monitoring and anti-poaching
systems, strengthening captive breeding
and wildlife health management as well
as conservation education initiatives. We
hope that by working together there will be
improved monitoring and law enforcement
by park personnel to keep an eye on the
lions in the conservation area. ZSL has
developed leading conservation technology
that is currently either in use, or being tested
in Africa and Asia, which we will work with
the Gir Forest team to roll out. We will also
carry out a vet exchange programme to train
forest rangers and the Gir lion rescue team
in the latest and best disease surveillance
techniques and veterinary procedures.
Big Cats
Evolution of the
Night vision
Mostly nocturnal, lions have round
pupils and an eye coating that
reects moonlight and provides
excellent night vision.
Lion
One of the worlds
most powerful felines,
the lion evolved from
an ancestor similar
in size to a domestic
cat. Once widespread
across most continents,
there are now less than
50,000 lions in the wild
Evolutionary
pressure
Roar
Travelling up to nine
kilometres (six miles), a lions
roar warns o rivals and helps
relatives nd one another.
Jaws
The powerful hinged jaw contains
30 teeth, including four carnassial
teeth for slicing through the tough
esh of a kill.
Legs
When Panthera leo le the tree
canopies, it rst adapted to run
and eventually jump over ten
metres (32 feet).
Mane
A distinctive mane makes male
lions appear larger perfect for
intimidating rival lions and hyenas.
Appearance
The lion evolved without spots
for better camouage, so now
only vestigial faint markings
remain, more visible on cubs.
Predators
Lions have increased in size
and strength to become the
most dominant hunters in their
natural habitat.
Lionesses
As male lions increased in size,
smaller and quicker lionesses
became the main hunters of
the pride.
25 MILLION
Proailurus 25 million years ago
Considered the rst true cat, this prehistoric
carnivore was not much larger than a
domestic cat. It had a long tail, large
eyes, sharp retractable claws and vicious
carnassial teeth.
2ft
34
20 MILLION
5 MILLION
250 THOUSAND
Pseudaelurus 20 million years ago

This species crossed land bridges from
Eurasia into Africa and North America to
become widespread. Its size varied, but all
types had elongated backs and short legs
suitable for climbing trees.
Panthera leo 5 million years ago

From 130,000 to 10,000 years ago, Panthera
leo was the most widespread large land
mammal aer humans.
Panthera leo persica 250,000 years ago

The Asiatic lion once roamed from the
Mediterranean to India, but today less than
500 of this endangered subspecies remain.
8-10ft
6.5-9ft
5ft
Lion
Golden fur
The short golden coat and faint
markings help camouage lions in
the tall grass when hunting prey.
Tail
A tail with a hairy tu at the end
sometimes conceals a vemillimetre- (0.2-inch-) thick spine,
though it has no known use.
What is the evidence?

A host of historic subspecies and feline forbears have led to the modern-day big cat
There were several prehistoric subspecies of
Panthera leo, now all extinct. The first subspecies of
lion known, Panthera leo fossilis, was slightly larger
than its modern-day descendants. The oldest fossil of
this subspecies in Europe dates back 700,000 years
and fossils found in Tanzania place it in east Africa 5
to 2 million years ago.
The subspecies gave way to the more common

and smaller Panthera leo spelaea, also known as the
European cave lion, which lived 600,000 years ago.
Today only Panthera leo (the African lion) and the
subspecies Panthera leo persica (Asiatic lion) survive.
There are disputed studies that suggest a further five
subspecies of lion are living in Africa.
35
Frans Lanting/FLPA
The first subspecies of

lion known, Panthera
leo fossilis, was slightly
larger than its modernday descendants
Big Cats
36
Lion conservation
CONSERVING
THE KING OF CATS
In 2015, tragic headlines
show that the powerful
presence and striking
beauty of the lion
can make it as much of a
target for trophy hunters
as for conservationists
The impressive and distinctive lion is one of the largest
big cat species in the world, exceeded only by some
subspecies of tiger. Tales of the lions characteristic
capacity for both extreme ferocity and exceptional
gentleness have echoed throughout a surprisingly
geographically broad spread of human histories and
mythologies for centuries. The male lions position at the
head of his pride has made him a symbol of leadership
and a mascot for royalty of various denominations all over
the world. He is considered, quite simply, the monarch of
the animal kingdom.
Its the lions popularity as a species leading to these
historical depictions that shows us how lion populations
around the world have steadily declined, and in some
cases, completely disappeared. The earliest Palaeolithicera cave paintings inside the Chauvet Cave in the south of
France show lionesses hunting in the same formations as
they display today. The Greek historian Herodotus, known
as the Father of History, recorded that in 480 BCE, lions
were so common in Europe that they were considered
a natural hazard to marching armies. 180 years later,
Aristotle, writing in the same region, described lions as
rare, and by 100 BCE, wild European lions were no more.
Nowadays, remaining lion populations have been
isolated from one another in parts of Africa and India for
long enough to be considered as two distinct subspecies.
All of these lions are threatened, and some are tragically
close to extinction.
37
Big Cats
Threats faced by the big cat

Lions currently face conflicts with landowners, big game hunters and
the loss of their prey to the burgeoning bushmeat trade
Although lions are a popular animal and revered
by many people, they have long suffered from
their interactions with mankind. Across much of
their range, lions are persecuted by farmers, who
fear losing livestock to them. In reported cases
where individual lions have been raiding fenced
ranches, poisoned carcasses were deliberately
left outside of the boundaries indiscriminately
attracting and killing lions that would have
otherwise never have ventured into the area.
The recent story of Cecil in 2015 a popular
male lion, made distinctive by his huge black
mane has brought the issue of trophy hunting
to the fore. Cecil was lured out of a protected
area in Zimbabwe, wounded, pursued and
ultimately shot by a wealthy American tourist.
Sadly, Cecils fate, while highly publicised,

isnt unique. Poorly managed, under-enforced
regulations mean that trophy hunting, while
sometimes considered a management tool or
source of conservation funding, is threatening
some populations. One wild north African
population (formerly considered a subspecies,
the Barbary lion) was completely wiped out by
sport hunters in the 1920s.
The increasingly commercialised trend for
consuming exotic animals as bushmeat in
Africa and in Western countries, too, has caused
shortages of the lions prey species in some
African regions. This is a serious threat, as lion
numbers are inextricably linked to the abundance
of their prey.
Supportsing the savannahs

Lions have a vital function in their ecosystem, impacting on the
behaviours and boosting the health of nearby animal populations
Lions largely dominate their local habitat. As a
team, females carefully coordinate their hunting
forays. Lionesses mostly target ungulates (hoofed
mammals), which tend to live in herds zebras,
kudus, buffalo and gazelles in Africa, and Asian
antelopes and spotted deer in India.
As the targeted herd flees the lionesses attack,
the weaker, slower members, or those without the
survival instinct to stay inside the group tend to
fall victim. Over time, this arms race between lions
and their hunt leads to only the wariest and fastest
prey animals surviving and breeding, increasing
their herds health overall, and limiting the spread
of disease and genetic weaknesses. These grazing
prey species fertilise the savannah, and therefore
lions play a part in shaping their own surroundings.
38
Although they dominate and demand respect,

lions do have competition. Spotted hyenas will
steal a lions kills, sometimes following vultures
for kilometres across open savannah to a carcass,
and then harassing lionesses away. The hyenas
successes with such piracies vary from region to
region, and in some places, the situation is entirely
reversed, with high percentages of certain prides
food coming from stealing the spoils of hyena hunts.
African lions only true predator not including
human trophy hunters is the massive fearsome
Nile crocodile. However, buffalo also pose some
threat to lions. When alerted to lion cubs nearby, a
buffalo herd will attempt to occupy the lionesses
while others trample any thickets where cubs may
be hiding.
3 things you should

know about lions
The lions infamous roar is made mainly
at night. They are the loudest of the cats,
audible from up to eight kilometres (five
miles) away.
Most cat species are solitary by nature,
but lions are sociable and familyfocused, even indulging in primate-style
grooming rituals.
The larger and darker a male lions mane,
the healthier he is and the higher his
testosterone levels its the ultimate status
symbol within a pride.
Lion conservation
Dr Pieter Kat is a trustee at LionAid. An evolutionary biologist with over 20

years experience in conservation, hes a leading authority on lions
How have global lion populations fared since you began studying them?
Theres no doubt that theres been a massive decline. We dont actually
have a reliable lion count for Africa, but researchers travelling to former lion habitats
nd very few lions or none at all. We have a crisis on our hands, and lions are in real
danger in all of their so-called strongholds across Africa.
What are the overall ecological impacts of lion populations collapsing?
Lions are an apex predator, and removing any such predator from an area has
devastating eects. Theres a great example of this albeit in reverse from
Yellowstone National Park. When the historic apex predator, the wolf, was
reintroduced there, it began controlling the numbers of elk and similar grazing
animals. The knock on eects were more trees and less land erosion which led to
more beavers, a supported river ecology and ultimately, balance. All we know with
certainty is that apex predators, such as lions, are vital.
How do expanding human populations affect lions in their traditional habitats?
LionAid engages with local communities and asks them questions like, How do you
feel about your wildlife? Do you want to live with lions? The usual answer is yes, and
theres an increasing awareness that lions bring value to the community. However,
in some cases where money for lion conservation or from tourism has failed to lter
down to local communities, were seeing lion killings that arent the usual retaliation
for lost livestock, but political leverage to try and get a fairer share.
How do you help such communities to successfully coexist with lions?
We supply tools such as fences with ashing LED lion lights and equip farmers
with solar panels, which can power oodlights. Relying on donor funding for this is
unsustainable, so we take payment from farmers in the form of a cow or goat, and
keep these livestock as insurance herds. If a lion takes a goat, we can give one back,
but also fund the wider project with prots made from running this like a business.
When predator/prey balances are upset, what solutions can conservationists employ?
For the most part, predator populations are self-regulating. When there isnt enough
food to support an expanding lion population, they simply cant survive. As very
little in my opinion, none of Africa is truly natural anymore, we cant really hope
for restoration. Instead, we need to start over and make sure that these animals
have the best chances of establishing a predator/prey balance naturally, where they
still survive. There are a large number of calls for action that are based on emotion
tourists hate seeing a skinny, starving lion but unless its an unnatural issue (such as
a snare), we dont intervene.
Does trophy hunting present any conservation benefits, that outweigh losses?
In a word, no. Trophy hunting has been going on for decades, and so have the declines
in the animals that sport hunters target. Theres been every opportunity for it to be
proven as a method, and yet theres no evidence of it doing any good. Look at it this
way: if it was the conservation tool its proponents claimed, then the areas around
the edges of national parks where trophy hunting is permitted would be vibrant, full
of animals and feeding the national parks with species. The reality is the other way
around, and hunters are driving losses.
What is the most important step conservationists can take for lions?
Theres been loads of research done on lions; we know what they eat and how they
behave and so on. What we still dont know is just how many are le. We urgently need
an independent scientic survey to get an accurate picture of the situation.
How can people support your organisation and lions?
Of course we always require funding, and donations are not only gratefully received,
but vital if we are to make a dierence to the survival of lions. As I mentioned earlier,
we desperately need to conduct a lion count, independently of governments and
based on the most rigorous scientic methods. I would encourage anyone to support
young conservationists who may want to base their studies for a Masters research
project or similar on lion numbers. You can visit www.lionaid.org to donate vital
services or equipment to the charity, which will free up our funds for saving lions.
39
Getty; FLPA; Ardea
Expert opinion
Big Cats
Head to head
Lion Vs Tiger
Battle of the big cats: discover which
one reigns supreme
Strength 7/10
Teeth
The fangs of the largest lions can
be 12 centimetres (five inches)
long. They tear prey to shreds with
sharp molars called carnassials.
While extremely strong, a

single lion could only take
down a small zebra without
help from the pride.
Aggression 9/10
When rivals meet, they can
fight to the death. Competition
is fierce, so males are in
constant pursuit of power.
Size 7/10
Lions weigh up to 250
kilograms (550 pounds). Living
in prides allows them to be
smaller than other big cats.
Speed 8/10
A lions top speed is 80
kilometres (50 miles) per hour
in short bursts, racing after
fast-moving prey.
Brains 6/10
A lions brain weighs 240
grams (0.5 pounds), and
contributes 0.1 per cent to the
cats total body weight.
Bite force 7/10

46 kilograms per square
centimetre/650 pounds per
square inch.
Socialising
Male groups protect the
pack, especially to keep
newborns safe. Females
share the care of cubs
older females even babysit their grandchildren.
40
Strength 10/10
Solitary tigers can kill animals
that outweigh them by up to
five times, like the enormous
1,000kg Indian bison.
Camouflage
A tigers stripes help break
up its outline, making it
more difficult for prey to
detect. It helps tigers slink
between trees, trailing
unsuspecting prey.
Aggression 7/10
If two tigers cross paths, there
is usually very little aggression
in most cases. These big cats
simply let others pass.
Size 8/10
Reaching incredible weights
of up to 390 kilograms (860
pounds), tigers are the biggest
cats on earth.
Speed 6/10
Only able to run for short
bursts of time, a tigers
maximum speed is 65
kilometres (40 miles) per hour.
Brains 7/10
A tigers brain makes up 0.06
per cent of its massive body
weight, weighing in at 265
grams (0.6 pounds).
Bite force 9/10

Roar
A tigers roar can carry over two
kilometres (1.2 miles), and is
used to communicate with other
tigers rather than to scare prey.
74 kilograms per square

centimetre/1,050 pounds per
square inch.
Would they
ever meet?
Although they are closely related,
lions live in Africa while tigers live
in Asia. These big cats would never
naturally meet as they are separated
by thousands of miles.
Tiger territory
Lion territory
41
Big Cats
Endangered
Siberian tiger
SIBERIAN TIGER
Panthera tigris altaica
Class Mammalia
Territory Russia, China

Diet Deer, wild boar, bears, elk,
rabbits, hares
Adult weight 300kg / 660lbs
Conservation status
ENDANGERED
Once one of the most numerous

tiger on the planet, the
magnificent Siberian tiger has
been hunted by humans to the
brink of extinction, reduced to
less than 40 individuals at one
point. Now, with protection
in law, the population has
recovered to around 500, but
this is still under severe threat
Poaching continues unabated in

Russia and China, causing 80 per
cent of Siberian tiger deaths yearly
Threats to
the species
Poaching
Despite being outlawed, poaching continues unabated
in large parts of Russia and China, causing 80 per
cent of known Siberian tiger deaths each year. The
poachers keep hunting in order to sell the animals skin
and organs, which both fetch high prices on the exotic
animal black market.
Habitat loss
Consistent logging both legal and illegal as well as
unbridled human development and domestic animal
grazing, has seen the Siberian tigers natural habitat
segmented and destroyed. This has led to increased
isolation of the species, with the reclusive animal driven
further and further into what little wilderness remains.
Prey depletion
One of the biggest causes of tiger population decline is
the rapid depletion of its prey base, with humans both
legally and illegally hunting its natural food sources.
The two biggest losses are deer and wild boar, however
everything from rabbit and hare to fish and elk are being
consistently removed at unsustainable rates.
What you can do

WWW.ALTACONSERVATION.ORG
There are numerous charities currently working to safeguard the Siberian

tiger and its natural habitat. The Amur Tiger and Leopard Conservation is
one of the most notable, with its website listing lots of information about the
species and ways to get involved in conservation efforts.
42
Siberian tiger
Decreasing numbers
Once prolic across the far east of Russia,
Siberian tiger numbers are now measly
Jo Cook,
Amur
Leopard and
Tiger Alliance
The co-ordinator for this vital conservation
organisation explains how you can get involved
in protecting these vulnerable big cats
Russia
China
1850
Estimated number of
Siberian tigers left in
this country today:
Estimated number of
SIberian tigers left in
this country today:
Estimated total animal

population in the mid19th century:
380
20
1,000
Could you explain your role at ALTA?

I am the ALTA co-ordinator, so Im
responsible for generating funds from
members of the public, businesses and zoos
to send to our projects in the Russian far east
and China.
I liaise with our implementing agencies,
which are Phoenix Fund, Zoological Society of
London (ZSL), Wildlife Conservation Society
(WCS) and Wildlife Vets International (WVI),
ensuring that they submit appropriate project
proposals to us and that the projects we fund
are making a real dierence to Amur tiger
and leopard conservation.
I also keep our Facebook, Twitter pages
and our website up-to-date so people know
whats happening. Essentially I do everything
that needs to be done to keep ALTA running!
Could you provide an example of an Amur
tiger conservation project ALTA is currently
involved with?
Many of the projects ALTA funds involve
an element of anti-poaching work. This
includes training in specialist soware and
collecting data from anti-poaching patrols.
[This data could include] distances covered
by foot, 4x4 and snowmobile, where the
patrol was conducted and if any violations
were uncovered. [Other data collected
would include the number of] poachers
apprehended, activity spotted, snares
collected and so on.
This information can then help determine
how future patrols should be carried out,
which areas should be targeted and at what
times. Since these mechanisms have been
in place, more poaching violations have been
recorded and more poachers have been
caught. The anti-poaching work can also
be more low-key, by providing appropriate
clothing for the guards, fuel and spare parts
for the vehicles, or simply employing more
people to carry out the patrols.
Territory in 1800
Territory in 2014
Historically the Siberian tiger could be

found throughout the entire Russian
far east, the Korean peninsula and
large swathes of north-east China, with
perhaps more than 1,000 individuals
maintaining a healthy population.
Today this traditional range has been
reduced to just small fragmented groups
in the Russian Sikhote-Alin mountain
range and miniscule pockets of China.
Rumour has it that some tigers may now
exist in Korea, however this has never
been independently veried.
For more on ALTAs activities and ways you

can donate, please visit the organisations
website at: www.altaconservation.org
43
Corbis
The decreasing habitat
How can our readers best get involved in

protecting Amur tigers?
The best way to get involved in Amur tiger
conservation is to raise awareness of
their situation and inspire others to help. If
possible, raise funds for projects protecting
them in the wild and donate them to an
organisation such as ALTA (information can
be found on our website on how to donate).
Also, never purchase something that may
be derived from tigers, such as traditional
Chinese medicine, tiger bone wine and tigerskin rugs.
Big Cats
44
Tigers and man
AND
A DEADLY RELATIONSHIP
A 4,000-year obsession with the tiger has
brought out the best and worst in humanity
At the beginning of the 20th century there were more
than 100,000 tigers living in the wild, many of them
prowling the temperate forests and grassy foothills of
northern India and Nepal. This was where Jim Corbett was
born on 25 July, 1875, in the British hill station of Nainital
where his father was the postmaster. Every winter Corbett
and his 12 siblings would spend months at the familys
cottage in the Himalayan foothills where young Corbett
learned the names of every plant and creature, became
an expert tracker and hunter, and developed a healthy
obsession with the beauty and power of the tiger.
In many ways, the life story of Jim Corbett hunter,
naturalist and conservationist mirrors the much longer
history of mans relationship with tigers. Corbett began
with a deep respect, overwhelming curiosity and wellearned fear of the tiger, which was known to attack and
kill local villagers. He made a name for himself as a highly
skilled tracker and hunter of man-eating beasts, pursuing
them on foot for weeks, alone but for the companionship
of his dog Robin. Rising to the rank of colonel in the British
Indian Army, Corbett was called in to eradicate dozens of
tigers-turned-killers, like the infamous Champawat maneater that mauled and ate more than 400 men, women
and children in Corbetts native state of Uttarakhand.
In India, Corbett was worshipped as a hero, but he was
not a bloodthirsty or vengeful tiger-killer. He only hunted
animals that threatened to destroy the fragile balance
between humans and tigers and saw the reckless hunting
and killing of tigers for sport as revenge killings for lost
livestock. However, he knew that if left unprotected, the
majestic and solitary wild tiger would be wiped from the
face of India and eventually the world.
Corbett became an early and vocal advocate for
the creation of nature reserves for Indias unique and
endangered wildlife, helping to select the site of Indias first

national park and its first tiger sanctuary in 1936. Today
more than 130 wild tigers roam the renamed Jim Corbett
National Park, just hours from Corbetts childhood cottage.
The history of man and tiger has been fraught with the
same tension between adoration and dread, exploitation
and protection, extermination and conservation. The
story began with fear of the fierce, wild and unknown.
Then morbid curiosity turned into godlike worship, with
the mythical strength of the tiger summoned as spiritual
protection. Eventually civilisation evolved to a point where
our tools, technology and weaponry invited dominance
and subjugation. After hunting tigers nearly to extinction
and destroying their natural habitats through agricultural
expansion, industrial development and pollution, we have
finally come to our senses. But is it too late?
Today the tiger is deeply endangered fewer than
5,000 exist in the wild. Thankfully, the largest wild cat in
the world is also the focus of large-scale conservation
efforts spanning India, south-east Asia and Russia. With
enough support and international co-operation, the
tiger will continue to prowl our wilderness and haunt our
imagination for the next century and beyond.
The story of tiger and man begins more than 4,000
years ago, when hundreds of thousands of wild tigers
thrived in a massive territory stretching from eastern
Turkey and the Caspian Sea down through the Indian
subcontinent, across south-east Asia, up through China
and far north to the expanses of the Russian far east.
Archaeologists have uncovered engravings and stone
sculptures of tigers dating back to 2,600 BCE in the Indus
river valley, where a thriving hindu civilisation employed the
tiger as a symbol of divine power. Shiva himself, the most
exalted deity in the Hindu pantheon, is closely associated
45
Big Cats
with the tiger. In classic hindu symbology, Shiva is often
seated on a tiger skin complete with head and fangs
and wearing a tiger-skin sash.
The story goes that Shiva descended from the
heavens and took on the form of a handsome young man
wandering naked through the forest. His divine physique
caught the attention of a gaggle of beautiful women, who
left their husbands to follow him. The husbands, it turns
out, were powerful sorcerers who conjured a diabolical
beast all teeth and claws and muscle to devour Shiva.
When the god destroyed that first tiger, he used it as his
meditation rug to prove his dominance over worldly things.
In the early Western imagination, tigers were shorthand
for savagery and cruelty. The ancient Roman poet Virgil,
writing in the 1st century BCE, referred to the hordes
RIGHT Jim
Corbett poses
with the slain
man-eater
Bachelor of
Powalgarh, 1930
BELOW Scores
of animals
were included
in the bloody
spectacles of the
Colosseum, with
thousands being
put to the sword
of wild tigers that infested the region of Hyrcania, now

modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan. In the Aeneid, he
writes: False as thou art, and more than false, forsworn
/ Not sprung from noble blood, nor goddess born /
But hewn from hardend entrails of a rock! And rough
Hyrcanian tigers gave thee suck!
Only the gods could subjugate such a fearsome and
noble creature. According to Greek mythology, Dionysus,
the god of wine, fell in love with a nymph in the ancient
city of Babylon, near modern-day Baghdad. To steal her
away, he transformed himself into a tiger and transported
her across a river on his back. That river became the Tigris
of ancient Mesopotamia.
Some of the earliest historical accounts of tigers and
man hail from a series of bloody games held to inaugurate
the Roman Colosseum in 80 CE. To the Romans, a dead
tiger was the ultimate symbol of Romes conquest of the
wild and untamed territories within its empire.
Emperor Titus opened the inaugural games with a
massive venatio or wild beast hunt. Not only tigers, but
lions, leopards, elephants and ostriches were released on
the Colosseum floor to be slain by trained hunters bearing
long spears. The crowd was protected by temporary
barriers fitted with ivory rollers that prevented large cats
from climbing over. Starving tigers were also pitted against
other wild beasts or used as unwitting executioners,
mauling condemned thieves or enemies of the Emperor.
An estimated 9,000 animals were killed during Titus
inaugural games alone.
Sadly the blood games of the Roman Colosseum were
just the beginning of a centuries-long decimation of the
wild tiger at the hands of the hunter. The thrill of the tiger
hunt is legendary. For an animal of its size and strength
the largest Indian tigers weigh more than 225 kilograms
(500 pounds) and measure over three meters (10 feet)
in length the tiger is almost supernaturally silent when
hunting prey or eluding danger. To capture and kill such a
beast requires either incomparable skill, cunning, deceit, or
an army of conscripted locals.
In the beginning, tigers were hunted from the backs of
elephants, but in the 17th century serious hunters traded
in their slow and unpredictable mounts for horses. The
object was to chase down and exhaust the tiger. Once the
animal was near death with fatigue, the hunter circled it
on horseback, edging closer with each pass, until he was
close enough to dispatch the animal with a sword. Later
generations employed packs of dogs. Despite its almost
mythical strength, a tiger will flee from wildly barking dogs.
With the tiger cornered and distracted by the swarming
dogs, the hunter could inch close enough to stage a
surprise attack.
Tigers in religion
How the big cat has been incorporated into myth and legend
Buddhism
In buddhist lore,
Prince Mahasattva
fed his blood and
eventually his body
to a starving tigress
and her ve cubs. He
was reincarnated as
Siddhartha Gautama,
the prince who would
renounce all his
wealth and desire to
become Buddha.
Hinduism
The tiger is the
national symbol of
India, home to a billion
hindus. The warlike
goddess Durga, the
invincible, is oen
depicted riding a
tiger into battle. Lord
Shiva is also shown
meditating on a
tiger-skin rug or oen
wearing a tiger skin.
Islam
While islam forbids
the worship of idols,
tigers still remain
a potent symbol of
strength and deance
in the muslim world.
On the Indonesian
island of Sumatra,
muslim villagers
believe that maneating tigers punish
sinners for Allah.
Tigers and man
Tiger attacks on humans

Though undoubtedly the human threat to tiger populations is great, tigers
have on occasion made humans their prey with deadly efficiency
By some estimates more than a million
people have been killed by tigers over
the past 400 years in India, Bangladesh
and Nepal. During the British rule of
India, records indicate an average of
860 deaths per year during the 19th and
early 20th centuries with a ghastly 1,600
deaths by tiger attack in 1922. Wildlife
The Champawat tiger

With 436 conrmed kills, this
female man-eater holds the record
for the deadliest tiger in Indian
history. Legendary hunter and
conservationist Jim Corbett tracked
the beast and shot the fearless tiger
dead as it charged straight at him.
scientists have many theories as to why

tigers become man-eaters. Some are
wounded by careless hunters, leaving
them unable to pursue and kill wild prey
and unsuspecting humans are much
easier to catch. Humans also destroy the
tigers habitat, limiting their natural prey
and increasing human-tiger interaction.
The Thak man-eater
This tigress killed several
villagers in the area of Kumaon.
It was the last man-eater to be
hunted down by Jim Corbett, who
later discovered that it had old
septic wounds, which may have
caused its man-eating behaviour.
ABOVE Hunters oen perched on the backs of elephants to pursue their prey
Across India, Myanmar and China, local hunters resorted

to increasingly ingenious methods for killing tigers. Hunting
parties would set large forest fires to drive fleeing tigers
into great expanses of netting. Others would leave out bait
for the tigers perhaps a fresh buffalo carcass and wait
in treetop perches to shoot the approaching animal. In
China, some carcasses were baited with explosives, while
in India corpses were tied to slippery poles strung across
shallow ravines. Hunters also placed sharpened sticks at
the bottom of these ravines to impale the falling tigers.
In Burma, hunters spread a sticky concoction of
mustard oil around a tigers watering hole. When tigers
stepped in the irritating goo, they would try to scrape it
off with their teeth, getting more sticky mess on their
faces, which quickly attracted leaves and dirt that
blinded the animal to approaching attackers.
As firearm technology improved, hunting proved
irresistible for thrill-seeking rajas and wealthy
foreigners looking to add an orange-and-blackstriped skin to their trophy collection.
During the imperial British rule of India, the
tiger hunt was a fitting metaphor for the larger
subjugation of the Indian people. The British lord,
mounted high on an elephant, was escorted by a
cadre of local guides, trackers, porters and cooks.
The impoverished locals risked life and limb to track
down the animal, assure a clean shot for the sahib,
then pursue the wounded beast if the shot missed
its mark. The colonial tiger-hunting industry was so
successful because it provided a badge of virility to the
great white hunter, while offering a subsistence wage to
the villagers who enabled the slaughter.
Whether a tiger was killed by a tourists gun or the
villagers traps, its carcass was carefully dissected to
preserve body parts that were prized by folk medicine
traditions in China, Taiwan, Tibet, Singapore and Korea.
Even today, when modern medical information and
treatments are available in even the most remote corners
of the globe, many people all over the world believe in
the healing power of the tiger. Tiger bones are hailed as
an effective treatment for arthritis, while consuming tiger
meat is thought to impart strength and virility.
Despite the senseless brutality of tiger hunting, its not
the greatest man-made threat to global tiger populations.
The tigers of Chowgarh

An adult tigress and her male cub
preyed on at least 64 victims aer
the female suered claw and teeth
wounds that made it impossible to
hunt wild game. A year aer killing
the cub, Jim Corbett nally hunted
down the tigress.
The Sundarbans
Many locals die every year in this
swampy region, home to the largest
Bengal tiger population in the
world. Biologists cannot conrm
why Sundarbans tigers are so
aggressive, even swimming out to
attack shing boats.
ABOVE
The United
Kingdoms
Queen Elizabeth
II rides aboard an
elephant during
a tiger hunt, 27
February, 1961
RIGHT Prince
George of Wales
(R) on a hunting
visit with Madho
Rao Scindia, h
Maharajah of
Gwalior, India
People all over the world believe

in the healing power of the tiger
47
Big Cats
BELOW Tiger
paws, penises
and other goods
are offered as a
potency remedy
in Chengdu,
China. The
right-front paw
is prized for its
healing power
Far more damage has been inflicted upon tigers by

habitat loss than hunting. Less than a century ago,
the tigers wild habitat stretched across much of India,
south-east Asia and eastern China and Russia. Today wild
tigers hold a fragile claim to only seven per cent of their
historical homeland.
Perhaps the greatest enemy of the tiger is agriculture.
Over the past 50 years, improvements in medical care and
diet have resulted in population booms in predominately
rural communities across Asia. Economic and education
policies have not kept up with these population booms,
meaning few manufacturing or blue-collar jobs for rural
workers. Most rural villagers still rely on small-scale
farming and grazing to feed their growing families. The
only way to create more arable fields and open pasture
is to raze millions of hectares of old-growth forest where
tigers traditionally live.
For tigers to survive, they not only need a secure
habitat, but a stable food source. Agricultural expansion
is toxic to tigers because it destroys the native vegetation
that supports large herbivores such as wild cattle and
deer. A single adult tiger needs to kill and consume 50
large animals a year to survive in the wild. A tigress with
cubs needs as many as 70 to feed herself and her young.
As more forest and jungle habitats are cleared for rice,
wheat and cassava crops, the local herbivores die off
or migrate, leaving the tigers to starve.
Ironically, as nation after nation won
independence from colonial rule in Asia over the
past 50 years, the situation has worsened for
native tiger habitats. Political independence
brought ambitious plans for rapid economic
development. For third-world economies,
the quickest path to profit is exploiting
natural resources for export to first-world manufacturers.

Across India, Thailand, Indonesia and China, historical
tiger habitats have been sliced open by logging roads and
bulldozed to make room for coffee and tea plantations, as
well as for large-scale industrial crops like rubber and palm
oil. In the last ten years alone, global tiger habitats have
shrunk by a distressing 45 per cent.
Science was slow to understand the true nature of the
tiger. Until the Sixties, the story of the tiger was written
predominately by hunters, who spoke only of its ferocity,
stealth and noble savagery. A breakthrough came with the
pioneering field work of George Schaller, a wildlife biologist
who travelled to India in 1964 on assignment from the
New York Zoological Society. Schallers book, The Deer
and the Tiger, shed the first scientific light on the critical
importance of the tiger to its larger forest ecosystem and
the very real threat of extinction.
The plight of the tiger first garnered international
attention from wildlife conservation groups in the late
Sixties and early Seventies. India was one of the first
countries to respond with large-scale conservation efforts.
By its own estimates, India was home to 40,000 wild
tigers at the end of British colonial rule in 1947. By the time
the first nationwide tiger census was taken in 1972, that
number had plummeted to a mere 1,827.
With funding and administrative support from the
World Wildlife Fund for Nature, the Indian government
launched Project Tiger in 1973, designating nine large
tiger reserves to protect the nations dwindling Bengal
population. Project Tiger quickly added 18 more reserves
over the next 20 years, helping to protect over 33,000
square kilometres (12,700 square miles) in 15 different
Indian states. By 1989, the wild tiger population had
recovered to an estimated 4,300 animals.
Agricultural expansion is toxic to tigers

because it destroys the native vegetation
Medicine myths
Brain
An ointment of
tiger brain and oil is
claimed to cure acne
and laziness.
Tiger parts are central to traditional

Chinese medicine and folk magic
Flesh
Eating cooked tiger
flesh is believed to
cure skin diseases.
Whiskers
Tiger whiskers are
believed to provide
the strongest
protection against
evil curses.
Dung
Tiger dung repels
wild pigs and, if
eaten, is supposed
to ward off
evil spirits.
Teeth
Traditionally, tiger
canines bring good luck
and offer protective
powers to the wearer.
Tail
Sections of tiger
tail are worn as
protection from
evil curses.
Fat
Farmers believe
a bottle of tiger fat
wards off wild pigs.
Penis
A tonic derived from
tiger penis is used as
an aphrodisiac.
48
Bone
Ground tiger bone
is supposed to cure
for headaches and
rheumatism.
Claws
Worn on golden
necklaces, tiger
claws are used as
good-luck charms.
ABOVE
A researcher
traces the tracks
of a Bengal tiger
in Indias Corbett
National Park
RIGHT Sumatran
tigers, like
this one in an
Indonesian tiger
reserve, are
sedated to tag
and track the
animals as well
as to monitor
their health
Tiger reserves in India

Learn more about Indias five
most prolific tiger reserves
Dudhwa Tiger Reserve

In 1977 Dudhwa National Park
was established aer former tiger
hunter and conservationist Billy
Arjan Singh reintroduced a handreared tiger cub to the wild. Around
100 tigers live there today.
Population
Jim Corbett National Park

Created in 1936, the oldest tiger
reserve in India was also its
rst national park. In 1955 the
reserve was renamed for the
British tiger hunter-turnedconservationist who started the
cause of saving the Bengals.
138
Population
100
Population
256
Bandipur Tiger Reserve

Once a private hunting ground for the
Maharaja of Mysore, Bandipur is part
of a complex of national parks covering
5,520 kilometres squared (2,131 square
miles). In addition to tigers, the reserve
protects populations of leopards,
elephants and four-horned antelope.
Population
75
Sunderbans Tiger Reserve

The Sunderbans Tiger Reserve
in West Bengal is home to
Indias largest wild Bengal tiger
population. Founded in 1973,
the reserve features coastal
mangrove forests where
solitary tigers hunt and swim.
Population
73
Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve (KMTR)
Founded in 1988, KMTR is situated along the
edge of the western Ghats mountain range,
an area recognised as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site for its exceptional biodiversity.
49
Corbis; Look and Learn; Alamy; Photoshot; Thinkstock; Alaexis
Despite the conservation efforts

in India and elsewhere, tigers
continue to be poached to feed a
thriving black market trade in their
bones, skins and blood. The Sumatran
tiger, a rare sub-species known for
its small body size and thick stripes,
has been poached nearly to extinction
in its native Sumatra. Although poaching is
punishable by fines and jail time, poor Sumatran
villagers are willing to risk incarceration for the high prices
paid by well-funded cartels across south-east Asia. With
only around 400 tigers left, the Sumatran tiger is listed as
critically endangered, one step from extinction in the wild.
Another ongoing threat identified by the World Wildlife
Fund is human-tiger conflict. As human activities
agriculture, logging, mining and so on encroach ever
deeper into the few remaining tiger habitats, there is a
greater chance of deadly encounters. When tigers natural
prey sources dry up, it seeks out alternatives like local
cattle. The villagers see the tiger as a thief, robbing them
of their livelihood and organise hunting parties for revenge
killings. In regions like the Sundarbans of southern India
and Bangladesh, home to the worlds largest population of
wild tigers, locals enter the brackish marshland in search of
firewood and honey. Many villagers are killed each year by
tigers that appreciate the easy meal.
Despite our long and bloody relationship with the tiger,
we continue to be inspired by its wild beauty and quiet
strength. Positive news came from India at the end of
2014 as a census showed the Indian tiger population had
increased by a third - rising from 1,706 in 2011 to 2,226 in
2014. This increase came from efforts to hire more guards,
protect reserves and village relocation, though food
resources are still scarce. Itll require a sustained effort by
global conservation organisations and governments, but
together we can ensure that humans and tigers continue
this complicated relationship for generations to come.
Big Cats
50
Leopard
All About
Leopards
Solitary and reclusive, these adaptable
cats are some of natures most agile
climbers and are right at home in the trees
51
Big Cats
Inside a leopard
Strong shoulders
With well-developed muscles
in their shoulders and
forelimbs, adults can drag large
carcasses over six metres
(20 feet) into the trees.
Leopards might be the smallest of the big cats,

but theyre some of the most adaptable. With
short legs, large paws and long tails, they are
agile climbers and able to tackle prey several
times their own body weight
Night vision
LEOPARD
Leopards are nocturnal, so their eyes

have a reflective membrane called
the tapetum lucidum to maximise the
amount of light captured by the eye.
Panthera pardus
Class Mammalia
Territory Africa and Asia

Diet Carnivore
Conservation status
NEAR THREATENED
Large skull
Their skulls are broad,
and they can tackle
animals up to ten times
their own body weight,
snapping their necks
with powerful jaws.
Canine
Four thick, strong canines
enable the leopard to grip
its prey firmly.
Premolar
Molar
Carnassial
These teeth are sharp and
bladed ideal for slicing
through meat when eating.
Black panther
The colour of a leopards coat
varies according to its environment,
with darker colours seen more
frequently on mountain- or
forest-dwelling cats. Occasionally a
leopard will inherit two faulty copies
of the gene coding for coat colour
and they are born with almost
completely black fur.
52
Big paws
In comparison with their
body size, leopards have
very large paws, providing
the additional grip required
for life in the trees.
JUVENILE
INFANCY
Newborn cub 1 day
Leopard cubs are
born totally blind and
oen weigh less than
a bag of sugar.
Heart
Staying hidden 0-2 weeks

The mother moves the cubs
frequently, changing the den
site every few days in order to
elude predators.
Starting to explore 2 weeks

Aer about a week the cubs
begin to open their eyes and by
two weeks of age they are able
to walk around.
Leaving the den 6-8 weeks

By the time they are two months
old, the cubs are ready to leave
the den to begin practising their
hunting and climbing skills.
Eating meat 3 months

The female leopard will
continually bring food back to
the den, sharing up to a third
with her hungry cubs.
Hunting independently 20 months

The cubs practise hunting small prey
like insects and reptiles, and by the time
theyre 20 months old they are no longer
reliant on their mother for food.
Eye protection
Just like the black paint worn by
American football players, the
black colouring around the eyes
of a leopard reduces the harsh
glare from the Sun.
Long, flexible spine

An elongated frame enables
leopards to stretch and recoil
like a spring, leaping forward
several metres at a time.
Kidney
Counter-shading
Leopards are white on the
underside and tawny brown on top,
counteracting natural shadows cast
by the Sun and helping to keep
them hidden from view.
Rosettes
The markings of a leopard
are characteristic of
a species that lives in
the shade of the trees.
Their fur is covered in
a distinctive pattern of
round or square rosettes,
breaking up their outline in
the dappled shade.
Stomach
Short digestive system

Like other carnivores,
leopards have a short,
efficient digestive system.
Closest family
Closely related to the leopard are
MATURITY
Establishing a territory 2 years
Competition for food is erce, so adult
leopards use a combination of scent-marking,
vocalisations and ghting to defend their
hunting grounds.
Finding a mate 2 years

Female leopards seek out the
attention of males, signalling
their fertility with scent markers
in their urine.
Raising young 3 -12 years

Male leopards play no role in
raising their cubs, so the female
works alone to feed and protect
them until they grow bigger.
Snow leopard
Snow leopards are
adapted to a cold
environment, with
stocky bodies, thick fur,
and wide paws suited
to walking on snow.
Despite similarities in
appearance, theyre
more closely related to
tigers than leopards.
Tiger
Tigers are the largest
of the big cats and share
many similarities
with leopards. They
live a solitary lifestyle,
preferring to ambush,
rather than chase their
prey. They are strong
swimmers, spending
lots of time in the water.
Jaguar
Jaguars are oen
confused with
leopards, but their
markings are quite
dierent. Leopards
have distinctive, small,
rosette-shaped spots.
Jaguars also have
rosettes, but theyre
larger and thicker.
53
Big Cats
Ambush antics
The hunting strategies of a cat born to climb
Leopards might not be the strongest of the

big cats, or the fastest, but what they lack in
power, they make up for in agility. They are
nimble ambush predators capable of jumping
six metres (20 feet) in a single bound.
Unlike cheetahs, leopards arent suited for
pursuit, so rely on a quick, powerful strike to
disable prey. With a hunting strategy similar
to that of domestic cats, they remain close to
the ground, inching forward until their target is
barely more than a few metres away. Then they
pounce, pinning the animal to the floor.
Competition for food is fierce, so after a
hunt leopards are vulnerable. Lions and hyenas
scavenge in groups, intimidating solitary
54
predators to steal their kills. Alone, the cats

stand no chance against these aggressive
teams of carnivores and if confronted their
only option is to retreat. After a kill, leopards
use their jaws to haul the carcass into the high
branches, often lifting more than their own
body weight. They have relatively short legs
and their centre of gravity is low, so using their
sharp claws as crampons, along with their thick
tails for balance, they can reach tree branches
well beyond ground-based hunters. From the
safety of the treetops theres little threat and
the cats often store their kills in the branches.
Not only do leopards have to worry about
treats from other carnivores, competition
among their own species is also fierce. As

solitary hunters, they require large territories
to catch enough prey, so defend these areas
fiercely. With a combination of scent-marking,
low-pitched saw-like calls and fighting, leopards
ensure that they have exclusive access to the
prey animals in their local area.
Theres not always time to drag a large
carcass to safety, so the cats are often forced
to abandon their kills to stronger animals. Pack
hunters such as hyenas are chaotic eaters,
spending almost as much time fighting among
themselves as eating, so its sometimes possible
for the leopard to retrieve at least part of their
kill amid the chaos.
Leopard
Aerial assault
Leopards dont just hunt on the ground and will
sometimes pounce straight from the trees
In the shelter of the sometimes leafy branches,
leopards become almost invisible to animals below.
They lie in wait, watching as prey move about on the
floor. If an unfortunate animal comes within range,
they strike, leaping down from the branches.
Vantage point
The ability to climb
gives leopards a huge
advantage over groundbased prey animals,
enabling them to watch
and wait, unseen, in the
safety of the branches.
Lethal strike
They will pounce
several metres from
the trees to the
ground, using their
powerful front legs
to grapple their prey
to the floor, before
inflicting a deadly bite.
A big cat diet
With a hunting strategy

similar to that of domestic
cats, they remain close
to the ground, inching
forward until their target
is barely more than a few
metres away
Leopards are skilled hunters and

eat a wide variety of food
An average male leopard eats
29% of their diet

consists of impala.
3.5kg / 7.7lbs of food per day
Thats 5% of its body weight
Occasionally
they supplement
their diet with
insects, such as
dung beetles.
19% of their
diet consists
of zebra.
14% of their
diet consists
of wildebeest.
13% of their
diet consists
of warthog.
13% of their diet
consists of porcupine.
55
Big Cats
Protective instincts
Leopard mothers work alone to feed and protect their cubs
Leopards are solitary animals, but breeding
males and females remain together for days at a
time, sharing each others food and company.
When a female is in heat, she attracts male
attention with pheromones in her urine. Over
the following days the couple mate frequently,
sometimes up to 100 times in a 24-hour period,
ensuring that they have the best chance of
producing cubs.
Gestation lasts for around 100 days, but the
male leopard doesnt remain to see the birth
of his offspring. The new mother is forced to
continue hunting while her cubs develop, leaving
the den unattended for periods of up to 36
hours at a time.
Left alone, the cubs are vulnerable. Lions, for
example, are aggressive opponents, deliberately
The first few weeks

of leopard life
Leopard mothers give birth to an average
of two or three cubs in a litter. For the first
few weeks their eyes are closed and they
are unable to walk, making them entirely
dependent on their parent for care.
The cubs arent born with their adult
markings, so instead have a mottled
greyish coat, which provides some
camouflage in the rocky areas where
leopards make their dens. However, until
they are able to climb, they are entirely
defenceless and the female devotes
significant time to moving the den site,
keeping them hidden from view.
56
eliminating the competition in order to secure

access to the best food. This means finding a
safe location for the den is crucial and pregnant
females take advantage of their agility to find a
den unreachable by less-nimble predators.
As the cubs grow, they begin to venture
outside, but it takes almost two years for them
to reach independence. Climbing is mastered
quickly and provides a small degree of
protection when their mother is away, enabling
the cubs to scramble into the trees if threatened.
Male leopards are aggressive and territorial,
so when hunting boundaries change hands any
cubs in the area become targets. Rather than
allow the females to waste resources on cubs
belonging to rivals, males will kill them, forcing
the females to become fertile again.
Early blindness
Leopard cubs are born
blind and do not open
their eyes until they
are ten days old.
Unsteady
The cubs are unable to walk
for the first two weeks, so
instead their mother must
carry them in her mouth.
Juvenile camouflage
The cubs rosette markings are
blurred and their juvenile fur
is silvery grey, helping them to
blend in with the surroundings.
Guarding
their young
Leopards have a lethal bite, but
are still able to carry delicate
cubs in their mouths
Female leopards raise their cubs
alone and are responsible not only
for protecting them, but also for
providing food. Their maternal
instincts mean theyll support their
young as long as is needed, and
will keep a watchful eye over them
whenever they can.
In order to hunt, mothers must
leave their dens unattended and
vulnerable. When alone, the cubs
must fend for themselves and many
succumb to predation.
On the move
Mothers move their cubs to
a new den every few days to
mask their scent.
Gentle grip
Leopard jaws are powerful, but their
canines arent razor sharp, so with
a gentle hold no damage is done to
the cubs delicate skin.
By the scruff
The loose skin at the nape of the
neck has very few nerve endings,
enabling the female to grip her
cubs without hurting them.
Going floppy
When they are being carried,
the cubs hang limply and do
not struggle.
The leopards den

Choosing the right den location is crucial if
the young cubs are to survive
Staying hidden
The best survival strategy for leopard
cubs is to remain hidden. The
markings on their coats are blurred,
and their silvery-brown colouring
provides camouflage, but the main
problem is the smell. Predators have
keen noses, so in order to mask the
scent of the cubs the mother must
find a new den every few days.
Climbing trees
Inaccessible location
Leopards hide their cubs in
rocky crevices, hollow tree
trunks, dense undergrowth
and caves.
Leopards spend their adult lives in

the trees and begin climbing at a
young age. While their mother is
away from the den, the ability to
climb is one of the only defences
cubs have against predators.
Learning to hunt
When the cubs are a few months old, they
begin to venture out of the den, practising
their hunting skills on anything that moves.
57
Big Cats
Life in the savannah

Leopards are at their best in the dappled shade
of grassy savannah or forest, where prey animals
are abundant and there are lots of places to hide.
However, these adaptable cats can survive almost
anywhere, from the tropical Congo rainforest to
the deserts of Namibia, to the snowy mountains of
China and Russia.
Leopards are the most widespread of the big
cat species, vastly outnumbering lions and tigers
in the wild. Their range extends across Africa, into
central Asia, up towards Russia and even down into
Indonesia and Malaysia.
In general these adaptable cats are able to
resist minor disturbances in their environment and
are quickly able to change their hunting range
or strategy to cope with new problems, but the
level of habitat destruction has decimated many
populations. In northern Africa the remaining
leopards are struggling to survive and in many
parts of Asia numbers are dangerously low. As an
example of the problem, Javan leopards have less
than 3,000 square kilometres (1,300 square miles)
of habitat left.
Five out of the nine subspecies of leopard
are categorised as Endangered or Critically
Endangered, and the Amur leopards are close to
extinction. They live in the snowy mountains on the

border between Russia and China and have been
so aggressively hunted for their valuable pelts that
the number of adults in the wild is now less than
30. In 1999 Amur leopard skins were selling for up
to $1,000 in local villages despite conservation
efforts, the animals are still being killed by
poachers, with four additional casualties in the last
seven years.
In comparison, the leopards of sub-Saharan
Africa are thriving, but they face environmental
threats of their own. With such high numbers of
animals, contact with humans is inevitable, so there
is growing tension between leopards and human
populations. Hunters strip the environment of prey
animals, capturing wild meat for sale at markets
and depriving the cats of their natural prey. The
resourceful animals then turn to domestic livestock
for food and farmers retaliate with guns or poisons.
Many African countries limit the exporting of
leopard skins in an attempt to control poaching
and national legislation protects them in their
natural habitat, enabling legal action to be taken
against hunters. Despite this, outside of protected
areas the cats are vulnerable and the future of
some is uncertain.
Outside of protected areas the

cats are vulnerable and the
future of some is uncertain
Environmental factors
Several sub-species of leopard are now in a critical
position and face constant environmental threats
Hunting
Leopards are one of the big ve game
animals in Africa the species most
prized by hunters. Their elusive nature
makes them hard to track, attracting
trophy hunters from across the globe.
Human conflict
The big cats are highly ecient
predators and will prey upon domestic
livestock if the opportunity arises.
Farmers oen retaliate with lethal
force, killing the oending leopard.
Illegal poaching
Leopard fur is highly prized, so
poaching remains a problem in Africa
and Asia. Between 2002 and 2003, six
Amur leopard skins were seized and
only 35 adults remain in the wild.
Habitat destruction
Logging is decimating leopard
habitats across Asia and prey animals
such as deer and rabbits are hunted
for meat and skins, reducing the food
available for the remaining cats.
58
Leopard
Nearest
neighbours
Leopards inhabit a variety of
environments and share their
homes with a large range of
other spotted cats
Cheetah
In Africa leopards live alongside
the fastest living land animals.
Cheetahs are similar in size to
leopards, but are much more
slender, with long legs and
powerful bodies, built for short
bursts of intense speed.
Clouded leopard
In the foothills of the Himalayas,
leopards and clouded leopards
share the terrain. Despite sharing
a name, and a home, the two
species are actually not that
closely related.
Leopard cat
These wild cats have similar
colouration to leopards, but are
much smaller, at around the size
of a domestic cat. They inhabit a
wide area, extending across south
and east Asia.
59
Rex Features, Corbis, Thinkstock, NPL, John Palmer,

The Art Agency; Peter Scott
Serval
These small cats are native to
Africa. With their tawny fur, round
ears and black spots, they are
oen mistaken for leopards from
a distance, but their legs are much
longer, enabling them to run at
high speed through the grass.
Big Cats
A graceful cat with remarkable physical
strength and prowess, its a sad fact that the
dwindling numbers of such an incredible
beast have put it on the brink of extinction
60
FLPA/Paul Sawer
Snow leopard
61
Big Cats
Roaming the rugged mountains of central Asia, the
snow leopard prowls with vigour and grace. A subtle and
mysterious inhabitant of some of the harshest terrain on
the continent, the feline is now regrettably synonymous
with desperate conservation efforts, in yet another
infamous fight against total extinction. A catastrophic
mixture of poaching and habitat loss has whittled the cats
numbers down to only 3,500 to 7,000 left in the wild.
Dr. Rodney Jackson has over 30 years of experience
studying and saving the beautiful creature. It hasnt been
easy, since this has involved working in the mountain
ranges, mostly on foot and for months on end. They live
above 12,000 feet [3,660 metres], he says. The more
cliffs there are, the better the snow leopards will love it,
which brings real problems for me because I really fear
heights. Despite their name, the big cats dont actually
live in the snow, but reside in some of the driest and
the coldest areas in the world, from southern Siberia
to Afghanistan, to China and the Himalayas. They are
designed to withstand cold climes, however, with thick
woolly coats and enlarged nasal cavities that heat inhaled
chilly air. Also, while snow leopards may not roar like other
big cats, they are from the
same family as tigers and
SNOW LEOPARD
other large felines, so theyre
Panthera uncia
facing similar threats from
Class Mammalia
human interference.
One of the major
problems is that the natural
prey base for the snow
Territory Mountains of
leopard has been depleted
central Asia
or reduced by poaching,
Diet Carnivore
such as the blue sheep or
the ibex that people hunt
Conservation status
for meat, Jackson explains.
Humans have displaced
them out of their habitat
ENDANGERED
with their livestock, so just
by chance alone the snow
BELOW Rodney Jackson and B.
Munkhtsog with a sedated snow leopard leopards are going to
encounter livestock. The
in Mongolia 2008
62
RIGHT A snow
leopard mother
tending to her cubs
Snow leopards
are superb
athletes that
are capable
of leaping as
far as 50 feet
through the air
animals are kept inside dry stonewalls that these big

cats can easily scale. Snow leopards are superb athletes
that are capable of leaping as far as 15 metres (50 feet)
through the air, which is ideal for pouncing on prey at a
distance. Once inside these livestock pens, the goats and
sheep dont stand a chance. Livestock have very poor
predator-avoidance behaviour, Jackson continues. Their
sense of smell isnt great, they dont know to run away,
they dont know to clump up, so they fall victim to a wolf
or a snow leopard very quickly. These enclosures create
an artificial situation because the animals cant run away.
Theyre contained in a pen, so a predators killing instinct is
repeatedly triggered until theres nothing moving in there.
This has led local people to wrongly believe snow leopards
are bloodsuckers and that they dont eat meat at all.
In a place where money is measured in livestock, this
sort of incident can be devastating to a family. People
depend on livestock for food, clothing and transport.
The population, 40 per cent of which lives below the
poverty line, are effectively subsidising one of the most
endangered creatures in the world. Jackson sympathised
with their plight and so set up the Snow Leopard
Conservancy in 2000 to address these human-animal
conflicts. The general solution, which remains even today,
Snow leopard
Threats to survival The greatest dangers the snow leopard faces
LEFT Rocks
are perfect for
ambushing prey
Poaching
No one looks better in a fur coat
than the animal wearing it, but sadly
people in central Asia, eastern Europe
and Russia will pay high prices to have
it made into garments. Not only that,
but the snow leopards bones and
other body parts are in demand for
traditional Asian medicine. The animal
is protected in all its range countries,
yet the laws are rarely upheld.
Camouflage coat
The furs colour enables
the cat to hide in its natural
environment. Its belly fur
grows up to 12 centimetres
(five inches) long.
Built to
survive
Loss of habitat
People heavily depend on livestock
for their income but the more animals
they keep, the less wild grass there
is for the snow leopards natural prey
to eat. This has a knock-on effect,
reducing the numbers of ibex and blue
sheep in the area. The snow leopard
is forced to prey on domestic animals
in a bid for survival, which increases
human-cat conflict.
Retribution killing
The snow leopards natural prey
includes the ibex or blue sheep, but no
wild animal is going to turn its nose
up at a free meal, especially when its
so easy to catch. If domestic livestock
isnt sufficiently protected, then a
farmers livelihood can be wiped out
with a single attack. Few families can
afford this loss, so local people turn to
hunting this creature as a result.
Impeccable eyesight
A snow leopards eyes are
green or grey rather than
golden yellow. They also have
excellent eyesight thats sixtimes better than humans.
How this incredible cat is built

to thrive in the high, rugged
mountains
Large nostrils
Snow leopards have unusually
large nasal cavities that
help them breathe at high
altitudes. It also warms the
cold air before entering the
cats lungs.
A tail gives balance
The long tail can measure
up to a metre (39 inches)
long and helps the cat keep
its balance in the steep
mountains. It also wraps
the appendage around
itself to keep warm.
Longer hind legs

A snow leopards hind legs
are longer than its front
limbs. This is so that the
big cat can jump up as far
as 15 metres (50 feet) up
in the air to manoeuvre or
catch prey.
LEFT A mother and

cub share a fresh
kill, with the female
snarling at a rival
is to compensate people for the loss of livestock, but the

problem is that this isnt sustainable. Its something youll
have to do forever, so wheres the money going to come
from? Our approach is trying to address the root cause
for that loss and to improve peoples livelihoods so they
are better able to sustain some economic loss from a few
animals here and there and not be dependent on external
sources of income, or the government.
By working with the communities, Jackson identifies the
main causes for livestock depredation. More often than
not its down to the pens that arent properly predator-
Sturdy paws
These extra-large paws
distribute their weight
evenly, so the animal
doesnt sink in the snow.
These effective snow shoes
are also covered in fur to
keep them warm.
proofed. By helping shepherds to strengthen the walls and

add a wire mesh roof, the risk of any unwanted visitors is
greatly reduced.
Snow leopards dont pose a threat to humans like they
do animals, Jackson adds: There are no documented
incidents of a human being killed by a snow leopard, just
a couple of injuries but no actual killing, unlike tigers, lions
or other leopards. The wild ones always run away. In fact,
very few people have ever seen one; even local people
dont often sight them. Where theyve been persecuted
they have become very secretive, shy and nocturnal.
63
Big Cats
ABOVE Thanks to the conservation

efforts of Dr Jackson and his
colleagues, snow leopard numbers
are becoming more stable
64
Snow leopard
There were spears sticking
up from the ground so that
any animal coming would
jump and impale itself
As well as educating herders and improving corrals,
the Snow Leopard Conservancy also works to develop
alternative sources of income. One particularly bright idea
is the Himalayan Homestays, transforming local peoples
lodgings into modest bed & breakfasts where tourists can
stay. Theyre earning far more from that than they ever
have from farming, he says, citing it as one of their biggest
success stories. Families can now send their children
to school, as well as improve the village by cleaning it,
planting trees and reducing the grazing pressure on the
habitat, so theres more for wildlife to forage. Its win-win.
The first time Jackson was walking through the
inhospitable terrain of the Langu Gorge in Nepal, he met
some local hunters and there was one in particular who
had set his sights on this rare animals highly prized fur. I
noticed there were spears sticking up from the ground so
that any animal coming would jump and impale itself, he
recalls. Sure enough, we travelled further over the cliff
and buried under the rocks I could see the skinned, frozen
carcass of a snow leopard. It was the saddest thing Id ever
seen and it epitomised the threat these cats are facing.
That was my inspiration.
These days the snow leopards Jackson comes across
are alive and well. By attaching radio collars and leaving
camera traps to record images of these cats in the wild,
he can already see a difference. I would sometimes go for
three years without seeing one, but I just got back from
India where I saw five snow leopards in ten days, he says.
Theres definitely a positive change, but there are still a
number of threats. Theres Asian demand for the bones,
fur and body parts of wild cats for medicinal and clothing
purposes, but the supply cant possibly meet the demand.
Snow leopards often become a substitute for tigers and
thats a big issue.
This big cat inhabits around 12 different countries and
the Snow Leopard Conservancy is active in six of these,
so Jackson is hoping other organisations will step in, but
one things for certain, he wont be giving up. Hes been
tracking big cats since his childhood and over 30 years
on hes not about to stop now. The public needs to be
aware that many of the worlds endangered animals are
large cats or predators, he says. Many live overseas or in
developing countries, so we need to work together to help
protect them.
IN THEIR NATURAL HABITAT

Ladakh Snow Leopard Trek
www.dreamladakh.com/snow-leopard-trek.htm
Dreamland offers a great 11-day excursion to spot snow leopards in the
Hemis National Park in Ladakh, where youll also have the change to spot the
Himalayan blue sheep, the Asiatic ibex, the red fox, the Tibetan wolf and other
big cats like the lynx and Pallass cat. The best time to spot a snow leopard is
between October and March, and prices vary depending on the size of your
group. Keep in mind that this trip is only suitable if youre fit enough to scale the
high mountains; the highest point, the Stokla Pass, is 4850 metres high.
IN THE UK
Zoos and wildlife parks nationwide
Visit snow leopards at Twycross Zoo an award-winner of Best Enclosure for its
Himalaya project, a snow leopard enclosure. Other BIAZA members with snow
leopards include Marwell Wildlife, Dublin Zoo, Banham Zoo, Welsh Mountain
Zoo, Dudley Zoo, Paradise Wildlife Park, Lakeland Wildlife Oasis and Linton Zoo.
65
Naturepl.com; FLPA; Thinkstock; Snow Leopard Conservancy
See the snow leopard
Xxxxxxxxxxxxx
Big Cats
AMUR
LEOPARD
BACK FROM THE BRINK
Considered the most endangered cat in the world, the Amur

leopard is clawing its way back from the verge of extinction
In the far-east corner of Russia lives a rare leopard
subspecies. It explores the snowy mountain forest in the
dead of night, silently stalking wild boar. Its razor-sharp
claws and fur camouflage make it the ideal predator,
bringing down enormous sika deer by itself. Its legs are
long to help it navigate through the snow and its dappled
fur doubles in length as winter rolls in.
This solitary hunter has been under threat for decades.
Once roaming a vast landscape, surrounding areas have
been lost to logging and farming. This left the leopard
isolated in a small patch, surrounded by danger. Their
numbers shrank to 25, a tiny population of related cats.
66
Though the situation seemed bleak, conservation

groups, researchers and government forces banded
together to bring the cat back. Conservation strategies
included establishing new wildlife refuges, prohibiting
poaching and re-routing planned pipelines that would
have torn through leopard habitats.
These measures have paid off and Amur leopard
numbers are on the rise. Though not out of the woods,
there is real hope for the cats recovery. Plans to release
captive cats into the wild are beginning to fall into place
as facilities across the globe work to breed leopards that
will eventually repopulate their native home.
Amur leopard
67
Big Cats
The Amur leopards conservation journey
1956
Hunting Amur leopards

is outlawed in Russia
1983
Amur leopard territory

shrinks by 80 per cent
1996
The IUCN declares the species

Critically Endangered
Counting cats
Searching for wild Amur leopards is like

trying to find well-camouflaged needles
in a haystack the size of the UK
Having evolved to be invisible against the backdrop

of the forest, Amur leopards have proven difficult to
spot with the naked eye. Experts dedicate their time
to performing extensive surveys to establish reliable
population data. The surveys usually take place in the
winter when there is snow cover and the paw prints are
visible, reports May. For example, in recent Russian
tiger and leopard surveys we were able to record prints
and then take data of those tracks.
The surveys provide an amazing insight into leopard
movements. The size will determine if its an adult or a
young one and well also know the location. They have
certain territories and there arent that many of them,
so tracks are a brilliant indicator of leopard presence.
Though animals cant be identified from footprints
alone, the WWF has technology to pinpoint which
leopard is which. In some cases we have camera trap
images and we can identify individuals from that, May
explains. We can arrive at estimates of Amur leopards
between tracking paw prints and camera trapping.
Russia
China
North
Korea
South
Korea
Japan
Current Range
Historic Range
The rst challenge is identifying the boundaries of Amur leopard
territory. This has changed dramatically over the past century
and researchers assess the cats range from tracks and signs,
as well as sighting data from past years.
68
Counting leopard tracks began in the 1970s, traditionally

performed when paw prints show up in freshly fallen snow.
Footprints are counted and their location is recorded, allowing
researchers to estimate the abundance of animals in the area.
More recently leopards have been recorded with camera traps.

A motion sensor activates the equipment and the population
is then estimated. Collecting pictures also helps identify
individuals as the pattern of each leopard is unique.
Amur leopard
2000
Surveys find only 13 to 16 adult cats

and between one and three cubs
2001
WWF in Russia start a

leopard recovery programme
Why leopards matter

Losing a species leaves a hole in the
ecosystem and when species disappear, the
habitat and all the life inside it suffers
Amur leopards are apex predators, which means
they are the top predator of the region. Their
presence helps maintain a healthy balance of
species, which influences the condition of the
forest and the overall ecosystem. Leopards
control populations of prey species like deer and
wild boar, which can become destructive if their
numbers grow out of control. With more prey
species, more of the forests food will be stripped
away, leaving less for the rest of the areas
inhabitants. If populations continue to grow the
entire forest could become bare.
Even in death, leopard remains feed microorganisms and eventually break down to fertilise
the soil. Each animal has a role to play and
removing species from the food chain can have
knock-on effects that could cause permanent
damage to the region.
Maintaining the habitat is crucial as Amur
leopards share their territory with endangered
Amur tigers. If the habitat continues to shrink
then a second species of big cat could disappear.
Without these predators the ecosystem would
change dramatically.
2015
The population reaches 57, more

than double the count in 2000
Each animal
has a role
to play and
removing
species from
the food
chain can
have knockon effects
Teams collect samples of leopard DNA from hairs, faeces and

body remains in the wild. These provide a more detailed account
about individual leopards, as well as determining how closely
related the remaining cats are.
69
Big Cats
From captivity to the wild
Wildlife Heritage Foundation head Peter Sampson describes how

leopards around the world will one day make the long journey home
1 Breeding
We thought in the early days that we would breed our cats, wed put them
into some other enclosures and one day wed take them to Russia. But its
not as simple as that. In the long term, leopards will go from the collection
that weve got and the worldwide collection - they will choose the best
of the bunch to get different breeding lines.
2 Stepping back
If you can have 300 of

a species in captivity you
could keep the sensible
breeding programme going.
The hardest part is creating
a stepping stone. Our cats
arent domesticated but if
we let them go they would
go looking for people.
Youve got to get them
back into that wild situation.
That could take three or
four generations.
3 Wild protection
You must have the

landmass and were talking
about areas almost as big
as the UK. Policing it is a
problem. Governments will
have to agree that we can
use all that land. I think to a
certain extent governments
should part-fund it, with 50
to 60 people employed as
rangers to protect prey as
well as the leopards.
4 The next generation
Theyll go into a fairly large enclosure, which we are working on

now and the hope is that they will breed. Those offspring will go to
a much less hands-on type of environment where they wont have
much contact with keepers. Hopefully they will breed again and by
the third generation they will be going off to the wild.
5 Prey availability
Really, youve got

to keep them as wild as
you can keep them, you
cant have friendly Amur
leopards. The hardest
part is not so much letting
them go, but making sure
theres enough prey for
them to eat. Youve got to
make sure theres adequate
prey out there for hunting
otherwise those poor things
are going to be starving.
6Continued control
There are enough

people that want to make it
work. They are passionate
about getting them out
there. The bit we have no
control over is the politics.
Amur leopard populations
could help tourism. They
could lead treks out there
to see wild cats. They could
hold some back to breed
for people to come to see.
70
Amur leopard
What the
future holds
WWF manager for Asian species,
Rebecca May, gives us the details of what
is on the horizon for the Amur leopard
Alamy; Corbis; FLPA; Thinkstock; WHF; WWFF
Were working towards improving the protected area

network. That might mean increasing protected areas
and improving the habitat. Were helping to prevent
forest fires and reducing the impacts of development
on leopards as well. Were improving the anti poaching
brigades in those countries so were working with the
government to improve protection and patrolling. In China
theyre very much focusing on monitoring the illegal
wildlife trade and theyre able to provide data and info
on the situation regarding illegal wildlife trade in leopard
skins. Theyre also trying to help stop people from using
illegal wildlife body parts that include the Amur leopard.
There are plans to start a reintroduction programme
which will be to establish a second population in Russia.
Thats hopefully going to start over the course of the
next year. That means establishing a centre and it would
involve bringing captive Amur leopards from various zoos
into an enclosed part of the protected area. They would
reproduce and the offspring would be released over time.
It will be a long process of assessing the habitat and the
potential threats and making sure that the conditions are
right for supporting a future population of Amur leopards.
Its very exciting.
At the moment we believe there are around 50 in
Russia and around 20 in China. But there could be more.
Certainly the habitat has the potential to support more.
We are seeing signs of them breeding and increasing
in population in Russia so there is hope for the Amur
leopard. The problem is in some places where the prey
like deer have decreased and that can be due to poaching
as well, so were helping to recover prey populations as
well, by improving habitat. In China they are reintroducing
the leopard and boosting the population in key areas.
Sometimes in winter when its particularly cold, the deer
will find it hard to survive and find enough food, so WWF
also helps provide supplementary feeding in particular
places like protected areas.
71
Big Cats
The Sunda clouded leopard

CLOUDED LEOPARD
Neofelis didardi
Class Mammalia
Territory Southeast Asia

Diet Pigs, monkeys, deer,
birds, squirrels
Lifespan 13 years
Adult weight 22.7kg (50lb)
Conservation Status
Clouded leopards gained their name thanks to the large

dark, irregular-shaped cloud-like spots they have on their
pale-yellow to brown bodies. But since this helps them
to blend into their forest environment, they have been
rarely seen by humans in the wild. As such, most of our
information about the clouded leopard has been gleaned
from their behaviour in zoos, although a relatively recent
discovery proved particularly startling.
In 2007, it was confirmed that the clouded leopards
on Borneo (and Sumatra) could be classed as a distinct
species: the so-called Sunda clouded leopard. Fully
grown, the larger males are 81 to 108 centimetres (32 to
43 inches) in length, excluding their tail and they have
VULNERABLE
Their closest relative is

said to be the extinct
sabre-toothed cat
RIGHT There are believed to

be fewer than 10,000 clouded
leopards on Borneo
72
five-centimetre (two-inch)-long canine teeth inside a jaw

that opens wider than any other cat. Proportionate to
their body size, these canine teeth are the largest of any
wild cat. Unsurprisingly, their closest relative is said to be
the extinct sabre-toothed cat.
Sunda clouded leopards also have razor-sharp claws
that they can dig into branches, allowing them to hang
upside down in trees. Using their thick, 91-centimetre
(36-inch) tails for balance and rotating their flexible hind
ankles, they can scramble down tree trunks head first,
leaving their front paws available to grab birds, squirrels,
monkeys, wild pigs and deer. Those impressive teeth then
plunge into their preys flesh for a speedy kill.
Sunda clouded leopard

The longest toothed wild cat
Proportionate to body size, the Sunda clouded leopard
has the longest canines
Sunda clouded leopard

5cm (2in)
Lion
10cm (3.9in)
Sabre-toothed cat
30cm (11.8in)
73
Big Cats
JAGUAR
Panthera onca
Class Mammalia
Territory South and Central

America
Diet Small mammals, reptiles
Lifespan 15 years
Adult weight 57-100kg (125220lb)
Conservation Status
NEAR THREATENED
74
Jaguar
All About
Jaguars
The biggest cat in the Americas is a
fearsome and solitary predator, stalking
the jungle in search of meat
75
Big Cats
Survival of the fittest

The spotted cats of the Amazon have specialised skills for survival,
from retreating to the treetops to hunting what the weather brings
These cats are crepuscular, meaning they are
most active at dawn and dusk. They can break
this rule if they need to, and can be out and
about at any time of the day. Like the average
house cat, a jaguar spends the mid-morning
and afternoon dozing. It curls up under thick
vegetation for protection while the midday sun
beats down. Though many people believe that
jaguars regularly sleep in trees, they mostly only
take to the canopy in times of flood.
Jaguars rely on staying near water, as much
of their prey is found along the riverbank, or
even in the water itself. Its also useful when
temperatures spike and the cat needs to cool
down. A male jaguar maintains a territory of
up to 80 square kilometres (30 square miles),
and females defend ranges of around half
that size. The boundaries of their patches are

marked with urine, scrape marks and regular
vocalisations from the cats. Jaguars are solitary
animals and dont tolerate other cats out of
breeding season.
These cats are obligate carnivores, meaning
they can only eat meat. They feed on at least
85 different species, typically pouncing on an
unsuspecting animal from a concealed spot.
The prey meets its fate with either a swift bite
to the neck or a canine piercing the back of the
skull. Jaguar canines are specially designed to
deliver a one-shot kill they are the most robust
canines of any cat. Once the prey is dead, the
cat drags it to a secluded spot to eat in peace.
The jaguars diet is heavily influenced by the
seasons. During floods, they target large aquatic
The jaguars diet is

heavily influenced by
the seasons
LEFT
A jaguar ambushes an
unsuspecting caiman,
delivering a powerful bite
to the neck
76
reptiles called caimans, whose population soars

when the rainy season hits. When the water
retreats, cattle are let out to pasture and jaguars
take advantage of the fields of free meat.
However, entering farmland carries the risk of
being illegally shot on sight by ranch staff. While
some cats specialise in killing cattle, others
continue to hunt wild animals. Jaguars only eat
once every four days; the bigger their last meal,
the longer they will wait for their next.
Jaguar attacks on humans have been
documented, but only in situations where the
cats have been provoked. If a jaguar encounters
a human in the wild, it is more likely to follow
the human than attack. It is thought that jaguars
track humans travelling on foot to escort them
out of their territory.
Jaguar
Jungle living
The jaguar is a solitary cat who lives and hunts
alone, except for during the mating season
Day of rest
Jaguars beat the
heat by resting in
the shade or even
taking a quick dip.
Taking to the trees

These extremely agile cats climb
trees with ease, but only tend to seek
higher ground when the forest floor is
saturated with swamps.
The hunt
This cats name is derived from
the native American word yaguar,
meaning he who kills with one leap. Its
true, jaguars pick the perfect moment
to strike from their hiding spot to
secure their kill.
Perfect camouflage
Both spotted and melanistic
jaguars blend excellently
with the green backdrop.
Cub club
Twins are most common in jaguar
pregnancies, and growing up with
siblings helps cubs learn social skills and
gives them a chance to practise fighting.
A quick dip
Jaguars are more than willing to take
the plunge to find food, and even
silently swim up to resting animals to
catch them by surprise.
77
Big Cats
Feline attraction
The only problem with being solitary is finding a suitable partner,
and jaguars have found a fool-proof method for attracting mates
The best way to advertise your willingness to mate is to shout it from the
rooftops, and thats exactly what jaguars do. Female jaguars leave their
territory and call out first thing in the morning and last thing at night to
let listening males know that they are in season.
Females emit five to seven grunts to advertise their fertility, and males
respond with rasping, guttural sounds before beginning to search for the
source of the female call. Often, more than one male responds to the call,
and sometimes more than one male even accompanies the female for
a short while, but this always ends in a fight. Males prove their worth by
forcing the other away.
Female jaguars also show changes in their behaviour when they are
ready to conceive. The female oestrus cycle lasts 37 days, and the jaguar
is able to conceive for between six and 17 of these days. During oestrus
female jaguars arch their backs inwards, roll around on the floor and
scent-mark more than usual. These signals mean that the female is ready
to receive a male.
Jaguars arent strictly seasonal breeders, and they can conceive at
any point of the year. However, male hormones begin to soar when
the annual floods begin to recede. The period between December and
March is when most mating occurs, as it is the period when prey is most
abundant. Expectant mothers must keep up their strength as within 100
days they will have up to four helpless cubs to care for. Mothers dont
tolerate male presence once the cubs have arrived, so the more she can
eat before the babies arrive, the longer she can stay with her vulnerable
cubs without having to go in search of food.
Male hormones soar when the

annual floods begin to recede
Diet and feeding
Occasionally they
supplement their diet
with giant anteaters
Jaguars dont eat every day, but catch large animals

every once in a while to keep themselves going
32% of their diet
consists of cattle
5% deer and 21%

peccaries
A jaguars diet averages at
5.7kg (12.5lb)
of food per day
Thats 7% of its
body weight
24% caiman
78
Jaguar
Black panther
or jaguar?
The term black panther can be used to describe a jaguar
or a leopard. The term panther can be used to describe
any of the four largest species in the Panthera genus a
closely related group of animals otherwise known as
the big cats, which includes tigers, lions, leopards, and
jaguars. However, of these, only leopards and jaguars are
known to have a black (or melanistic) colour variant, and
are often referred to as black panthers (see page 84).
Jaguar Vs leopard
ABOVE
A female may travel with
two males during oestrus,
but one will eventually
drive the other away
What separates a jaguar from a leopard?
Leopard
Jaguar
Spot size
A jaguars spots, or rosettes, are larger and more spread out than a leopards,
and sometimes have dots inside them.
Head size
Leopards kill prey by crushing its windpipe, but jaguars crush its skull. Jaguars
get their extra force from a broader head and stronger jaw muscles.
Body size
Jaguars are bigger and stockier than leopards, and have a more obvious curve
to their back. A leopards tail is usually longer than a jaguars.
79
Big Cats
Anatomy of the jaguar
Large intestine
It takes a lot to survive in the Amazon, and the jaguar is built

to find its way through the jungle, silently stalk prey and kill its
catch with a single strike
Skull
Bone-crushing teeth
The jaguars teeth are capable of
piercing the bones of its prey, and
a shot to the skull results in instant
death for the unfortunate animal.
Claws
The retractable claws are extremely sharp
and help the cat grip the ground and
climb. Jaguars scrape-mark the ground to
let other cats know they are in the area.
Cat claws
compared
A jaguars claws are among
the sharpest of all the cats.
Their sharp point has a very
low surface area, which results
in high pressure when force is
applied. This means that jaguar
claws are some of the most
dangerous weapons in the animal
kingdom, with the ability to slice
through flesh with ease.
Jaguar claw
Lion claw
JUVENILE
INFANCY
Birth 0 days
Aer 90 to 100 days of pregnancy,
jaguars give birth to between one
and four cubs. Each cub weighs
just 0.9 kilograms (two pounds).
80
Lung
Lynx claw
Seeing the world 2 weeks

Aer 14 days of constant care and
attention, young cubs are able to
open their eyes and begin exploring.
They bond closely with their mother.
First steps 18 days

Just before the three week mark, jaguar
cubs nd their feet. They begin to walk
and take in more of their surroundings in
constant companionship with their siblings.
Follow the leader 6 weeks

Around this time jaguar cubs start
to follow their mother around. They
begin to learn vital skills from her and
practise what they see with other cubs.
Weaning 6 months
Cubs are weaned at this stage, but already
begin to sample meat at the age of 10 to 11
weeks. Once their mother refuses them milk
cubs have no choice but to eat solid food.
Jaguar
Hearing
Small intestine
Cats have some of the most broad

hearing ranges of all mammals.
Evidence suggests that they evolved
high-frequency hearing without having
to lose their low-frequency hearing.
Tail
Size
The smallest jaguars are found
in Honduras, and weigh 57kg
(125lb). The Brazilian Pantanal
is home to the largest,
weighing up to 100kg (220lb).
Melanism
Black coat colour is a natural phenomenon
caused by a mutation in a single gene. 11
of the 37 feline species are susceptible to
melanism, and it is common in jaguars.
Strongest bite
Jaguars have the strongest bite of all the big cats. They are able to
easily crack open turtle shells and break through animal skulls.
Closest family
Pelvis
The nearest relatives of the jaguar are the extinct lions of North
America, but their surviving cousins live across the Atlantic Ocean
Digestion
Muscle
Bladder
Jaguars are built more for power

than speed. The large muscles in
the legs allow the cat to launch
itself at unsuspecting prey.
Cat jaws cant move from

side to side and their pointed
teeth arent designed for
chewing. Instead, food
chunks are broken down by
enzymes in the stomach.
MATURITY
Leaving the nest 18 months
Aer a year and a half cubs strike
out on their own. By now, they
have picked up the skills they need
to hunt and survive in the jungle.
Sexual maturity (female) 2-3 years

Female cubs are able to breed earlier
than males. Even though they have le
their mother they still maintain a bond
with her for several months.
Sexual maturity (male) 3-4 years

Mature males listen out for calls from
females and nd their way to the source of
the sound. If more than one arrives at the
scene, males compete for the right to mate.
Lion
Native to Africa,
lions share their
genus, Panthera,
with jaguars. Unlike
jaguars, lions
are highly social
animals that live in
groups and share
the responsibility
of raising cubs and
nding food.
Leopard
The closest
relatives of jaguars
are their African
doppelgangers,
leopards. Its
thought that big
cats moved into
the Americas by
mistake but thrived
on the mammal
prey available.
Tiger
The common
ancestors of jaguars
and tigers took
dierent paths. As
cats were arriving in
South America, others
were moving into Asia
and developed their
characteristic black
and orange stripes
over time.
81
Big Cats
The elusive
jaguars territory
Hidden by its camouflage coat, the jaguar inhabits
the dense rainforests of the Amazon basin, sticking
close to sources of water
Historically, the jaguar was found as far north as southwestern US and as
far south as Rio Negro in Argentina, but it now only inhabits about 46 per
cent of its historic range. About 90 per cent of the population lives in the
Amazon basin, which spreads over Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay, but the
big cat can also be found in remote areas of Central and South America.
This incredible predator uses its habitat to camouflage itself, so it
tends to prefer thick, dense rainforest, where it can always find cover
and conceal itself. The big cat is always found close to water so flooded
forests and swamps suit it well.
According to the IUCN Red List the jaguars conservation status is
Near Threatened, mainly due to habitat loss through deforestation and
poaching. They are so elusive that the exact number of jaguars in the
wild is unknown; however there are estimated to be about 15,000 left,
although numbers are in decline.
The jaguar tends to prefer thick,

dense rainforest, where it can
always find cover
Humans are the biggest threat to this powerful predator
Habitat loss
Deforestation to make way for agriculture
and ranching is destroying the jaguars
habitat. In the Amazon, it is estimated that
every minute, a piece of land the size of
three football pitches is destroyed.
Human conflict
Because of the loss of habitat, jaguars
are increasingly encroaching on local
settlements and preying on livestock. The
locals kill jaguars through fear and to stop
them from feeding on their cattle.
Poaching
Jaguars are also killed illegally for their
coats. In the 1960s, 15,000 jaguar skins
were sold a year in the Brazilian Amazon.
A recovery plan was not put in place to
protect the species until 2010.
Competition for food
Another conflict with humans is
competition for food. As local people hunt
for the same food jaguars need to survive,
it makes the search for food increasingly
difficult for them.
82
Jaguar
Nearest
neighbours
Jaguars share their home with a
diverse range of species
ABOVE
The jaguars spotted
coat provides excellent
camouflage in the jungle
undergrowth
Capybara
The capybara is the worlds largest
rodent. To escape from predators
including the jaguar these semiaquatic mammals will take to the
water to hide. Capybaras can swim
under water for up to five minutes to
protect themselves.
Caiman
There are six different species of
caiman, the largest of which is the
black caiman. They are closely related
to the alligator and crocodile, but their
bodies are more narrow. Their only
predators are humans and the jaguar.
God of the Underworld

In Mayan mythology, the jaguar was
seen as the God of the Underworld,
representing power and darkness.
The Aztecs, Mayans and Incas all
built temples in honour of the jaguar.
Symbol of desire
The jaguar has also been associated
with the Roman god Bacchus, who is
oen seen depicted with the big cat.
Both represent the will to express
ones innermost desires.
Status and power
This powerful big cat represents
strength, condence and ability,
which is why top performance car
manufacturers, Jaguar, used the
animal for their logo.
Giant anteater
The giant anteater has claws that are
10cm (4in) long. It is not aggressive,
but can use its claws to defend itself
against predators like the jaguar. It
feeds on ants and termites using its
long, sticky tongue.
83
Thinkstock; FLPA; Nature PL; Ardea; The Art Agency/Peter Scott
In our culture
The erce jaguar was worshipped
and revered by ancient cultures
Tapir
This large herbivore also lives in
Central and South America. It uses
its short, prehensile snout to browse
plants and spends most of its time in
the water. This endangered mammal
is also hunted by the jaguar.
Big Cats
MYSTERIES OF THE
PANTHER
Stealthier and more successful hunters, the black cats of the
world have reaped benefits from a genetic mutation
Silently stalking prey in the dead of night, black panthers
are among the most fearsome felines on Earth, with some
of the strongest bites of all time. Their silky black fur is
a result of melanism a genetic condition creating the
opposite of an albino animal. Unlike living without pigment,
a panthers dark fur doesnt make it more recognisable. In
fact, studies have shown that black panthers are better at
sneaking up on prey, and some monkeys will ignore a big
cat without its characteristic markings.
84
With canine teeth measuring seven centimetres (three

inches), this black beauty is the ultimate hunter of tropical
jungles and will stop at nothing to kill. Panthers can swim,
climb, pounce and bite to bring down prey, and hunt
alone. Black panthers live in Africa and South America,
where they are dark-furred forms of leopards and jaguars
respectively. Their common ancestor moved from Africa
across the Atlantic around 10 million years ago, and found
a jungle full of monkeys to chase in South America.
Panther
85
Big Cats
The black fur of the
panther (here, a
black leopard) has
given it a sizeable
hunting advantage
What is a panther?
The term, 'black panther' does not refer to any one species of animal, and
in different parts of the world, black panthers are different animals entirely
The word panther can be used to
describe any of the four largest species
in the Panthera genus - a closely
related group of animals otherwise
known as the big cats, which includes
(in descending order of size), tigers,
lions, leopards, and jaguars. Of these,
only leopards and jaguars are known
to have a black (or melanistic) colour
variant, and both are commonly

referred to as black panthers. There
are reports of pseudo-melanistic
lions and tigers, with abnormally dark
colouring, but they are incredibly rare,
and are usually a combination of black,
grey, and brown. True black panthers
of these species have never been
scientifically documented.
Leopard
Panthera pardus
The gene responsible for melanism in leopards is
recessive, meaning that an individual requires two
faulty copies in order to have black fur. The trait is

uncommon in brightly lit areas and the majority of
leopards living in Africa and Asia are the classic
tawny fur colour, with black rosettes and spots.
86
Jaguar
Panthera onca
Black jaguars have a different mutation to black leopards, and the trait is dominantly
inherited; only one copy of the gene is required for a jaguar to be born with black
fur. These animals have a fault in the gene involved in the production of the dark
pigment, melanin, majorly increasing the amount deposited in each hair as it grows.
Florida panther
Puma concolor
In some parts of the world cats known as panthers arent in fact members of the
Panthera genus. A North American rare subspecies of cougar called the Florida
panther is brown and grey. A black variant is rumoured, but not confirmed.
Panther
Why are panthers black?

A genetic mutation known as melanism gives big cats in the wild the advantage
Leopards are ambush predators, and use their
spotted camouflage to hide in dappled shade,
but in some parts of the world, their fur is
almost pitch black. If you look closely, you can
still see their spotted markings, but a genetic
mutation increases the amount of pigment in
their hairs, allowing these rare cats to blend
effortlessly with the dark shadows of the forest.
This black variant is known as melanism,
and is the result of a single genetic mutation.
The colour of leopard fur is controlled by two
genes involved in the production of pigments
known as melanins. One gene switches on
production of dark coloured eumelanin, and
the other switches on the production of reddish
pheomelanin. In black leopards, the gene that
turns on the production of pheomelanin is
damaged, permanently turning production

of reddish pigments off, and tipping melanin
production over to the darker eumelanin,
resulting in fur that is almost completely black.
The dark pigment is also deposited in the iris,
giving black leopards their characteristic ambercoloured eyes.
Melanism is not unique to leopards; 11
species of wild cats are known to have this
pigment abnormality in their populations, and
unconfirmed sightings have been reported
for a further nine. The trait is thought to have
evolved at least five times separate times in wild
cats; an indication that it might give the animals
some advantage in their natural habitat. Many
other species also have melanistic variants, from
domestic cats, to squirrels, snakes, and moths.
In some isolated pockets of the population,

melanistic leopards are now more common
than their light-coloured counterparts
These baby panthers are leopard
cubs who have inherited the gene for
melanism - their markings remain
visible despite their dark fur
Thanks to their amazing colouration, black

leopards have been popular in captivity, and
have been bred for their beautiful coats. This
has lead to health and fertility problems, and
also a change in temperament, leading some
leopard mothers to abandon their aggressive
melanistic cubs in captivity. However, in the wild,
this natural genetic abnormality has proved a
significant survival advantage in some areas,
and in some isolated pockets of the population,
particularly in parts of Asia, melanistic leopards
are have become common than their lightcoloured counterparts.
Big Cats
North
America
Habitat
range
Europe
Central America
Black jaguars roam in
fragmented areas of
Central America and
are even spotted as far
north as California, New
Mexico and Arizona. Once
common in these areas,
the range of the jaguar has
shrunk to half its former
size, but sightings still
occur in the USA today.
Black leopard
Black jaguar
Subtleties that separate jaguars and leopards
Spot size
Leopard spots are arranged into tight rosettes on
their back and sides, with plain spots on their heads,
tails and legs. Jaguars have much larger rosettes.
Getty, Alamy, Rex Features, Thinkstock
Head size
Leopards kill their prey by crushing the windpipe,
but jaguars kill by crushing the skull. As a result their
heads are larger, and their jaw muscles stronger.
Body size
Jaguars are stocky and muscular, with an obvious
curve to their back. Leopards are the smallest of the
big cats, and are much leaner, with long bodies, and
relatively short legs.
88
Africa
Habitat adaptability
Jaguars live in an area of 8.7
million square kilometres (3.4
million square miles), from the
swamps of the rainforest to dry
desert plains. Doing well in water,
up trees and dusty open areas
helps jaguars cover such a vast
patch of land and makes it one of
the continents best predators.
From a common ancestor around

10 million years ago, leopards and
jaguars are now spread across
continents. Early jaguars may have
crossed the Atlantic by accident.
Jaguar Vs leopard
Ethiopian
Highlands
In mountains of
central and northern
Ethiopia, up to 1 in 5
leopards are black.
The environment is
dense forest, and
dark colours may
help the big cats
to blend in to their
surroundings.
South America
Jaguars need jungle
The largest population of
jaguars is in Amazonian
Brazil and no further as the
cat needs jungle cover. It
once roamed as far south as
Argentina, but as humans
populations rose the largest
cat in the Americas began to
retreat between the trees.
Aberdare Range,
Kenya
Black leopards are rare in
most parts of Kenya, but
higher numbers can be
found in the mountains.
It is possible that there is
a thermal advantage to
having a black coat at high
altitudes, allowing the
leopards to absorb more
heat from the Sun.
Panther
Southern India
The Indian leopard is most
oen spotted, but coat
colour varies throughout its
range, and in drier areas,
fur tends to be lighter. There
are melanistic leopards
in southern India, but they
are rare, and tend to stay in
tropical forests.
The advantages of melanism

Asia
Malay peninsula
A recent camera trap study
in the forests at the tip of
the Malaysian peninsula
revealed that every leopard
in the area is melanistic, and
the local people, the Orang
Asli, have reportedly never
seen a spotted leopard,
despite knowing every
animal in the forest.
Melanism in wild cats is relatively

common, and is thought to have
evolved on at least five separate
occasions, suggesting that this genetic
mutation gives these stealthy predators
an advantage in the wild. Hunting
leopards rely on camouflage to remain
hidden, and fur colour can have a
major influence on their success. In
drier areas, leopards tend to be light
in colour. In snow, their fur can be
greyish, and in dark tropical forests,
black leopards are more common.
However, camouflage is not the

only advantage of melanism. Genetic
abnormalities that affect coat colour
can have some unusual effects
elsewhere in the body, and there is
evidence that melanism in leopards
might have a protective effect on the
immune system. Receptors involved
in melanin production also play a role
in the entry of dangerous viruses into
cells, and animals with the black colour
variant may have some protection
against disease.
Melanism in other animals
Black rat snake

Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta
Melanism occurs in several species of
snake. Reptiles are cold blooded, and
dark skin can decrease the time it
takes them to get to the right
temperature. However, it does
make them more obvious than their
camouflaged companions, and whether
it has any appreciable advantage in the
wild is debated.
Black wolf
Canis lupus
Black wolves are a melanistic colour
variant of North American grey wolves.
It is thought that the gene for black
fur may have entered the wild
population due to inbreeding with
domestic dogs, but the dark colour
seems to be allowing wolves to survive
better due to improved camouflage in
forest environments.
Black squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
Some grey squirrels have a mutation
that means that instead of producing
normal hairs (with a combination of
grey, brown and white stripes), the
hairs that cover their bodies are pure
black in colour. Squirrels that have one
copy of this gene are brown-black in
colour, and animals with two copies
are black.
This genetic mutation actually

gives these stealthy predators
an advantage in the wild
89
Big Cats
90
Cheetah
All About
Cheetahs
A marvel of natural engineering, this
predator races across the African plains
at up to 70 miles per hour, pursuing and
catching nearly anything in its sights
91
Big Cats
Inside a cheetah
CHEETAH
Acinonyx jubatus
Class Mammalia
Cheetahs are built for short bursts of speed. When pursuing

prey, the cats can go from standing still to 64 kilometres (40
miles) per hour in just three strides, reaching a top speed of 97
kilometres (60 miles) per hour in three seconds
Streamlined shape
The cheetah trades jaw strength for
aerodynamics and has a small, flat
head with a relatively weak bite force.
Free-floating shoulders
The shoulder blades arent
fixed to the rest of the skeleton
and instead float freely,
extending the range of motion
of its front legs.
Flexible skeleton
The spine is long and
flexible, while the pelvis
enables an extended range
of motion, meaning the
cheetah can spring forward
as it runs.
Territory Africa and the

Middle East
Diet Carnivore
Adult weight 35-65kg /
77-143lbs
Conservation status
VULNERABLE
Large heart
The heart is enlarged and the arteries
thickened, providing maximum blood flow
during a chase.
Staying
balanced
Withstanding
the force
The combination
of a flexible spine
and a rudderlike tail enables
cheetahs to
balance while
turning corners.
A cheetah has thick limb

bones, enabling it to
withstand the
intense highspeed forces.
Deep chest
The chest is deep and narrow,
maximising lung capacity
without compromising the
cats aerodynamic shape.
Phalanges
Effective gravity
Maintaining traction
Gravity and
centripetal force
affect a cheetah as it
turns, increasing its
effective weight by
up to 66 per cent.
The footpads of a cheetah are

hard and their claws act like
crampons to grip the ground.
TURN RADIUS
Radii
required
93km/h turn radius = 52m
for a
180-degree
turn at
58km/h:
different
Turn radius = 20m
speeds
14km/h: Turn
radius = 1m
92
Unlike other cats, the cheetahs

claws dont fully retract and are
permanently exposed. They provide
grip when turning, but are blunted
by constant friction on the ground.
JUVENILE
INFANCY
Newborn cubs 1 day
Cheetah cubs are born in
litters of two to ve and weigh
between 150 and 300 grams
(5 and 11 ounces).
Exposed claws
Eyes open 1 week

For the rst week cubs are
blind and rely entirely on
their mother to keep them
hidden in the long grass.
Teething 3 weeks
Teeth begin to appear aer three
weeks, but the cubs remain vulnerable,
with the mother moving them to new
den sites.
Starting to explore 6 weeks

Aer six weeks the cubs are ready
to leave the safety of the den
they watch and play while their
mother hunts.
Long tail
Imperative for balance, their tails consist of around 18-20
bones (caudal vertebrae) and are an extension of their spine.
The tail helps cheetahs when running, as they use them to
help steer and change direction, like the rudder of a boat.
Tears
The black markings that
run from the corners
of a cheetahs eyes to
its mouth absorb light.
Theyre thought to block
the glare from the Sun,
aiding in daytime hunting.
Vocalisation
Unlike the big cats of the
Panthera genus, including
lions and tigers, the
cheetah cannot roar. It
does, however, purr like a
domestic cat.
Pelvis
Femur
Camouflage
A cheetah has between 2,000
and 3,000 solid black oval or
round spots, which break up its
silhouette in the grass.
Fibula
Breathing in step
Tibia
Ferocious sprinters, cheetahs can

only breath in step with their stride.
To help with speed, their deep chest
and large nostrils, heart and lungs
help them breathe in more oxygen
during intense chases.
Tarsels
Metatarsels
Closest family
Closely related to the cheetah are
Breathing out
when legs are in
Cougar
Like the cheetah,
the cougar uses its
incredible agility to
pursue and catch prey.
This adaptable cat can
be found throughout
the Americas, but
despite its size its not
classed alongside
lions and tigers as a
big cat, because it isnt
able to roar.
Breathing in
when leaping
Jaguarundi
With a attened head,
rounded ears and a
tail just like an otters,
this small SouthAmerican wildcat
seems more likely to
be related to a weasel
than a cheetah.
However, jaguarundi
are actually one of
the cheetahs closest
living relatives.
Lynx
More distantly related
to the cheetah is the
lynx or bobcat. It too is
an ambush predator,
preferring to use short
bursts of speed rather
than extended levels
of stamina. This cat is
far stockier, however,
and favours smaller
prey such as rabbits
and hares.
MATURITY
Learning to hunt 7 months
The female catches and releases
her prey, enabling her cubs to hone
their hunting skills before they
enter maturity.
Leaving home 18 months

Female cubs sometimes leave
their mother before theyre sexually
mature, remaining together in a
sibling group.
Sexual maturity 2 years

When female cheetahs eventually mature,
they leave their sibling groups. They will
now begin a solitary life raising a family of
cubs of their own.
Coalition life 2 years

Male cheetahs spend most
of their adult lives within cooperative groups, most oen
travelling as pairs of brothers.
The next generation 3 years

Female cheetahs will mate all year
round, providing there is adequate food,
and produce a litter around once every
18 months.
93
Big Cats
How a cheetah hunts

Formidable sprinters and epic predators, the
cheetahs are at the top of their hunting game
Cheetahs are frequent hunters and with an average kill
rate of 50 per cent, they are rivalled only by wild dogs as
Africas most successful predators. Their preferred prey
animals are medium-sized antelope, ideally weighing less
than 40 kilograms (88 pounds), equivalent to a large
domestic dog.
Unlike other hunters, cheetahs dont selectively prey
on weaker animals and the majority of their prey are
healthy animals. Their hunting tactics focus on isolated
members of a group, avoiding the danger of targeting
an entire herd. Cheetahs use stealth to hunt their prey,
approaching from behind to avoid detection and often
remaining hidden in grass or brush.
Cheetahs are incredibly quick, but tire rapidly and can
only sustain a sprint for around 300 metres (984 feet)
before their bodies begin to overheat. When a cheetah
runs, its heart rate climbs from 60 to 150 beats per
minute and after a chase it takes 30 minutes to recover.
The chase is intense and usually over in just 20
seconds. The cats streamlined heads only contain small
jaws and their bite force is low, so in order to immobilise
the prey they must get underneath the throat to
compress the trachea. When the cheetah catches up with
its target, it swipes at the hindquarters, sometimes using
its sharp dewclaw as a grappling hook, knocking the
animal off balance before pinning it to the floor.
Catching a meal is only half of the battle and although
a cheetah can hold its own against small scavengers like
jackals and vultures, over half of all kills are stolen by
packs of hyena and prides of lions. As a result cheetahs
eat quickly and a team of four males can devour an
antelope in under 15 minutes.
01 Stalk
02 Chase
The cheetah approaches

from behind, using cover
to remain hidden until its
just 30m (98ft) from its
target. The animals spots
break up the its silhouette,
concealing its looming
presence from the prey.
It selects an isolated victim,

away from the danger
of the main herd, and
suddenly begins the assault.
It accelerates to a top
speed of 113km/h (70mph),
chasing down its target over
hundreds of metres.
94
Cheetah
With an average kill rate of 50 per cent,
they are rivalled only by wild dogs as
Africas most successful predators
03 Takedown
04 Feast
When the cheetah catches

up with its victim, it uses
a front paw to swipe at
the back legs, knocking
the animal to the floor. At
such high speeds, even the
slightest contact can spell
disaster for the prey.
Once the target is

grounded, the cheetah
uses a stranglehold to
suffocate it. Because the
cheetah has a weak bite, it
twists beneath the preys
throat and clamps down
on its windpipe.
95
Big Cats
Life in cheetah society

Males can form fearless clans while females fight alone
Unique to cats, the social structure of cheetahs varies
between the sexes and revolves around diet and
feeding habits. While females prefer a solitary life,
males can form social groups, known as coalitions. This
will often be a group of brothers from the same litter
and the bond will be for life. If there was only one male
in the litter, several solitary males may form their own
group, or individuals will join existing ones.
With strength in numbers, cheetah coalitions are
several times more likely to dominate a territory than
a solitary creature. Fiercely territorial, males will mark
their patch by urinating on trees, logs, termite mounds
and will fight to the death to maintain their stronghold.
Having control over their territory makes for a greater
chance of breeding with the females that roam within
this territory.
Funnily, theres little evidence of a hierarchy within

these coalitions. Instead, males within the group
seem to have adopted co-operative relationships
with little aggression between one another, except
when harmless squabbles occur at feeding time, and
occasionally when mating is involved.
Females can drift further afield than a designated
territory, meaning their home ranges are larger and
practically impossible to defend. A home range
depends on the prey available and the benefits
of solitary living, including the ability to follow the
migratory pattern of their prey.
Females ranges can often overlap with others
belonging to their sisters, mothers or daughters. They
will hunt, eat and live alone unless accompanied by
cubs and theyd sooner avoid confrontation than fight.
With strength in numbers, cheetah coalitions

are several times more likely to dominate a
territory than a solitary creature
Diet and feeding
Cheetahs are prolific, agile hunters with
a preference for antelope
Occasionally they
supplement their
diet with birds
and hares
Thats over
6% of its
overall body
80% of their
diet consists
of ungulates
(including gazelle,
impala, antelope)
96
weight
An average male cheetah
eats 4kg/8.8lbs of
food per day
How a mother protects

Female cheetahs are fertile periodically
throughout the year and cubs are born during
all seasons. In the days leading up to oestrous,
when female cheetahs are receptive to mating,
the chemical make-up of their urine changes
and scent markers alert nearby males of the
opportunity to mate. Males track these females,
paying careful attention to their scent trail, as well
as to visual signals before making a move. If the
female doesnt fall pregnant, the cycle repeats
again in around ten days.
The likelihood of success is greatly increased
when prey animals are abundant, so cheetah birth
rates often follow the breeding patterns of local
populations of antelope. If mating is successful,
the female will give birth to a litter of between
two and five cubs after three months. The cubs
are born blind and are unable to walk for the first
three weeks, so the female chooses a secluded
location, often in grass, beneath rocks, or even in
abandoned turtle burrows.
Cubs are entirely reliant on their mother for
nutrition and protection, so she must make a
successful kill every day in order to

sustain them. Nursing females prefer
to hunt smaller, easier animals such
as fawns and hares, ensuring a
consistent supply of milk.
Cheetah cubs arent well
camouflaged when theyre born and
can be seen from a great distance,
so the mother goes to great lengths
to conceal them, periodically moving
the den site to minimise scent
tracking. She uses vantage points,
such as termite mounds, to scan the
environment for predators, as well as
to keep an eye out for an easy meal.
Despite the efforts of the mother, as
many as nine out of ten cheetah cubs
dont reach adulthood. Theyre not good
at identifying danger and have a tendency
to scatter when threatened, making it difficult
for the mother to defend them all at once.
Large pack hunters, such as hyenas and lions,
pose a major threat to cheetah cubs.
Trained to hunt
Cub development takes around 15 months, during which
time the young cheetahs must learn to hunt. They spend
a large amount of time at play, practising techniques like
stalking, pouncing, swatting and wrestling.
Cubs begin their training at four months, when the
female starts to bring live prey back to practise on,
allowing the cubs time to play before completing the kill
herself. She also allows the cubs to join the chase, slowing
down to let them overtake and have a chance at tackling
the target. After ten months, cubs are killing around half of
their own food, mostly birds and hares, and by 15 months
they are competent enough to survive on their own.
Stranglehold
This death-grip is a vital part of the
cheetah hunting strategy and cubs begin
to practise early, starting out by biting
one anothers necks.
ABOVE Cheetah cubs

are oen vulnerable,
so need protection
from their mothers
Maternal guidance
Before the cubs join in the hunt,
the female cheetah provides
them with small or weakened
prey to practise on.
Small prey
Cheetah cubs are
inexperienced and begin by
hunting small animals like
birds, hares and fawns.
97
Big Cats
The habitat of
the cheetah
How this graceful cats diminished
range threatens its survival
The historical range of the cheetah once
extended across Africa, through the Middle
East and central Asia, all the way across
to India. In 1900 an estimated 100,000 of
these agile predators roamed across these
regions. Cheetahs were once sought after for
their hunting prowess, used by royalty and
nobility in place of greyhounds. Extensive
poaching of wild populations also drove the
cats numbers down.
In central Asia the cheetah is now extinct
and in the Middle East just 100 individuals
remain in Iran. The remaining population of
around 7,500 is scattered across Africa.
Despite the decline in cheetah numbers,
theyre surprisingly adaptable and can be
found in a range of habitats. They require
a balance of cover and visibility in order to
hunt, so avoid thick undergrowth, dense
forest and tall grass.
Human expansion across Africa has
limited the range of the remaining cheetah
population and in many areas cheetahs clash
with human settlements. Protected areas,
such as national parks and nature reserves,
provide some protection from poaching
and human conflict, but tend to have higher
numbers of dangerous predators such as
lions, who not only compete for food, but
also put cheetah cubs at risk.
There is still a relatively high demand for
cheetahs as pets and cubs are regularly
taken from the wild. Smuggled exotic
animals are often transported in poor
conditions and only one in six stolen cubs
survives the journey.
Cheetahs are threatened by both natural and manmade environmental pressures
Habitat loss
Human expansion across Africa and
the Middle East has fragmented the
cheetah habitat, limiting the supply
of prey animals and driving cheetahs
into smaller and smaller areas.
Human conflict
Local farmers see cheetahs as a
danger and a nuisance. The cats are
blamed for devastation of livestock,
despite the fact that other predators
are more oen responsible.
Inbreeding
The population was severely dented in
a mass extinction event 12,000 years
ago. Only a few individuals survived,
so the current population is very
inbred, resulting in genetic disease.
Predation and competition
Cheetahs may be fast, but they arent
strong and many cubs are lost to
attacks by lions and hyenas. Those
that do survive face erce competition
for food from the same animals.
98
Despite the decline in

cheetah numbers, they are
a surprisingly adaptable
species, and can be found
in a range of habitats
On lookout
Termite mounds and banks
are ideal spots for surveying
the landscape for dangers.
Cheetah
Cheetahs and humans

Humans and cheetahs have a relationship dating back thousands
of years. The earliest known images of the cats can be seen in
the Air Mountains in Niger, which are over 7,000 years old. Its
thought early humans were interacting with the animals much
earlier, maybe even stealing their food.
Cheetahs have been kept in captivity for at least 5,000 years,
and were sought after as pets of the Ancient Egyptians. More
recently they have also been used in place of dogs for hunting.
Like greyhounds, cheetahs are fast and rely on sight as opposed
to scent to track their prey. They can also be used in a form of
sport hunting known as coursing. Cheetahs dont breed well in
captivity, so the hunting animals were regularly taken from the
wild, before being tamed and taught to course.
The practise of hunting with cheetahs was popular in north
Africa, the Middle East and central Asia. A cheetah was even
presented to King George III, but disappointed the monarch when
it failed to bring down a 100-kilogram (220-pound) red stag.
Nearest
neighbours
Cheetahs might be powerful
hunters, but they are vulnerable
to other predators
Lion
The second largest living cat is a
formidable enemy. When faced with
a lion, theres little that a cheetah can
do. Lionesses are powerful hunters,
and work as a team to take down
their prey.
Keeping cool
Cheetahs spend most of
their time resting in order to
avoid overheating.
Leopard
Leopards may look similar to
cheetahs, but these stockier big cats
are more closely related to lions and
tigers. Leopard spots arent solid,
like a cheetahs, instead forming
distinctive rosettes.
In our culture
The speed and hunting prowess of the cheetah
has inspired many fictional characters
Cheetara
Just like a cheetah, female
ThunderCat Cheetara can run at high
speeds, but tires quickly. She also has
a sixth sense, enabling her to detect
nearby dangers.
Chester Cheetah
The Cheetos brand mascot is one of
the best-known cheetahs in popular
culture. He was introduced in the
1980s and replaced the less wellremembered Cheetos mouse.
Barbara Ann Minerva

DC villain, the Cheetah, is the result
of a failed tribal ritual, when British
archaeologist Dr Barbara Ann
Minerva attempted to obtain the
powers of an African cheetah.
Duma
This 2005 lm depicts the story of an
orphaned cheetah cub, Duma, and
a bullied schoolboy, Xan, who runs
away into the mountains of South
Africa with the cat.
Black-backed jackal
Relatives of the wolf, these
opportunistic animals are omnivores
and live mainly on a diet of small prey
and scavenged carcasses. They are
aggressive, feisty and will oen tackle
much larger animals.
99
Corbis, DK images, Alamy, Thinkstock, Andy Bytheway, Greg Willis, Nevit Dilman
Spotted hyena
Hyenas are related to cats, but behave
more like dogs, using their teeth
rather than their claws to tackle prey.
Opportunists and scavengers, theyll
not only steal prey from cheetahs, but
are also a threat to their cubs.
Big Cats
100
Cougar
Built to withstand the unpredictable wilderness of the

desert mountains, cougars make easy work of picking
out urban prey
The mountain forests, sheltered swamps and vast
desert planes of North America are dominated by
the ultimate wild cat. The cougar also known as
the mountain lion is the most widespread native
mammal in the entire Western Hemisphere and can
survive in almost any environment. This tenacity
has led the continents largest cat down from the
hillsides to bustling cities to take advantage of the
available prey and human leftovers.
Sightings of urban cougars are steadily increasing.
After spending their days at rest in remote rural
areas, they descend the slopes toward the town.
Predators will always sniff out the areas with the
most prey, and urban areas are bursting with
coyotes, rodents and raccoons. Cougars prowl
through the night on the hunt, able to evade any
obstacle that gets between them and their prey.
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Big Cats
From day to night

Prowling into towns on the hunt for food, the
cougar will go to any lengths to survive
Up in the mountains
The secluded hillsides shelter the
mighty cougar from prying
eyes during daylight hours.
This is the cougars time
to rest and raise their
families. Though
usually solitary,
cougars pair up
to mate and
cubs stay with their mothers for two

years. Newborn kittens are sheltered in
a den, but as they grow they become
more and more independent. This idyllic
landscape is the ideal place to raise a
cougar family where the cubs are safe,
and as they live at altitudes of up to
5,800 metres (19,000 feet), there is little
danger from predators.
Agility
With the longest legs in proportion
to their body of any other cat,
cougars can jump more than 5m
(18ft) in the air from standing.
A horizontal jump can cover a
distance of up to 12m (40ft).
Camouflage
Terrain
Rest
NORTH AMERICAN
COUGAR
Puma concolor
Class Mammalia
Territory North and South

America
Diet Deer, raccoons, porcupines
Adult weight 60kg (130lb)
Conservation Status
LEAST CONCERN
102
Active at dawn and dusk, cougars

rest during for 30 to 55 per cent
of the day. For safety, lone adult
cougars choose to rest in trees or
hidden high in the hills where they
are unlikely to be disturbed.
The jagged peaks and extreme

conditions in the mountains act
as training grounds for growing
cats. Cougars sharpen their
endurance skills on a daily basis
and only the fittest cats survive.
These cats are almost

invisible against the
backdrop of mountain rocks
and tall grasses.
Kittens
Speckled cougar kittens blend into the
environment perfectly, but lose their
spots as they get older. Their mother
teaches them to hunt before they leave
her side to fend for themselves.
Cougar
Cat about town
When the sun sets cougars can
make their way toward human
settlements that are riddled
with prey. Nocturnal mammals
that feast on the remains left by
humans occupy a niche without
natural predators, and cougars
have started to take advantage
of that food source. Reports of
cougar sightings from homes are
increasing, and these once-elusive

cats are becoming regular visitors
to urban areas.
Equipped with the tools to
survive the wind-battered cliffs
and arid deserts, cougars are able
to take the streets in their stride
while the city slumbers. By dawn,
cougars are able to make their way
back to the wilderness.
Night vision
A cougars pupil can open three times
wider than a human pupil, letting in
three times the amount of light. This
helps a cougar keep its eyes on its prey
in low-light conditions.
In and out
Rather than spending the entire night
in an urban area, cougars make short
visits in and out of cities to stay safe
from humans.
Boys in the hood

Though usually solitary animals,
orphaned cougars that have
not been able to learn how to
hunt from their mother often
team up to hunt in urban areas.
Speed
Cougars are able to run in
bursts of speed up to 80km/h
(50mph), which helps these
cats catch nimble deer.
Hunting
Like many cats, cougars stalk their prey
before striking. A cougar can spend
over an hour following a single animal
to capture, before sinking its teeth into
the back of the preys neck.
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Big Cats
When young cats reach maturity
they must find territory of their
own. Its called dispersal, and its
often the reason why cats end up
in towns looking for food or shelter
104
Cougar
Why the cats in the city:

an expert opinion
Penny Maldonado is an ambassador for nature. Managing a fund led by a board
of directors that includes founder Thomas Mangelsen and Dr Jane Goodall, her
work focuses on cougar research and education to help conserve the big cats of
North America
Name: Penny Maldonado
Role: Managing director of the
Cougar Fund
Website: www.cougarfund.org
What would you say is the cougars role in
the ecosystem?
They are apex predators, which means
they are at the top of the food chain.
Other large carnivores like grizzly bears
are omnivorous, but cougars can only eat
meat. What they leave as carrion helps
support other species like rodents and
coyotes, which dine on whats left. Even
when carcasses rot there is improvement
in soil quality, so even the smallest
invertebrates benefit from cougars.
What would lead a cougar to enter a town
or urban area?
Its the drive to survive that leads them
to enter unfamiliar territory. When young
cats reach maturity they must find
territory of their own. Its called dispersal,
and its often the reason cats end up in
towns looking for food and shelter. It
tends to be more common with orphaned
kittens whose mothers have passed away.
They are driven to eat but they havent
had the time with the mother to learn how
to hunt wild deer effectively on their own.
Young cats will compete for prime
territory and the losers end up in
inappropriate places. Maybe the quiet
area away from the town has a big tomcat
living there, so the young male thats just
had to leave its mother has to choose

which habitat is the greatest danger. If it
chooses to challenge the tomcat, it may
be killed. Thats a real threat; inter-species
competition can lead to cougars fighting
to the death. The young male might take
his chances in the town.
What does an urban area offer to a
hungry cougar?
Animals such as raccoons, which have
become a fixture in urban areas, are a
huge attractant. Cougars are opportunistic
and if food like that is available, they will
keep coming; they arent really picky
about where their food comes from. They
are very efficient hunters, they ambush
prey and attack from behind. Cougars
are often more efficient killers than, say, a
pack of wolves.
Do cougars have the tendency to stay
hidden during the day but then enter
towns at night?
Thats exactly what they do; they pop into
town at night. Because they know they are
in an area that isnt really that hospitable
they tend not to take deer. Dragging a
deer away takes a lot of time, plus they
have to spend time hiding it from others.
So when they go into towns they just take
small animals like raccoons, so its almost
as if the cougars realise they cant hang
around to hunt the way they normally do.
It shows an adaptation on the cougars
part. Its routine, its their job to survive.
BELOW Cougars have

extraordinary leaping ability,
and are among the planets
most efficient hunters
105
Big Cats
EURASIAN LYNX
Lynx lynx
Class Mammalia
Territory Western Europe to

central Asia
Diet Deer, rabbits, birds
Adult weight 40kg (88.1lb)
Conservation status
LEAST CONCERN
106
Lynx
SUPER SENSES OF WILD CATS
LYNX
The Eurasian lynx is an incredibly capable carnivore. It
relies on its super senses to take down the wariest of
prey, stalking with ruthless efficiency
Cats are natural-born killers. Even the
humblest, most home-loving of domestic
moggies, like the one that may share your
sofa, will never lose the ability to fend for
itself, essentially becoming a feral force-ofnature if turned loose. Even when provided
with food by their owners, cats never
really quit their predatory ways. In fact,
around the turn of the 20th century, one
lighthouse keepers cat, named Tibbles,
literally became the first single being to
cause the extinction of another species
the Stephens Island Wren.
As medium and big cat species scale

up from our more familiar domestic
felines, so do their abilities. There is one
medium-sized cat, once native to Britain,
which punches above its weight quite
considerably and earned its position as a
historical apex predator.
The lynx is natures foremost-evolved
deer hunter. To effectively stalk and bring
down such easily spooked quarry requires
some extreme senses that are just as sharp
as their finely-honed claws and teeth,
which can deal some serious damage.
107
Big Cats
TOUCH
Touch is as good as sight

thanks to fantastic feelers
If the tufts on its ears arent its antennae, then the lynxs whiskers
surely qualify. These tough hairs aid in building a picture of the
animals surroundings
Lynxes have around 24 conspicuous
primary whiskers on each side of their nose,
properly known as mystacial (moustachelike) macrovibrissae. Additionally, there are
supraorbital (above the eyes), genal (cheeklocated) and mandibular (on the jaw) whiskers
located around the face. Lynxes, like most
cats, also have a carpal whisker on each leg,
emerging from just above the wrist joint.
The whiskers located on the lynxs face are
moveable and can communicate mood, but
their main function is tactile. When a lynx has
captured a small animal, such as a rodent or
SMELL
bird, it feels where to deliver the killing bite

with its whiskers, as the prey is now beneath
the cats head and out of view. Getting a
clean, quick kill is important, especially when
the prey has teeth of its own and could
potentially inflict damage to the sensitive nose
and eyes of the lynx during a desperate battle
to escape.
The whiskers also let a prey-focussed lynx
know when to blink while pursuing prey
through the dense undergrowth. This earlywarning system prevents branch or thornrelated injuries to the eyes.
Lynxes send and

receive messages
with their odours
Lynxes noses are outwardly small and their incredible
sense of smell drives every action
A male lynx will leave

special scent markers
throughout its
territory in the hope
of attracting a mate
108
Cats arent as famous for their ability to sniff things out as

their canine counterparts. However, they still rely on scent
to make essential decisions like avoiding conflicts and
predators, defending territories and finding mates. Lynxes
dont track prey by scent, per se, but they will often face
the breeze and perform a kind of sneer, drawing air into
their mouth and nose simultaneously.
This odd intake of breath is known as flehmen behaviour.
As well as drawing smells into the nostrils and the relatively
large olfactory bulb organ in the brain, it allows a special
apparatus known as the Jacobson, or vomonaseral organ,
located in the roof of the mouth, to come into play.
Scent molecules and pheromones from other animals
landing on this organ transmit a message directly to the
cats amygdala the section of the brain responsible for
unconscious actions such as digestion and instantly
trigger instinctive reactions. A male lynx will often leave
messages for others of its kind by scratching and urinating
or rubbing its special scent glands on objects in its
territory. Males may avoid one another, but females will be
able to follow these smelly signposts, using them to locate
the most appealing male in the area when they are ready
to breed.
Lynx
SIGHT
A lynx can spot a

mouse 250 feet in
the distance
A lynxs eyes are ideally arranged for judging
distances, dodging hazards and identifying prey
Across the Atlantic Ocean, Native
American folk tales tell of bobcats
(a related subspecies of the lynx)
that could see through darkness,
mist and even solid objects such
as trees. While the inevitable
exaggerations have obviously
happened over time, they may be
based on genuine observations.
Any healthy lynx, regardless of
subspecies, has forward-facing
eyes that enable it to judge
distances and attack at speeds in
almost the same way as birds of
prey. This fits well with their habit

of hanging out in the densest of
trees and literally slipping through
the branches onto an unsuspecting
deer, using gravity and timing to
take it down. Lynxes barely need
to blink and when honing in on
another animal, they fixate their
gaze into a very intense stare.
During dash-like pursuits through
the dense forests, they appear to
plot their path through trees well
ahead of time, perhaps fuelling the
ancient legends.
Clouded leopard cousins

Generally, wild cats that hunt during the
daylight hours have round pupils, whereas
smaller, more nocturnally active hunters,
such as the domestic cat, have elliptical,
slit pupils. One exception is the clouded
leopard, with pupils that are neither round
or slit, but falling somewhere in-between.
A combination of the familiar reflective cat
eye (tapetum lucidum), which reflects light
inside the eye, accompanied by a larger
percentage of rods to cones, giving this
low-light hunter a night-vision capability
that we can only imagine. It is thought that
clouded leopards need less than one-sixth
of the light we do to see perfectly.
Clouded leopards have

remarkable eyes and can see
in night vision
109
Big Cats
TASTE
Lynxes tend to hunt
at night and can spot
a mouse from 75m
(250) away
A lynxs sense of
taste drives it to
ignore sweet foods
A lynxs sense of taste is closely tied in with its sense
of smell. Like all cats, it has an interesting reason for
preferring meat
Cats cant perceive sweet tastes and lynxes are no
different. Cats lack a protein known as TAS1R2, which is
one half of a pair required to produce functioning sweet
taste buds. As a result of a deletion mutation (loss of
genetic material) in an early cat ancestor, cats still possess
the actual taste buds, but they simply dont function. It is
widely thought that this led cats of all shapes and sizes to
evolve into obligate carnivores animals only equipped to
eat meat.
However, cats can taste adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
the chemical that provides energy in every living cell.
ATP is found in the highest concentrations inside skeletal
muscles. With the aforementioned vomonaseral organ
further blurring the already muddled lines between taste
and smell, its possible that cats can taste the quality of
protein in a potential victim from the moment they get
close enough to attack.
So a lynxs sense of taste will ultimately drive it to ignore
sugar-rich plant-based foods, which may contain harmful
defensive toxins and even avoid carrion. Instead it hunts
living creatures, which by way of being healthy enough to
try, are a perfect, exploitable and safe source of food.
110
Lynx
Five felines with
super senses
HEARING
With incredibly powerful
hearing, the lynx can hear
animals underground
A lynxs picture of the world around it is partially formed by ears
that can revolve like radar-receptors
The characteristic tufts at the top of a lynxs ears
are thought to be super-sensitive to vibrations in the
air. While these tufts dont appear to be connected
to any specialised nerves, they really help to flag
just how mobile the lynxs ears are. These cats can
swivel their ears independently up to 180 degrees.
Interestingly, markings on the ears appear to mimic
eyes and, while they dont actually possess eyes in
the back of their head, their hearing is so acute that
combined with these swivelling sound catchers,
sneaking up on a lynx is practically impossible, no
matter what direction its looking in.
Comparable to domestic house cats, lynx hearing

is thought to extend from 45 to 64,000 hertz (Hz),
which is a seriously wide range when compared to
the 20 to 23,000Hz of the average human. Lynxes
are capable of picking up ultrasonic sounds that
we need special equipment to observe. When the
menu includes tiny rodents that communicate using
these frequencies, the lynx seems to locate their
burrows by listening from above, gathering plenty of
useful intelligence for preparing an ambush or direct
assault. Lynxes can often be observed with an ear to
the ground, listening out for animals scurrying below.
Leptailurus serval
The long ears of the African serval arent just
for show. These super-intelligent stalkers even
hunt with their eyes closed, relying entirely on
sound to make pinpointed pounces.
Acinonyx jubatus
The cheetah has tiny ears, creating less drag
during sprints, but they hear well. In fact,
theres evidence that cheetahs listen for rivals
at distance, to decide if a chase is worth it.
Leopardus wiedii
The margay is a small South American cat that
can hunt entirely in trees. This feline gymnast
has been observed mimicking baby piedtamarin monkey alarm calls to ambush them.
Felis bieti
The Chinese mountain cat is a rarely seen
nocturnal inhabitant of the Mongolian steppes.
Here it lives in burrows and mainly feeds on
mole rats and pikas.
Caracal caracal
The caracal looks like a lynx, but has more in
common with the serval. Theres no evidence
for those tus acting as antennae, but they
appear to aid an ability to hone in on sound.
111
Big Cats
Spotters guide
Iberian lynx
This cat is rare and exceptionally
camouflaged, but this guide can help you
find this elusive beauty
Spain might be more well known for its
nightlife than its wildlife, but thats a gross
injustice. Surrounded by sea and isolated
from the rest of Europe when the Pyrenees
rose, the Iberian Peninsula is host to lots of
unique fauna - most notably the Iberian lynx.
Once widespread over Spain, Portugal and
France, one of Europes only native carnivores
now resides only in the mountains of southwest Spain, limited to just two territories in
Andalusia and pockets of forest in Portugal.
Great efforts are being made to pull this cat
back from the brink, including trying to boost
local rabbit numbers (85 per cent of its diet).
There are also captive breeding programmes
and a raising of awareness of the cats on
roads that run through their territory.
Despite the fact that they are endangered,
Iberian lynxes are not impossible to spot if
you know what to look for. The best time of
year to spot them is either in mating season
between December and January, or between
March and May when females begin to raise
their cubs. Sightings are reported throughout
the year, but visitors making a special lynx
excursion should stick to spring.
There are two hotspots at either end of

the Sierra Morena mountain range Doana
National Park in the south-west and Sierra de
Andujar National Park in the centre of Spain.
Both parks have restricted areas to protect
the endangered lynx, but some of the park is
open to visitors and Doana even has
an Iberian lynx breeding centre. Lynxes tend
to live in scrubland and forests, so watching
an open patch of land from a high viewing
point is a good way to start. If you dont want
an official guide then feel free to ask the local
people who might know the best spots.
The very best way to get a sighting of a
lifetime is to get help from the experts. Many
different companies offer lynx-spotting tours
and have consistent sightings from year
to year. These guides know every inch of
the area and are your best hope to catch a
glimpse of a lynx. On a summer wildlife trip
wear cool, neutral clothing and supportive
footwear, but wrap up for winter trips.
Remember a lynx can spot a mouse from
75 metres (250 feet) away, so it will be able
to see you. Keep quiet and still, and if a lynx
appears make sure you enjoy the view.
Where you can see them

The Iberian lynx is one of the most endangered species of cat on the
planet, but there are still regular sightings across Spain and Portugal
IBERIAN LYNX
Lynx pardinus
Class Mammalia
Portugal
Spain
Territory Fragmented areas

across Spain and Portugal
Diet Rabbits, deer and ducks
Lifespan 13 years
Adult weight 11 kg/25 lbs
Conservation Status
ENDANGERED
112
Iberian lynx
Quick questions with
a lynx tour guide
Chris Townend has been lynx-spotting for years and
takes visitors on trips to spot this elusive feline
What are the chances of seeing a
up-to-date information and local
lynx in the wild?
knowledge, which in turn should
Patience and scanning lynx habitat
increase your chances of a sighting.
using binoculars or telescope is
the key to success. I recommend a
Can spotters expect a close
four-night stay and if you search the
encounter with a lynx?
right habitat you have an excellent
In my experience, Iberian lynxes
chance. To date, all of my visits
can sometimes be inquisitive about
between December and February
crowds of lynx watchers. There
have been successful; you just need
have also been occasions where
some good weather, local knowledge
animals have walked within just
and a little luck.
a few metres of me, completely
unperturbed by my presence. A
When would you say is the best time
normal encounter would be to see
of year to spot a lynx?
an animal in a telescope between a
Between December and January is
few hundred metres and a kilometre
the best time to try and see Iberian
away. Sightings from inside a
lynx. This is when males tend to
vehicle while driving slowly in known
be more visible as they patrol their
territories are also quite common
territories in the hope of nding a
and can oen be very close.
female to mate with. They tend to be
more vocal at this time of year, which
What should lynx spotters wear, and
can be very helpful when trying to
what equipment should they take?
locate an animal.
Wearing neutral-coloured clothing
and remaining very quiet and still
Can you go and find lynx on your
are the usual rules for all
own or should you try to seek help
wildlife watching. Despite being in
from a specialist?
Spain, weather can get very cold
Unescorted Iberian lynx sightings are
in winter, so wrap up warm for
possible if you are an experienced
December trips. A telescope and
wildlife watcher and have some
binoculars are essential as Iberian
local knowledge. I would say
lynxes can blend in with their
its worth using a guide to have
surroundings incredibly well.
Lynxes walked within metres of

me, completely unperturbed by
my presence
312
Track down the
Spanish lynx
ESTIMATED
IBERIAN LYNX
POPULATION
TODAY
Sightings are rare, but

magical experiences
for those lucky enough
NATURE TREK
WWW.NATURETREK.CO.UK
Corbis
995 (6 days, inc flights)

Visit two of the last Iberian lynx
strongholds the Coto Doana National
Park and the Sierra Morena to catch a
glimpse of this amazing feline in its natural
habitat. The super-rare cats share the
Mediterranean forest and open grasslands
with wolves, wild boar, otters, deer and
eagles. This means theres plenty of
other breathtaking wildlife to enjoy while
waiting for the elusive lynx to put in an
appearance, if youre lucky.
113
Big Cats
Bornean bay cat

The wild cat so rare that even footage of it is
a valuable commodity, the Bornean bay cat
might be one of natures biggest mysteries
The Bornean bay cat is one
of the worlds rarest felines
It is rather telling that when scientists at Imperial
College London captured footage of Borneos endemic
wild bay cat, in 2013 they made an incredibly huge fuss
of it. Rarely sighted and only photographed for the
first time in 1998, these creatures are among the rarest
of Earth. Only 12 specimens have ever been found and
there could well as few as 2,500 cats in existence.
Bornean bay cats are nocturnal creatures which
prefer to live in the perfect hiding place of the islands
dense, tropical forests. All of this means we know little
about them, except that they are the size of a domestic
cat, have long tails and are either chestnut red or grey
in colour, with both types having a white stripe. We
know nothing about their reproductive behaviour or
their feeding habits. But the 2013 sighting told us one
crucial fact: since the secretive feline was spotted in
heavily logged areas of Borneo rainforest, it suggested
that it can survive in areas of partial deforestation. That
has been cause for celebration for conservations, and
with the animals offered full protection, scientists hope
to learn more about these small cats in the future.
BORNEAN BAY CAT

Catopuma badia
Class Mammalia
Territory Borneo
Diet Unknown, carnivorous
Lifespan Unknown
Adult weight 4kg (9lb)
Conservation Status
ENDANGERED
114
Bornean bay cat
Australia
115
African
Wildlife
The African continent is home to some of the most
amazing and mystifying animals, from the rugged
rhino to the fabulous flamingo
African Wildlife
118 African Safari
The Big Five of Africa are the true icons of this beautiful continent - take a
tour of the land and its wildlife and see what it takes to travel to Kenya
126 All about African elephants

These gentle giants are more like us than youd expect, and exhibit
intricate social behaviours
138 Journey with giraffes

Discover how the long-necked inhabitants of the savannah live an
interesting life
148 Saving the iconic rhino

Tough as they may seem, the African rhinos are under threat, but all is
not lost
156 Zebras: Strength in numbers

These striped animals are amazingly adapted to the African wilderness
156 126
116
ThinkStock; Dreamstime
148
118
117
African Wildlife
Whether its witnessing the great Masai Mara migration,

taking a hot air balloon tour or coming face to face with
wildlife, Kenya offers an experience for every traveller
118
African safari
Travel expert
Jarrod Kyte from Steppes Travel gives his insight
as to why you should experience a trip to Kenya
Picture Africa in your minds eye and chances are you will
visualise the vast, acacia-dotted plains of the Masai Mara. It
is a land so quintessentially African that you have to remind
yourself it is real and not just a film set or an elaborate
computer-generated image. The worlds greatest natural
spectacle the wildebeest migration is Kenyas must-see attraction, but
it is no one trick pony. The majestic backdrop of Mount Kenya makes the
Laikipia plateau a spectacular place for a safari while Samburus dramatic
landscape, distinct wildlife and charismatic people are not to be missed. Top
all this off with a week on the coast and you have a winning holiday!
Best safari spots
National Parks key

1 Masai Mara National Reserve
2 Mount Kenya National Park
3 Lake Nakuru National Park
4 Tsavo National Park
Hippo
Although said to be
dangerous, hippos
are mostly aggressive
towards the end of the
dry season in October.
This is when males fight
over space as water
levels have decreased
in the absence of rain.
Chimpanzee
The only chimps in Kenya live

in a 250-acre rescue centre
at the Ol Pejeta Conservancy.
The sanctuary is open
between 10am and 4.30pm.
Rhino
Flamingo
Giraffe
Lion
These big cats
are most abundant in areas
full of prey species such as
zebras and gazelles. Remember
that lions spend most of their
time at rest rather than hunting.
Cheetah
Elephant
Colobus
monkey
Around 35,000 elephants live

in Kenya and over one third of
them can be found in Tsavo
National Park. Groups are seen
by watering holes, and tour
operators will know the best
areas to search.
Zebra
Leopard
What you need to know

When to go
The dry season is the ideal time to visit
Kenya, from June to September. These are
the peak months for wildlife sightings.
Though off the beaten track,

Samburu is the best place in Kenya
to see leopards. Sightings are never
guaranteed, but the bravest travellers
can camp out in big cat country to
improve their chances.
How to get there

Fly from a huge range of starting points
to Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in
Nairobi. Once there, you can hire a car or
arrange a transfer with your tour company.
Weather conditions
The maximum temperatures in the dry
season are up to 30 degrees Celsius (86
degrees Fahrenheit). Rain is still possible
in the dry season, but it peaks in April and
May.
What to take
Sun cream and insect repellents are a
must, along with light, neutral-coloured
clothes and layers for the cool mornings
and evenings. Dont forget your camera to
capture every moment.
What youll see

Wildlife is unpredictable, but safari
guides know what they are doing. Visit a
conservancy like Ol Pejeta to see animals
under protection of humans.
ABOVE An open vehicle tour is the

best way to spot wildlife on safari, but
you can also do self-drive tours
119
African Wildlife
Flamingos congregate
in thousands
Three quarters of the worlds lesser flamingos live and breed
in east Africa. They rely on tranquil lakes that are far enough
away from predators to keep their young safe. They are
nomadic birds that wander the alkaline soda lakes of Kenya and
Tanzania. Lesser flamingos breed in enormous numbers, but
their reproduction is heavily reliant on rainfall. Extreme high and
low water levels are often associated with predator attacks and
low availability of food. In these times flamingos breed in low
numbers, or not at all. Optimum levels leave salt islands exposed
ready for the birds to build their nests, but this could all change.
Plans to build industrial plants to extract soda ash from the
water could cause lesser flamingo numbers to plummet. Visitors
to Kenya help battle these types of development as they bring
in money during their stay.
120
African safari
Wildebeest fling
themselves into the river
In early summer wildebeest and zebras begin to approach the Mara river
in the hope of getting across safely. More than a million animals make
this journey through the crocodile-infested water, and most survive. The
dangers are many, however. Not only must the wildebeest evade the
snapping jaws of crocodiles, but big cats like lions are known to lie in wait
in vegetation to pounce on passing prey.
This is the ultimate Kenyan safari spectacle, though watching crossings
takes patience. Its a good idea to stake the Mara out for a decent length
of time. That way you have a better chance of seeing some action,
including a rare daytime big cat kill.
While pictures of the great migration are amazing, experts say that
the smell and sound of the event are the lasting memories. Those lucky
enough to witness a crossing wont forget it in a hurry.
More than wildlife
Diani Beach
Visit the tranquil, white sand beach
on the edge of the Indian Ocean.
Its rarely crowded, and makes
a fantastic change from the dry
savannah planes.
Village visits
Meet local people and learn about
their trades and traditions by taking a
trip to a Kenyan village. These visits
can usually be arranged by your
safari operator.
Scuba diving
Take to the sea to beat the African
heat, and experience what
underwater life is really like. Lucky
divers will see turtles, dolphins and
even humpback whales.
White water rafting

For adrenaline seekers, Kenya is a
great place to get involved with water
sports. Try white water raing along
the Ewaso Ngiro and Tana rivers,
where the scenery is fantastic.
Archeology and history

Fossils found in Kenya date back 100
million years, and the country is a hub
of human evolution research. Gedi
National Monument and Koobi Fora
are fascinating historical sites.
121
African Wildlife
Meet the Big Five

This term was originally used by hunters,
but now refers to the animals of Africa that
have to be seen to be believed
Go on rhino patrol
As endangered animals, rhinos are a mustsee for visitors to Kenya. Western black
rhinos are already extinct, and northern
white rhinos are heading towards dying
out. The rhinos youre likely to see in
Kenya are eastern black rhinos, whose
population shrunk by 98 per cent between
1960 and 1995.
Rhinos shouldnt be approached as
they are likely to perceive humans as a
threat and charge. Rhinos can reach
speeds of 50 kilometres (31 miles) per
hour, and their poor eyesight makes
it difficult for them to tell a harmless
observer from a dangerous predator.
If you take a foot safari watch out for
rhino dung. A single rhino can produce 23
kilograms (50 pounds) of dung in a single
day, and its often left in a communal pile.
These dung heaps are territory markers for
rhinos humans should stay away.
See lions in action

Typically, lions sleep up to 20 hours per day. They
are mostly active at night, with much of the exciting
action happening during darkness. To maximise your
chances of seeing lions do more than doze, its best to
go where the prey is. Masai Mara National Reserve is
a hotspot of lion activity as its full of prey species and
their young. Tell your tour guide what youre hoping to
see as they will know the animals and the area like the
back of their hand.
122
If you can, take a safari at dusk, with night vision

equipment to hand. Many reserves dont allow this,
but most private conservancies do. Use a torch to look
for the glint from a lions eye, then switch to infrared
and watch the action unfold. Lions give tell-tale clues
when they are about to attack. One lion will get to its
feet and nuzzle another. Soon, the entire pride will be
on its feet. Stay still and quiet and
enjoy the experience.
African safari
Watch buffalo wallow
...and the Little Five
Gathering in thousands in the rainy season, buffalo cant

resist a good wallow in mud. Females and young live in large
herds, and males under the age of seven form bachelor
groups. Older males prefer the solitary life, but seek out
females when its time to mate in the dry season.
Elephant shrew
These insect-eating mammals live in pairs, but only
keep in touch by leaving scent trails. They dont tolerate
others sneaking on to their patch, and scream at
intruders they spot.
Buffalo weaver
This bird follows bualo and picks out insects from
the soil disturbed by their hooves. They prefer to eat
caterpillars, butteries and beetles, but occasionally
eat seeds.
Leopard tortoise
Search for the elusive leopard

Youve got to be lucky to see a leopard.
They are nocturnal, and extremely well
camouflaged. Take a specific leopard
tour if youve got your heart set on
When its too hot, leopard tortoises perform summer

hibernation, a process known as aestivation. They eat
hyena faeces and chew on bones they nd as a source
of calcium.
seeing these spotted cats. They can be

seen resting in trees or visiting water
holes during daylight hours, so youve
got a chance.
Be amazed
by elephants
Theres nothing like watching wild elephants.
Their sheer size is incredible, but safari-takers
will be surprised at how gentle and graceful
they are. Groups are made up of females and
their babies, who stay by their side for life. Males
leave their natal group when they reach maturity
and leave in search of females to mate with.
For a truly stunning picture, look for elephants
in Mount Kenya National Park. The mountains are
an iconic backdrop for the planets biggest land
animals. They form enormous herds in this park,
and visiting elephant researchers even deliver talks
at local lodges from time to time.
Visiting a sanctuary like the David Sheldrick
Wildlife Trust guarantees elephant sightings and
even offers up-close encounters with elephants.
Private conservancies are also excellent for
elephant sightings.
Antlion
Named aer what they eat, these insects dig traps for
ants to fall into. The antlion waits in the bottom of the
pit, hidden by sediment. It makes the hole deeper until
the ant cannot escape, then eats it.
Rhinoceros beetle
A subfamily of scarab beetles, rhinoceros beetles can
li objects up to 850 times their own body weight.
Thats the equivalent of a human carrying nine fully
grown elephants.
123
African Wildlife
Spot zebras
This is one animal you will definitely
see whilst on safari. They can be found
in their thousands in the Masai Mara
National Reserve, as well as in Tsavo
National Park and Samburu National
Reserve. There are two species of
zebra in Kenya: Burchells zebras in
the western and southern parks and
Grevys zebras which are restricted
to northern Kenya. The endangered
Grevys zebra is the largest of the
equids, it has more stripes and a pure
white underbelly. They can generally
be found grazing by a water hole.
Get close to giraffes

A visit to kenya is the perfect opportunity to see the worlds
tallest mammal. Giraffes only spend between 10 minutes and
two hours a day sleeping and can generally be found standing
eating from acacia trees using their long tongues. There are
three species of giraffe in Kenya: the reticulated giraffe in the
north, the endangered Rothschilds giraffe in Lake Nakuru
National Park and the Masai giraffe in the Masai Mara.
124
African safari
Top wildlife
photo tips
Take multiple memory cards
Pack spare memory cards and batteries
for your camera in case you experience
technical difficulties. Back up your photos
at the end of each day to make sure your
files are safe.
Use a long lens

To minimise the risk of disturbing a wild
animal or putting yourself in danger, use
a lens with 300 magnification or more.
Pad it to prevent damage when shooting
on the move.
Create photo drama

Choose aperture priority mode and
select the highest f-stop setting. Pan
along with a running animal and take a
burst. The animal should be in focus but
the background will blur.
Alamy; FLPA; Getty; Thinkstock; freevectormaps.com
Go go gadget The essential kit to make the most of your trip
Try a GoPro
Keep on track
Know your birds
Stabilise your camera
Get close from afar
Record your entire safari

experience with the mini
camera that packs a punch
From 99
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Use a handheld GPS to

make sure you dont get
lost on foot
From 73.50
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Identify every feathered

friend you see with a Helm
Field Guide
26.99
www.bloomsbury.com
Take a light-weight
monopod to prevent your
photos from blurring
29.95
www.jessops.com
The Endeavor ED II 8320

model from Vanguard
works well in low light
399.99
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Who to travel with

Budget
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Family
Kuoni
Luxury
Steppes Travel
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Kenya Wildlife Adventure Holiday
Big Five Safari
Elephant Insight Safari
From 1,399 per person for 9 days,

excluding flights
From 2,139 per person for 7

days, including flights
From 5,495 per person for 11

days, including flights
125
African Wildlife
126
African elephant
All About
African elephants
The largest living land animal is a
gentle giant. With tight social bonds,
unbelievably these creatures even share
similar emotional attributes to humans
127
African Wildlife
Anatomy of an African elephant

As the largest living land animal, with a weight
rivalling that of a family car, the elephant relies
on several key adaptations to help it survive on
the African plains
AFRICAN BUSH
ELEPHANT
Loxodonta africana
Class Mammalia

Diet Herbivore
Lifespan 70 years
Adult weight 2,200-6,350kg /
4,850-14,000lbs
Conservation status
VULNERABLE
Skull
Elephants consume their entire
body weight every 20 days, so
their skulls are very large to cope
with the huge amount of chewing.
Heart
Trunk
Lungs
This has no bones and contains

upwards of 100,000 muscle
fascicles. Two projections enable
the animal to grasp objects.
The lungs of an elephant are

actually attached to the rib
cage and diaphragm by a
fibrous membrane.
Air holes
Weight-bearing
bones
Stomach
The limb bones have

no marrow cavity, so
instead are solid and
positioned almost
vertically beneath
the elephant,
providing maximum
load-bearing ability.
Small
intestine
Liver
Tooth
Tusk
Lamellae
The teeth are worn away
by constant chewing and
are replaced five times
during the elephants
lifetime. New sections of
tooth, known as lamellae,
push forwards from the
back of the jaw.
JUVENILE
INFANCY
Birth 0 months
At 120 kilograms (265
pounds), a newborn African
elephant already weighs
more than an adult man.
128
First steps 30 minutes

Aer 22 months curled up in the
womb, the calfs legs are oen
bent, but they quickly straighten
out to the right shape.
Suckling 0-3 years

Male calves suckle more oen
than females and the size
dierence becomes evident within
the rst couple of years.
Mastering the trunk

1-5 years
The trunk is a complex organ,
with thousands of muscles
and no bones.
MATURITY
Weaning 3-5 years
Calves continue to suckle until
a younger sibling is born. At
this point there may be some
sibling rivalry.
Sexual maturity 12-14 years

Male and female elephants reach
sexual maturity in their early
teens, but dont oen mate until
their twenties.
African elephant
Caecum
Kidney
The contents of the intestine

are fermented in a bacteria
breakdown of tough plant
matter, releasing waste
products for reabsorption.
Bladder
Thermal
exchange
Elephants do
not sweat, but
instead a fine
network of
capillaries in the
ear carries hot
blood close to
the surface of
the skin.
Structural
support
The spine of an
African elephant
curves like a
suspension bridge to
support the weight
of its internal organs.
The movement of
the vertebrae is
limited, favouring
greater strength over
increased flexibility.
Prehensile nose
The trunk is sensitive,
mobile and well adapted
to grasping, this extra
appendage enables
elephants to breathe, feed
and communicate.
Standing on tiptoe
The bones of the foot are
angled upwards and the
elephant walks on five toes.
Heel pad
Ankle
A small fatty
pad beneath
the heel
acts as both
a shockabsorber and a
light spring.
Intestines
The total length of an
elephants intestines, large
and small, can be up to
35 metres (115 feet). The
process of digestion takes
around 12 hours.
Leaving the herd 12-14 years

Male calves dont remain with their
families once they reach adulthood, so
instead leave the herd to live alone or in
bachelor groups.
Reproduction 20-50 years

A female elephant produces a
calf every ve or six years during
her adult life. The bull plays no
role in the upbringing.
Toenail
Closest family
Closely related to the African bush elephant are
Ageing 50 + years
Elephants can live for up to 70 years
in the wild, but females stop bearing
calves at around the age of 50, taking
on the role of grandmother.
Asian elephant
The Asian elephant
is smaller than its
African cousin and
generally weigh about
a ton less. Despite
their smaller size,
the tusks are still
highly sought aer,
resulting in illegal
poaching. This has
drastically reduced
their numbers.
Woolly mammoth
Just like the African
elephant, the woolly
mammoth was a
keystone species.
When they died out at
the end of the last ice
age, the grasslands
they inhabited were
quickly overrun by
vast birch forests,
leading to huge, lethal
forest res.
Hyrax
These small
mammals are some
of the closest living
relatives of the
elephant. Both are
descended from a
common ancestor
some of whom took
to the water, while
others stayed on
land, resulting in the
modern-day hyrax.
129
African Wildlife
Life in the herd

Elephants develop unbreakable bonds within
family groups, baby-sitting one anothers
young and passing down life-learned rituals
Solitary male
When male elephants mature, they leave their
family herd and travel between groups of
females in order to maximise their chances of
fathering a calf.
A leafy diet
Eating almost any vegetation in their path,
100 per cent of an elephants diet consists of
many plant species. An average male eats 150
kilograms (330 pounds) per day.
The matriarch
Elephant society revolves around a single dominant
female. As the eldest female in the group, the matriarch is
a skilled mother who can have over 50 years of experience
of the local environment. Her knowledge of water sources,
migration routes and feeding grounds is vital to the
survival of the herd, passed down through the generations.
Young calf
Calves remain close to their mothers for
protection. If the pair becomes separated from
the rest of the group, they remain in constant
contact using low-frequency rumbles.
130
African elephant
Lions look for calves
While the African elephant has
no natural predators, some
desperate big cats may try
their hand at taking a stray
elephant calf. Some lion prides
will prey on juveniles during
the drought months.
Shared responsibility
Aunts, sisters and grandmothers all care for
the calves. They often cluster around at the
birth of a newborn and work together to
shield their vulnerable young from threats.
Social bonds
Female elephants remain with their family for
life and develop strong bonds with their mother,
sisters, aunts and nieces. They gather around to
share important moments, such as the birth of a
calf, and remain in regular communication with
low-frequency sound. After even short periods
of separation, elephants greet one another
affectionately by touching trunks.
Living alongside others

The watering hole doesnt just attract the elephant
herd, as other animals take advantage of the site. They
do so with extra caution, as the area is a hot spot for
predators lying in wait.
The matriarch is a skilled mother

who can have over 50 years of
experience of the local environment
131
African Wildlife
Inside the minds of giants

The intricate social structure of an elephant herd is made up of
strong emotional attachments that continue even after death
BELOW Dust baths

help elephants to
keep their skin free
from parasites
African elephants are intelligent, social animals, living in

close family units of related females and their young.
Each herd is led by a matriarch the oldest and most
experienced member of the group. Female elephants
remain with their families for their entire lives and over
time the knowledge of the matriarch is passed to the
younger members of the group. This kind of cultural
learning has enabled migration routes to be remembered
for generations. Compacted tracks of one to two metres
(three to six feet) wide, and tens of kilometres long, scar
the African landscape.
Social bonding is extremely important within
herds of elephants and, even when separated,
families remain in constant contact with one
another using a series of low-frequency
rumbling sounds. Some are audible
to the human ear, but the farthestreaching are infrasonic and can travel
distances of up to five kilometres (3.1
miles). Elephants also have a keen
sense of smell, raising their trunks
to identify scents travelling on the
wind. When reunited after a period
of separation, elephants use their
trunks to gently touch and smell
one another.
African elephants arent territorial
and families travel great distances
to find food and water, with a home
range of between 15 and 1,500 square kilometres (six to

580 square miles). The ranges of different herds often
overlap and separate groups will form social attachments,
occasionally travelling together. These groups are even
able to recognise one another after long periods apart.
Occasionally very large herds of 500 to 1,000 individuals
come together, particularly during migration.
The top priority of an elephant herd is water an
elephant must drink 200 litres (44 gallons) of water every
day. They also have fantastic memories and in times of
drought the matriarch of the herd can lead her family to
remote watering holes that they havent visited in years.
Elephants are most active in the cooler hours around
dawn and dusk, spending most of their time eating.
Theyre also hugely destructive and a herd can rapidly
decimate vast areas of vegetation, making visible
alterations to the landscape; a 45-centimetre (18-inch)
tree trunk can be felled with just a gentle push.
During the hottest part of the day, African elephants
will often seek shade, standing motionless with their eyes
closed to prevent overheating. They also wallow in water,
dust and mud, using their trunks to spray their bodies
and allowing evaporation to cool their skin. The coating
of dried mud left behind provides some protection from
sunburn and can be used as an exfoliator to dislodge
parasites from the skin. They dont sleep until the early
hours of the morning and spend just four hours resting,
either standing, or lying on their sides. This is to avoid
crushing their lungs under their huge weight.
The matriarch can lead her

family to remote watering
holes that they havent
visited in years
132
African elephant
He who
wins, mates
How courtship rituals and a
group mentality ensure the
survival of this giant mammal
When male calves mature, at around the
age of 12, they leave the family group. Some
become solitary, while others join bachelor
males, banding together for security. Males
establish a hierarchy within these groups,
lightly sparring with their tusks and grunting

to display their dominance.
Once a year a male elephants testosterone
levels rise, making him excitable and
aggressive. Sparring may escalate to fighting
during this time and although serious fights
are uncommon, the sharp tusks can inflict
fatal damage.
Males mate more during this period, but
will search for females throughout the year,
moving through different family groups.
Female African elephants enter their fertile
period once every four months, but are
only receptive to mating for a few days, so
Anything (vegetation) goes

African elephants will eat almost any vegetation in their path
An average male African elephant
eats 150kg
/ 330lbs of
food per day
Thats a huge
its down to the male to be able to identify

the short window of fertility. Females use a
special call to alert nearby males, while the
bulls themselves respond to chemical signals.
Elephant calves can be conceived all year,
but the peak time is just after the rains.
Unlike many animals, female elephants dont
retreat to the safety of a nest to give birth.
Instead, the herd gathers around to protect
and assist, helping to free the calf and lift it
to its feet. This co-operation continues as the
calf grows up and if the infant is threatened,
the rest of the herd will step in, protecting it
with their legs, or lifting it to safety.
Mourning the dead

The reaction of elephants to the bones of their
own species is unique in the animal kingdom
We may think that burial rituals and rites
separate us humans from the rest of the
Animal Kingdom, but it seems elephants
also mourn their dead.
Not only do they pause to quietly
examine the bones of other elephants,
but when a family member dies,
elephants appear to be agitated and
often stand guard over the body. This can
sometimes go on for several days at a
time, suggesting a grieving period.
3% of its
body weight.
100% of their diet

consists of many species
of plant elephants are
not fussy.
133
African Wildlife
The first few weeks

on the plains
An elephant calfs initial tiny steps are
vital to its later development
Elephant herds are constantly on the move, trekking
back and forth between feeding grounds and water
sources. When a calf is born, its vital that its able to
keep up with the herd.
Elephant young spend nearly two years in the womb
and by the end of pregnancy theyre heavier than an
adult man. As a result, during the last few months
before birth, they have little room to stretch out and
are often born with bent legs.
With a little help from their mothers, aunts and older
siblings, calves are quickly able to find their feet and
most are up and walking within the first half an hour
following the birth.
134
African elephant
135
African Wildlife
Surviving the savannah

Elephants once roamed across the entire continent of Africa, but
the species is now restricted to around 35 states south of the
Sahara desert. As a species, theyre surprisingly adaptable and
can be found in a variety of habitats, from the rich grasslands of
the Okavango Delta, to the arid deserts of Namibia.
In the 1930s there were an estimated three million elephants in
Africa, but excessive hunting for tusks, meat and skins resulted
in a huge decline in numbers. By 1985, 1,000 tons of ivory were
being exported from Africa each year, so in an effort to preserve
the elephant the international ivory trade was banned in 1989.
In spite of this, illegal poaching still continues and an
estimated eight per cent of the elephant population is killed
every year. Most ivory is exported to Asia, ending up as
ornaments or jewellery sold to international tourists.
The conservation of the African elephant is of huge
importance to the biosphere, as its a keystone species, shaping
the environment and making changes vital to the survival of
other life in the area. During times of drought they use their
tusks to dig into the ground, exposing water hidden below the
surface. Their enormous appetites clear swathes of trees and
shrubs from the savannah, making space for grasses that feed
grazing animals such as gazelle. African elephants ingest huge
quantities of vegetation, eating seeds and travelling for several
kilometres before depositing them on the ground. 90 species of
tree in Africa are known to rely on elephants for propagation.
With the creatures bodies weighing more than a car, even
just walking across the ground has an affect on the ecosystem,
disturbing insects and providing an easy meal for waiting birds.
The African elephant is a vulnerable species
136
The ivory trade

There has been a global ban on
international ivory sales for decades,
but theres still a high demand for
elephant tusks. Illegal poaching is
still a huge threat to their survival.
Human conflict
Expansion of settlements across
Africa has brought elephants into
contact with humans. They can cause
damage to property and have been
known to kill or injure people.
Habitat loss
An estimated two thirds of African
elephants habitat disappeared
between 1979 and 2007, restricting
their range and exposing previously
protected areas to poachers.
Climate change
Africa is vulnerable to the effects
of climate change. The average
temperature has risen by almost a
degree over the last century and is
expected to rise even further.
Retracing footsteps
Elephants are known to revisit
the exact same places year on
year, cutting vast pathways
across the African plains.
African elephant
The African elephant and humans

The majority of African elephant habitats
are unprotected, so migration routes
have been fragmented by farmland and
infrastructure. Wild elephants living in
protected areas pose little threat, but when
these gentle giants come into contact
with human settlements they can cause
significant damage. Elephants can be
hugely destructive, uprooting trees and
trampling buildings.
The impact that this has on small
villages, particularly during periods of
famine or drought, can be significant, so
despite their status as a vulnerable species,

problem elephants are often shot and
killed. In Kenya alone, 50 to 120 elephants
are lost every year to human conflict.
Conservation measures are being
introduced in an effort to limit trouble
between humans and elephants. In some
countries farmers are encouraged to leave
safe wildlife corridors, allowing elephants
to travel without crossing onto humaninhabited land. In other places natural
elephant deterrents, such as chilli and
tobacco, keep the animals away.
Nearest
neighbours
The African elephant is one of the
big ve most challenging game,
prized by trophy-hunters
Black rhinoceros
Black rhinos are prized for their
horns, which are used in traditional
Chinese medicine and to make
handles for ceremonial daggers. The
species is Critically Endangered as a
result of widespread hunting.
Follow the lead

The herd are totally reliant
on the matriarch and will
follow her to nd water.
Cape buffalo
Weighing over 700 kilograms (1,500
pounds) and with huge curved
horns, this bualo is large and
unpredictable. Its arguably the most
dangerous of the big ve, thought to
kill around 200 people every year.
Elephants inspire some of our best-loved characters

Dumbo
In the 1941 Disney film of the same
name, Dumbo is an elephant calf who
is mocked by the rest of the circus
animals for his uncharacteristically
large ears.
Illegal poaching still continues

and an estimated eight per cent
of the elephant population is
killed every year
Horton
In Horton Hears a Who! by Dr. Seuss,
Horton the elephant discovers a
microscopic world on a single speck of
dust floating through the air. This turns
out to be Whoville.
Ganesha
Ganesha is a widely worshipped deity
across Jains, Buddhists, and beyond
India. As the god of beginnings, hes the
patron of arts and sciences as well as
the deva of intellect and wisdom.
African leopard
The smallest of the big cats is elusive
and highly adaptable. However,
a combination of habitat loss,
persecution by humans and trophyhunting is taking its toll on the
species and numbers are declining.
137
Alamy, Corbis, Thinkstock, Trarcaycy O, N A Nazeer,

Getty, Peter Scott/ The Art Agency
In our culture
African lion
The lion is the second-largest of the
big cats aer the tiger and is one of
Africas most powerful predators.
A team of lionesses can tackle prey
as large as an adult bualo, taking it
down with deadly eciency.
African Wildlife
JOURNEY
GIRAFFES
WITH
138
Giraffe
They may be the tallest mammals on Earth, but giraffes
lead relatively peaceful lives. Conservation expert Dr Julian
Fennessy tells us why they are so iconic
Butterfly is standing tall, shrubs rubbing against her
impressively large body as she searches for food among the
African woodlands. Her eyes the largest of all terrestrial
animals search the trees for the tastiest greenery, her
eyelashes helping to protect against the sharp thorns as they
rub against her face. The young giraffe follows the same
routine: an early-morning feed on the shrubs, grass, fruit and
twigs of trees, some time for ruminating and then a return
for food before the Sun goes down in the evening.
For Dr Julian Fennessy, executive director of the Giraffe
Conservation Foundation (GCF), such scenes are a joy to
watch. In some areas, giraffes have more than 100 different
types of plants that are part of their diet, he says. Theyre

a ruminant, just like a cow, and they have four stomachs, so
they sit there and chomp away all day, bring it up and chew
the cud.
Dr Fennessy is a conservation scientist and a founding
trustee of the GCF. With 15 years of experience in species
and habitat ecology, conservation and land-management,
he left his native Australia to live in Namibia more than a
decade ago. He studies the life of giraffes across Africa and
has become one of the worlds foremost experts in the field
of giraffe conservation. He gets to see these magnificent
creatures the tallest mammals on Earth each day.
139
African Wildlife
The giraffe is one of the most iconic animals in the
world, he says. Everybody loves the giraffe. Its a motto.
Its a logo. Its a symbol of everything from school and
childrens toys, all the way through to governments. In
Tanzania its their national symbol.
Food is important for giraffes. They browse trees,
extending their prehensile tongues deep into greenery
to find the tastiest plants, caring little if the sharp thorns
rub against their faces. The tough nature of their long,
dexterous tongue, lips and ridged palette enable them to
munch away without a second thought using their back
teeth they dont possess front teeth in their upper jaw
which boosts the number of leaves and buds available to
them in one mouthful.
At Butterflys feet is her calf, Angelo, now more than
12 months old. She is protective of him his vulnerability
in the first year of his life having put him at risk of
predators. However, Angelo is one of the lucky ones and
his protective mother, along with his instincts, have served
him well against lions, hyenas and leopards. He has already
learned to feed off his mothers milk, having been reliant
on it for between 9 and 12 months. Now he too has come
to enjoy the spoils of the grasslands, open woodlands and
savannahs of Africa.
As well as nourishment, Angelo is able to gain most of
his water from the plants he eats, drinking only once every
few days. He can absorb moisture from the condensation
on leaves at night and his long neck and legs, like those
of his mother and other giraffes, enable him to pick at
food thats out of reach of most other animals, ensuring a
plentiful supply of nutrients and calcium. In return, Angelo
will help to pollinate plants a giraffes appetite for acacia
seeds also boosts the potential for seed-germination in
unshaded habitats.
The males generally spend a large portion of their
day eating on average more than 50 per cent, says Dr
Fennessy. They also spend a lot of time being vigilant.
The threat of predators in particular the lion means
giraffes will spend the bulk of their days standing up,
ready to make a run for it at up to 56 kilometres (35
miles) per hour. Nights are usually spent lying down but
this makes them more prone to attack, as lions seek to
go for the nose or throat. Sleep patterns are restricted
to a few minutes at a time, with the neck curved around
so that they can rest their heads on their bottoms, still
able to keep a watch and defend themselves if needed.
Their colour vision, acute sense of smell and good hearing
enable them to be ever-alert and, at times of crisis, theyll
emit a sound rather like a cow or will grunt to warn
predators away. Otherwise theyre peaceful animals, prone
to violent outbursts from time to time, but they are mainly
calm and quiet.
As browsing herbivores, giraffes
reach up to the high treetops
Giraffes dont have front teeth in

their top jaw, so they can cram more
buds and leaves into every mouthful
Angelo is one of the lucky ones and his

protective mother, along with his instincts,
have served him well against lions
Africa suits Angelo and the rest of the giraffe
population. Giraffes roam across a wide range of
habitats, says Dr Fennessy. Books will say theyre limited
to the savannah environment, which is the typical eastAfrican acacia umbrella thorn, but they really occur all the
way into semi-arid and arid environments in the desert of
north-west Namibia. Here they walk across gravel plains
for 70 kilometres (43 miles) with not a tree in sight to the
next river area. Rivers are a loose term because theres no
water there that only comes a couple of days a year.
Giraffe Conservation
Foundation
Giraffes are more endangered than originally
thought, but a lot of conservation work is being
done do reverse this
The Giraffe Conservation Foundation is at
the forefront of efforts to maintain and boost
healthy population numbers of giraffes.
Executive director Dr Julian Fennessy
encourages people to assist through
donations, but just as importantly theres also
information about giraffes on the website
(www.giraffeconservation.org) and the
Foundation can provide posters, send packs
to schools and answer questions. People can
find out about giraffes, read about them and
the plight theyre in, says Dr Fennessy.
140
Giraffe
Meet the giraffes

of Namibia
The Giraffe Conservation Foundation aims to protect
and assess the giraffe populations of Namibia. While
establishing their exact numbers and distribution, the team
often follows the lives of individuals, from calves to elders
Angelo
Having grown to become a
dominating bull, Angelo left his
mother at 15 months to join a
bachelor herd, where he remained
for a few years before fighting it out
for a mate. As he moved into old
age, he became more solitary, as
male giraffes will tend to do.
Daisy
Ready to have her own calf at the
age of four, Daisy was the centre
of competing attention but spent
her formative years in a herd with
some younger males. Giraffes have
one calf at a time, although on rare
occasions twins will be born.
Tall Boy
In order to drink water,

GIRAFFE
Angelo must lower his
Giraffa camelopardalis
head, but his neck is too
Class Mammalia
short, so it doesnt reach
the ground. He has to kneel
or spread his front legs so
his body can get lower to
the ground. He can then
enjoy some refreshment,
Territory Africa
safe in the knowledge that
Diet Herbivore
Lifespan 25 years
the necks veins contain
Adult weight Up to 1,930kg /
valves to prevent a large
4,250lbs
rush of blood to the head
Conservation status
something that would
knock him unconscious.
LEAST CONCERN
Its one of the few
disadvantages the giraffes
long neck brings. The other
is the need for increased blood pressure, which is twice
that of other large mammals. Without this increased
blood pressure, gravity would prevent blood from
flowing up the giraffes neck to their brain.
As Angelo grows older, his sexual appetite emerges.
From a newborn calf weighing around 100 kilograms
(16 stone), he has now become a rather large animal,
having doubled in height over the first year. Continuing
to grow, he left his mother at 15 months and formed an
all-male group. Giraffes go in and out of family groups,
adds Dr Fennessy. We dont know what they are, but
we dont think they have very tight bonds, apart from
[between a] mother and calf. As they get a couple of
years older, they definitely have loose affiliations and
they go in and out in search of food, mostly. Females
Young Tall Boy found his feet within

an hour of being born and spent the
first 12 weeks reliant on his mothers
milk. He weighed in at a hefty 15
stone when he dropped five feet
to the ground, but growth spurts
doubled his height in a year.
Butterfly
Butterfly is the mother,
attentive and caring. For
more than a year after giving
birth, she nurtured Angelo,
helped him find his first steps,
taught him about the dangers
of predators and protected
him. She lashes out at anyone
attempting to harm her calf.
ABOVE Each giraffe at GCF is closely monitored by the dedicated team
BELOW Monitoring
giraffe numbers is an
important part
of protecting
the species
141
African Wildlife
Nine hidden species

Although they may look alike, there
are actually nine sub-species of giraffe
identified by their remarkable patches.
These enable the animals to release
heat and provide camouflage
Nubian giraffe
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$SGHNOH@2NTSG2TC@M
The patches are chestnut-brown in colour with
four sides on a background that appear to be owhite, giving them a distinctive coat. With very low
numbers in the wild, this variety is in danger.
Africa
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Although its identied by palebrown patches, the main feature
of Rothschilds is the presence of
ve horn-like protrusions on its
head, called ossicones.
IN T H E W
Thornicrofts giraffe
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As the dark, more-rounded patches of the light-tancoloured South African girae extend down the legs,
they get gradually smaller, but then run right down to
the hooves.
Mozambique
Masai giraffe
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Like the thornicro, this girae
also has large, dark-brown,
leaf-like blotches. Theyre the
most populous of all of the
giraes and are one of the most
popular tourist sights in Kenya
and Tanzania.
Angolan giraffe
South Africa
South African Giraffe
IN T H E W
LD
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Some studies suggest this species should
be merged with the Masai for taxonomy
purposes. This variety has large, dark
and ragged blotches that look like leaves
running down its legs.
00
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Dr Julian Fennessy says studies have

shown some girae subspecies, as
dened today, havent interbred for
more than a million years.
Weve got better tools to be able
to assess, including genetics and its
likely we may end up with a whole
host of species of girae out there, he
says. The coat patterns of dierent
subspecies of girae are very distinct
they look very dierent
Finding distinct species of girae
would help make a case for greater
care of the animals. To-date, the WestAfrican and Rothschilds subspecies
are listed as Endangered.
Defining species
T HE
0 IN
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This subspecies has small, irregular
and pale spots, with a covering on the
inner legs. They live in some of the
most war-torn countries in Africa.
IL D
Kordofan giraffe
IN T HE
00
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65
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The light spots of the west African
girae mark it out against other
subspecies. They split their time
between the lowlands of the Niger
River and drier, higher lands.
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$SGHNOH@*DMX@2NL@KH@
Common in zoos and with huge
patches that dominate its body,
the reticulated girae actually
appears to have a series of
lines running across it, but the
patches zzle out towards the
white legs.
West African giraffe
30
Reticulated giraffe
T HE W I
IN
L
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-@LHAH@9@LAH@!NSRV@M@
The Angolian girae is the subspecies
seen by Dr Fennessy on a daily basis.
It has large brown patches with
notched or angular edges that stop at
the upper part of the face.
Giraffe
ABOVE Fights between rival males are oen brief, but can be extremely vicious
and can end fatally, with the bulls using their long necks as whips
The giraffes go hip-tohip, ready for action, each

animal working out when
to strike. One will swing its
neck like an out-of-control
whip at the other
seem to behave differently to males. Not only are they
ready to breed rather early, from the age of four as
opposed to six for males, Butterfly will most likely have
formed close bonds with other female giraffes, with
research suggesting she may have even tried to avoid
those she didnt get on with Its up to the males to pick
the most-suitable female in order to breed.
Angelo is ready for a sexual encounter, but having
had a taste for natures finest growing food, he must
assess the suitability of a potential mate by tasting a
females urine. As terrible as this sounds for humans, for
giraffes its a way to detect oestrus the time when the
female is sexually receptive. The males traverse large
areas in search of females that might be receptive for
reproduction, says Dr Fennessy. It follows that they must
get it right.
The males compete with one another. Angelo stands
tall as a rival male tries to take the female he has
identified as a potential mate. He rubs his neck along the
other males body as a warning, pushing and shoving to
make his point known. The rival gets the message and
leaves the path clear, but it could so easily have become
nasty. Battle can rage, says Dr Fennessy. Giraffes may
not be the gentle giants we think they are and a number
of recordings from our studies across Africa show that
they can die during these fights. Its not normal. Usually
they sort their problems out and the pushing and shoving
is all part of the flexing of the muscles and figuring out
the hierarchy in the population
The giraffes go hip-to-hip, ready for action, each animal
working out when to strike. One will swing its neck like
an out-of-control whip at the other and try to knock it off
its feet. The crunching, cracking sound of each blow is
packed with power, with the head becoming a battering
ram against the soft underbelly of the rival. Injury can be
devastating for a giraffe, putting them at severe risk of a
predator, but it only takes one of a fighting pair to stop
before peace can break out once more.
They dont just fight one another, says Dr Fennessy.
They will kick in all directions at predators and there
have been stories of lions being killed by giraffe kicks.
Male giraffes take part

in necking, head-butting
one anothers necks, to
establish a hierarchy
Predators have to know what theyre doing because if they

get injured, basically theyre not going to survive.
Angelos new mate, Daisy, falls pregnant and her
underbelly grows larger by the week as the 15 months of
pregnancy roll by. By the time she is ready to give birth,
she looks anxious and her body sways from side-to-side.
She lifts each leg off the ground, almost following a set
pattern, keen to get the present ordeal over and done
with. The birth is proving to be a rather slow process and,
having returned to where she herself was born in readiness
for her new calf, she is pushing hard but her legs are tiring
and she wants to sit. Doing so would crush the newborn
so she does all she can to remain standing.
Then it happens. A final push and gravity pulls the
baby giraffe down. It falls some 1.5 metres (five feet) to
the ground and lands in a heap on the floor, giving it a
rather harsh introduction to the world. The calf lies still
his motionless body on the dry, dusty plain with the Sun
beating down upon him. Eventually he begins to stir, his
head lifts, his ears flap and he tries to stand as his mother
bends her two-metre (6.5-foot) neck down towards her
newborn to greet him. Within an hour he finds his feet,
manages to stand and learns to run. Tall Boy, the latest
giraffe to be born in Namibia, has arrived.
Giraffespotting
A new citizen science
website has been set up that
enables people to upload
photos of giraes they have
spotted in zoos and in the
wild across the world. Go
to www.giraffespotter.org
and help nd a true picture
of girae distribution.
143
African Wildlife
Like Butterfly with Angelo when he was young, Daisy
must protect Tall Boy through his first year, nurturing
him as he grows to reach a staggering six metres (20
feet), with legs that can be taller than a typical human. All
giraffes must look after themselves a ravenous predator
would be eager to chomp into on average 1,500 kilograms
(3,306 pounds) of giraffe flesh, but females tend to reach
a maximum of 1,180 kilograms (2,600 pounds). Giraffes
stand over their calves, using their legs as protection.
In some populations, more than 50 per cent of little
ones die in their first year as a result of predators, says
BELOW Free-roaming giraffes

disperse seeds across the landscape,
helping boost plant-growth
Dr Fennessy. The lion is their main predator. Giraffes

are a large food source, so if youre a lion in a big pride,
its worth a chance. A pride will go for large animals and
they can bring down a full-sized male but its a bit more
dangerous than going for a littler one, which is why calves
are so vulnerable.
For the moment, Angelo has become a father, but he
isnt around at the time of birth. His job is done, although
he will playfully interact with the young from time to time.
Hell go back to a life of eating, ruminating and mating,
promoting the growth of new forage at the same time. Dr
Biologically [the giraffe] is a habitat-changer in many

places. It opens up landscapes [] and can change
habitats significantly
What you didnt know about giraffes

Despite its
huge length, a
giraffe has the
same number
of vertebrae
in its neck as a
human just
seven bones.
144
They are one

of only a few
species to be
born with horns,
or ossicones,
formed of
cartilage and
covered in skin.
The males and

females eat
from different
parts of trees,
so they dont
compete for
food and cause
any squabbles.
The hair of a
giraffes tail
and mane is
on average
ten times as
thick as a
single strand of
human hair.
Giraffe
Fennessy points out that moderate browsing has been
shown to stimulate the production of shoots in certain
acacia species and the animals have a great impact on
their environment.
What is amazing is that the giraffe is something
so tall, it provides us with a good example of what
evolution can lead to in an animal, Fennesy
says. Biologically its a habitat-changer in many
places. It opens up landscapes, maybe not as
much as elephants or some cases rhinos, but
giraffes can change habitats significantly.
By opening up landscapes, giraffes enable
the growth of new forage for themselves and
other browsers. Theyre also able to disperse
seeds from one tree, process and then leave
them elsewhere in their droppings. By passing
through the giraffes digestive tract, according
to the GCF, the seeds potential to germinate is
enhanced. They are also kind to ticks. Although
their large eyelashes protect their eyes from
insects, ticks live on giraffes and are a good source
of food for oxpecker birds. The pair enjoy a symbiotic
relationship and without the giraffe, the oxpeckers
would be far hungrier creatures. The birds benefit the
giraffes too, since they act as a warning system easily
spotting enemies and alerting their host.
Yet, for all of the good they do for the environment in
Africa, the future of giraffes like Butterfly and Angelo is
far from certain. We like to term giraffes as the forgotten
megafauna, says Dr Fennessy. Essentially theres been
The heart is
around two
metres away
from its head
and can weigh
up to ten
kilograms (aka
22 pounds).
Okapi the longlost relative

This unlikely cousin has horse-like features as
well as an anatomy similar to a giraffes
If you took a giraffe and squashed it down,
you may not think the result would be an
okapi. The two animals are closely related,
but okapi have zebra-like stripes, which
help camouflage them in dense rainforests.
Though horse-like, they pull at trees and
leaves with their prehensile tongues, enjoy
a solitary life and crucially have long necks.
Though they baffled experts for years, theyre
a fascinating relation of the giraffe.
ABOVE
The GCF
monitors and
helps protect giraffes
across Africa
They got
their scientific
name, Giraffa
camelopardalis,
because they
were thought to
be part-camel,
part-leopard.
If you weighed
a giraffes neck,
it would be
around 272
kilograms (600
pounds) over
three averageweight men!
145
ABOVE Though some subspecies

of giraffe have healthy population
numbers, others do need constant
monitoring for preservation
so much attention on the elephants, the

lions and the pandas, that few notice
giraffes are suffering the same demise,
if not more, than many of these other
critters. He says giraffe numbers have
fallen over the past 15 years due to
habitat loss and fragmentation, as well as
illegal hunting. The Giraffe Conservation
Foundation is run by volunteers and its
aim is to raise awareness of the problem
that exists.
Poaching is a problem in many
countries, especially where theres civil
unrest, he says. If you think about northern
Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, Chad:
all these countries are fairly naughty with
regards to the political side. We term giraffe
poaching often as war fodder, because theyre big
animals, that arent very complicated to hunt and
you can get a lot of meat out of them, feeding a lot of
people, but in central Africa were down to fewer than
2,000 individuals.
Particular struggles exist in the Democratic Republic of
Congo where there is estimated to be less than 50 giraffes
remaining in the far north, in the Garumba National
Park. This is due to the Lords Resistance Army, which is
constantly causing problems for all animals. The Central
African Republic is also going through a civil unrest at
See more giraffes

and get involved
Crane your neck to see the giraffe stand tall
these are creatures to seriously look up to
You dont have to travel to Africa to see giraffes,
but if you want to view them in their natural
habitat its well worth taking a flight for. Chobe
National Park in Botswana, Etosha National
Park in Namibia and the Hwange National Park
in Zimbabwe are popular spots.
Chester Zoo (www.chesterzoo.org) has
Rothschilds giraffes, while London Zoo (www.
zsl.org) provides a great viewing platform
outside the giraffe enclosure. Marwell Zoological
Park (www.marwell.org.uk), Colchester Zoo
and Banham Zoo also have giraffe residents to
visit. Zoos have realised over the last decade
that theyre just not institutions that host
animals for pure education purpose, says Dr
Fennessy. Many of them are trying to become
more conservation-orientated.
146
the moment. Theres been ongoing poaching for years,

says Dr Fennessy. Its sad to note that over the years
giraffes have become extinct in seven countries in Africa.
Countries such as Angola and Mozambique have been
reintroducing them, he adds. In Botswana, we predict
theres been a loss of probably 60 per cent in the north
of the country over the last decade, based on aerial and
survey figures. You wouldnt have expected that in a
country like Botswana, where governance is very good,
but its most likely poaching has just gone unchecked.
There are some shining lights, though. Namibias
population is increasing and Nigers has increased from 50
two decades ago, to 350 today. Theres been efforts to
replant natural food sources such as acacia trees, he adds.
Theres also change in government policy so that there
are severe penalties for illegal hunters. Its all backed by
broader education and awareness, which is critical so that
people understand what the situation is.
For Butterfly, son Angelo and his own calf, Kaloo, life
continued prosperously. Angelo established his own
dominance, engaging in a few battles of his own, and
winning each one, giving him a good pick of the females
and priority over feeding areas. He found himself to be
rather effective at seeing off predators, too. Now, at the
grand age of 25, he has become an elder. He may be
more vulnerable than before, but Angelo has now reached
the pinnacle of his lifespan and can watch as the next
generation follows.
Giraffe
Rex Features, Getty, Thinkstock, Pozo Zapata, Gabby Schneider,

Lauren Vogues, Julain Fennesy, GCF, S&J Fennessy GCF, Daniel
Cornelis, Andy Hutching, Megan Strauss, Annie Symonds
Wars, environmental changes

and poaching are just some of the
challenges facing giraffe numbers
Angelo has now reached

the pinnacle of his lifespan
and can watch as the next
generation follows
147
African Wildlife
148
Rhino
SAVING THE ICONIC
RHINO
Discover the crucial action underway to rescue an animal
whose evolutionary journey began over 50 million years
before humans even walked the Earth
149
African Wildlife
Battling extinction
As poaching spirals out of control, conservation groups work tirelessly to

keep rhinos from creeping closer than ever to extinction
Of the 20 species of rhino that have ever existed,
only five now remain. These horned mammals
have been hunted throughout human history
and have become an icon of conservation. Early
humans butchered rhinos for their meat, and
contributed to the extinction of the woolly rhino
10,000 years ago. As slow-breeding herbivores,
rhinos have struggled to hang on to their position
in the earths ecosystem as the pressure from
humans has intensified. Not only have they been
slain for their meat, hides and horns, but their
habitat has been claimed for purposes such as
farming, logging and development of settlements.
Thankfully, the world is beginning to pay
attention to the rhinos plight and charities across
the globe continue working to prevent their

extinction, as has been the case for decades.
Members of private conservancies across
Africa risk their lives to protect their critically
endangered residents from illegal poaching. The
introduction of rhino conservation laws in Nepal
in 1957 has led to a population increase of 72
per cent in a single decade and the country has
celebrated several zero-poaching years. The next
steps include educating those involved in the
illegal wildlife trade and developing technology to
restrict their access to the animals. The future of
rhino conservation is a challenging prospect and
we can only hope the species will hold on long
enough for the positive effects to take hold.
Last male
standing
The two subspecies of
white rhino are at opposite
ends of the spectrum. While
there are over 20,000 southern
white rhinos alive today, as of 2014
there were only five northern white
rhinos left on Earth. Sudan is the
last remaining male. He is under
24-hour armed guard despite
already having had his
horn removed.
Black rhino
White rhino
Indian rhino
The pointed lips help black rhinos browse. This

involves shredding leaves from trees and bushes
rather than eating grass. Five of the eight
subspecies are now extinct.
The square bottom lip is characteristic of these

grazing rhinos. They are the largest rhino
species on the planet, with horns that grow up
to 150 centimetres (five feet).
Also known as the greater one-horned rhino,

these mammals are at home living near water.
Their folded skin looks like armoured plating,
which helps regulate the animals temperature.
150
Rhino
Predicting the
future of rhinos
Earths remaining species of rhino
are under threat of extinction by 2020.
Where will these subspecies be?
Indian rhino
3,333 left
Black rhino
5,055 left
20
BY 20
Sumatran rhino
Fewer than 100 left
Javan rhino
58 to 61 left
Black rhinos
If poaching continues at current record
rates, black rhinos will be extinct by 2020.
In 2014, 1,215 rhinos were poached in South
Africa alone and these crimes resulted in
only 386 arrests.
White rhino
20,410 left
White rhinos
The last ve northern white rhinos will
probably die out before 2020, and if
numbers of black rhinos dwindle, then
poachers could target southern white
rhinos to extinction.
20
BY 20
Indian rhinos
Roughly 70 per cent of the Indian rhino
population live in Kaziranga National Park
in India, and if this habitat is compromised,
the small, fragmented groups in Nepal may
not recover.
20
BY 20
Javan rhinos
With fewer than 100 animals le, the Javan
rhino is in serious danger of extinction and
could realistically disappear altogether by
the year 2020.
20
BY 20
Javan rhino
Sumatran rhino
Javan rhinos exist in a single population in western

Java, Indonesia. These rhinos have sharp lower
incisors which are perfect for fighting. Females and
even some males tend not to grow horns.
Both the smallest and hairiest rhino species, the

Sumatran rhino is the closest living relative to the
extinct woolly rhino. Their hair keeps mud caked to the
body to keep the animal cool and repel insects.
Sumatran rhinos
Sumatran rhinos are likely to be extinct
by 2020 because their habitat is being
destroyed at an alarming rate and they are
extremely dicult to breed in captivity.
151
African Wildlife
Why is the rhino a

species worth saving?
Its easy to overlook the impact a species has on its
environment until its gone. The extinction of the rhino
would have devastating effects on its habitat
LEFT
Brown-veined
white butterflies
feeding on dung
in a rhino latrine
Rhinos are known as an umbrella

species, meaning their presence affects
all the organisms around them. One
major impact they have is in providing
nutrition for neighbouring species. Birds,
insects and reptiles all flock to heaps of
rhino poo to feed, either on the matter
itself or the insects it attracts.
After a three-day journey through the

body, the seeds in rhino dung are likely
to be far away from where they were
eaten. This dispersal promotes diverse
vegetation growth, while the dung
itself provides an excellent ready-made
fertiliser. Removing rhinos from the
ecosystem would be catastrophic.
They open
doors for others
Rhino landmarks help other
species navigate the landscape
by being so big
As large, powerful animals, rhinos create
pathways for other animals when they move
around. By charging through thick vegetation
like a tank, a rhino opens up corridors for
smaller animals, providing them with new
areas in which to feed and rest. With skin 75
times thicker than human skin, rhinos can
trample through thick or thorny vegetation
without getting hurt. Whats more, rhinos
have been providing this service for 50 million
years. The extinct hornless rhino species
Paraceratherium stood at 5.5 metres (18
feet) tall and paved the way for elephants in
Africa. The benefits of this action to elephants
led them to out-compete Paraceratherium,
which became extinct 20 million years ago.
Rhinos keep the

landscape green
The more these giant herbivores eat, the
more they help the surrounding environment
Unlike species like goats that strip away
vegetation indiscriminately, rhinos feed
selectively. They choose certain vegetation
to eat to prevent dominant species from
getting out of control. Rhinos leave a
mosaic of different vegetation for other
152
species to eat and promote diversity.

Without this, fast-growing weeds could
take over the landscape and destroy the
plants other species rely on. Rhinos that
feed on trees keep the plants short so
smaller animals can reach them.
Rhino
Their
bodies
provide food
Weighing up to 2,300 kilograms
(5,000 pounds), a rhino carcass
provides food for scavenging
mammals. Hyenas, lions, wild dogs
and vultures are known to scavenge on
carcasses. Even when all the meat is
gone, the remaining parts of the body
feed insects and microbes. Over
time, the decomposing animal
fertilises the soil and
enriches the area.
Rhinos locate water

The long list of the rhinos contributions to the ecosystem include finding new sources of water
In times of drought rhinos can dig for water.
They can access groundwater by scraping
mounds of earth away with either their feet
or horns, choosing areas where water once
stood, like dry river beds or water holes.

Not only does this quench the thirst of the
savannahs inhabitants, it provides them with
protection from the sun. Many animals found
in tropical areas rely on mud-wallowing to

prevent sunburn. The water rhinos dig for
helps create cooling mud to prevent their skin
from getting damaged by UV rays.
Rhinos boost
the economy
Not only do they attract tourists
from across the globe, they also
provide jobs for local people
Tourists hoping to see rhinos inject
money into the local economy, making
many countries better off. National
parks and conservancies need staff to
patrol areas, guide tourists and care
for the animals. Many, like the Ol Pejeta
Conservancy, provide financial support for
local communities and contribute to the
education and health of people in nearby
towns. Rhino sighting companies operate
in many parts of Africa, benefitting local
communities. These facilities, which offer
jobs and financial support, help reduce the
risk of locals getting involved in poaching.
153
African Wildlife
Action in progress
Three leading rhino charities that work tirelessly
to keep rhinos safe from harm
Value of
rhino horn
per 28g
(1oz)
Ol Pejeta Conservancy
This is the largest black rhino sanctuary in east Africa and is
home to three of the remaining five northern white rhinos. The
conservancy employs over 150 rangers, 32 of which are armed
to deter poachers from attempting to access the animals.
7003566
RHINO HORN
770
GOLD
10
The World Wide Fund

for Nature
The WWF supports 12 African rhino conservation projects.

They are helping to create new protected areas and expand
those that already exist, as well as working with the Wildlife
Trade Monitoring Network to crack down on poaching.
SILVER
3078
HEROIN
8198
Save the Rhino

This organisation teams up with conservation projects across
Africa and Asia to prevent poaching, educate local people
about wildlife and reduce the demand for rhino horns. They
fund the Education for Nature Vietnam (ENV) organisation.
154
COCAINE
1977
2010
The rhino horn trade is

outlawed, meaning all
future horn deals are illegal.
The last Javan rhino in

Vietnam is found dead
with its horn removed.
1952
1992
Anti-poaching measures
are taken in Nepal to
conserve the Indian rhino.
Black rhino populations

sink to 2,300, a 90 per cent
decrease since 1970.
Rhino
Evading extinction
Many still hope for the future of the critically
endangered northern white rhino, and emerging
technology may be the answer
Rhinos have been driven to

near-extinction because their
horn is wrongly thought to have
medicinal properties
Keratin is the protein thats the key structural

component of hair, fingernails and skin. It is
found in the bodies of all mammals of the
world, including in a rhinos horn. A Chinese
medical book from 1597 named Pen Tsao
Kang Mu states that rhino horn can help
heal an enormous range of conditions, from
typhoid to poisoning. Rhino horn is no longer
approved for use in traditional Chinese
medicine, but there is still a demand for the
fabled miracle cure. Vietnam is now at the
centre of the illegal rhino horn trade after a
politician claimed rhino horn cured his cancer
in the mid-2000s. This demand for horns has
fuelled the poaching of thousands of rhinos
across Africa and Asia. Local people are
offered money to kill rhinos and hack off the
horns. This involves sneaking into protected
areas at night and often facing armed guards.
The horns are then collected and smuggled
onto planes headed for south-east Asia. On
arrival, they can be chopped into pieces and
sold on the black market.
Decline in rhino
numbers from
2009-2015.
122 333 448 668 1004 1215

2009 2010 2011
2012 2013
2014
Only one male northern white
rhino remains alive and black rhino
poaching figures break records
2011
The western black rhino is
declared extinct, but the southern
white rhino is recovering.
2015
Can the species still be saved?

One option is to use stored northern white rhino
semen, including semen from Sudan, to cross-breed
with younger reproductively healthy southern white
females. That would produce hybrids, which, if they
were viable from a reproductive perspective, could
be back-crossed with more northern white rhino
semen over time, thereby creating, through many
generations, almost pure northern white rhinos in the
future at some stage. Thats denitely an option that
wed explore.
Are there any other options?
The other option is to do what is essentially in vitro
fertilisation (IVF), which is exactly the same as what
happens in humans. In other words, you take an egg,
you fertilise it using semen from Sudan or stored
rhino semen, and you create an embryo which can
then be then implanted back into the womb. We
wouldnt implant it into the womb of the existing
northern whites because of the reproductive issues
that theyve got, so wed use surrogate southern
white rhino females to carry those embryos to
produce pure-bred northern white rhino calves.
How realistic is that?
The problem with all of this is that the technology to
do this has never been developed in rhinos, so while
its been developed in humans and cattle and horses
and various other species, its never been done in
rhinos. Weve got to develop the actual process for
doing that rst before we can do it here. Weve got
to hope we can do it in time so its ready before the
remaining two females, who are carrying all the
eggs, have died.
If the technology cant be perfected, what action can
be taken?
What could happen is well end up preserving DNA
from northern white rhinos. In other words, northern
white rhinos would cease to exist on the planet,
except in the form of their DNA. It will be preserved
in such a manner that allows it to be used through
new emerging technology to create northern white
rhino embryos at some stage in the future. Its called
de-extinction. There are quite a few groups trying to
do it now with various extinct species. The dierence
is theyre working with old DNA from museum
specimens. The advantage we have is we still have
some live animals, so we can consider de-extinction.
155
Alamy; Ardea; Dreamstime; FLPA; Thinkstock
All for a horn
Richard Vigne is the CEO of the Ol

Pejeta Conservancy. He spoke to
us about the future of the last few
northern white rhinos
Can the remaining northern white
rhinos breed without human
intervention?
Sudan is now 42 years old, which is a pretty ripe old
age. Hes on his last legs and wont live forever, and
hes probably now incapable of breeding. Were le
with one old male who cant mate and whose semen
is actually not particularly good quality. We still have
two females, both of whom have reproductive issues.
So natural mating in the remaining animals is not
really a possibility.
African Wildlife
156
Zebra
ZEBRAS
STRENGTH IN
NUMBERS
How the social structure of a tight-knit family wards off threats
Zebras are loyal and feisty and their social bonds help
them to survive against even the most challenging of
predators. To an outside observer, the creatures all look
quite similar, but there are actually three distinct species,
each with its own unique appearance, habitat and
lifestyle. The plains zebra dominates the African savannah,
amassing in herds thousands of animals strong during
the wet season. The larger Grevys zebra lives in the dry
and dusty semi-deserts of Kenya, where groups travel for
days on end in search of water. The portly little mountain
zebras teeter in small clusters on hillsides, climbing to
altitudes up to 1,000 metres (3,300 feet) above sea level.
Marwell Wildlife, in the United Kingdom, breeds all
three species and has been heavily involved in Grevys
zebra conservation for the last ten years. In collaboration
with University of Southampton, Marwell currently has
a permanent research team based at the Lewa Wildlife
Conservancy in Kenya.
We spoke with Katherine Edwards, one of Marwells

keepers, and University of Southampton student, Laura
Pratt, to learn more about the zebrassocial ties. The
plains and mountain zebra species form harems, Pratt
explains. In a harem, one male associates with a group of
females and is the only one who gets to mate with them.
Within these harem groups, hierarchies exist among the
females, but the stallion is usually the top animal.
Stallions without a harem collect in bachelor groups
and must work to earn females, either by challenging an
established male, or building up a family from scratch by
attracting foals. However, once a stallion has won his prize,
he becomes a dedicated leader and an attentive father.
The male will go to great lengths to protect his family,
slowing the pace of the group so young foals can keep up
and always being on the lookout for rivals.
Herds of zebra might appear chaotic and completely
disorganised to the casual observer, but in among the
157
African Wildlife
sea of stripes strict order is constantly being maintained.
Herds only come together briefly and if harems lose
track of one another, the consequences could be grave.
To avoid losing one another the females follow a strict
hierarchy and move together as a group. The lead mare
takes the front position, while the others in rank order
follow behind her. The stallion brings up the rear, keeping
a close eye on the whole herd.
This intricate hierarchy is based on the order in which
each zebra joined the group, with those higher in rank
getting access to the best grazing. They are also allowed
the first drink at the watering hole, with the lower-ranked
individuals following in respectfully.
At Marwell, there are four Hartmanns mountain zebras,
but even in such a small group the struggle for dominance
is very apparent. As a zookeeper, Edwards regularly spots
conflict. Our two youngest females dont get on and
most of the fighting happens because one of them wants
to move up in the hierarchy, she explains. It does switch
occasionally, if one of them isnt feeling great, or is having
a bad day, and then it will switch back again once theyve
had another altercation.
This kind of social pecking order might seem unfair on
the lowest-ranked individuals, but its an efficient survival
strategy. Zebras inhabit environments where food and
water are relatively close together, even during the dry
season. This means that females do not always need to
compete for resources and can band together under a
common cause; by living under the protection of a single
dominant male, groups of females maximize their chances
of raising their young to adulthood.
Unfortunately not all zebra species are lucky enough
to live in areas with such plentiful food and water. The
Life in the harem
Run by a single alpha male, the societal laws of zebra

communities makes for the strongest bonds on Earth
Stallion
A single male is in charge of the
harem and has exclusive mating
rights to all of the females.
Bachelor males
Male zebras without their own harems
gather together in large groups.
Male challenger
A male wishing to
establish his own
harem must steal
females from other
stallions. Some
choose to make a
direct challenge.
Senior mare
The dominant female leads the
group, and walks in front when the
family is on the move.
Female foal
When female foals mature,
they rarely stay with their
family unit and are seduced
away by young males.
Foals
Foals inherit the rank of their
mother, gaining the same priority
access to food and water.
Family unity
Family units gather to drink and graze, but
harems stick together. If a female goes
missing, the male will use his call to find her.
158
Male foal
When male foals reach maturity,
they leave the family group to
join a bachelor group, before
establishing their own harem.
Zebra
Grevys zebra is the largest of the three species, and lives
in an arid landscape where water sources can be days
apart. While working on the project, Pratt spent time
in Kenya observing the behaviour of these adaptable
animals. Grevy's zebra have a reasonably fluid social
structure, she explains. The groups are not fixed in size;
larger aggregations of individuals tend to happen at night,
and then they disperse more during the day.
Resources are far apart and although these large zebras
are able to go several days without water, they need to
keep moving if they want to find food. When a female
gives birth to a foal, however, its more difficult for her to
travel. Especially when they are newly born, foals cannot
walk too far and must remain within half a days distance
of water. This scenario would put a plains zebra stallion in
a difficult position he would be risking the survival of the
entire harem by stopping to allow the foal to drink but
Grevys males have a different strategy.
Instead of forming a permanent family, these stallions
secure a large territory close to a water source. The best
spots are defended vigorously, and as the females move
through in search of food or water for their young, the
male seizes the opportunity to mate. While in Kenya, Pratt
witnessed this behaviour: Territorial males will mate with
any female entering their territory and will chase off any
other males. I saw one individual chase a young juvenile
male out of a female group we were observing a rather
abrupt end to his childhood with mum!.
In captivity the laid-back social structure of the Grevys
is evident, but without the pressures of the harsh African
environment, the animals are able to enjoy one anothers
company long-term. Keeper Edwards says that the
animals are a bit of a handful at Marwell. The Grevys
Rival males will oen ght
during the mating season to
establish dominance
Stripes of
the savannah
How each individual zebras
unique pattern helps it blend
Optical illusion
Stripes in the herd blur the outline
of individuals making it more
difficult for predators to focus on
one animal and hunt it down.
Unique stripes
Even within the same
species, the actual
stripes vary greatly
between individuals,
and are as unique as a
human fingerprint.
Outline disruption
Distinctive patterning
The plains zebra, in particular, have very
wide and widely spaced stripes, and
often have shadow stripes in between.
The striped colouration

of the zebra might seem
conspicuous, but in the
shade the stripes mimic the
shadows cast by the Sun.
The Grevys zebra is the largest species

and lives in an arid landscape
zebras are actually remarkably calm all of the time, but
they are very naughty they always try to go where
theyre not allowed, she explains. When they go out, we
have to make sure that the gate to the waterbuck house is
shut first, because if its not, they will sneak in.
Zebras are tough, adaptable, sociable animals, and their
stripes are icons of the African savannah. Thanks to the
continued work of African wildlife conservation efforts,
steps taken to help protect the zebras and their precious
family bonds.
BELOW When grouped together, the

iconic stripes become doubly eective,
obscuring and distorting the herd
BELOW Because foals

initially run at a much
slower pace, adults will
oen slow down to
protect their young
159
tr Sp
ia ec
l o ia
ff l
er
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BOOK OF
BIG CATS
CLASSIC BIG CATS
MYSTERIOUS FELINES
Meet the charismatic animals such as the

African lion that have made big cats so iconic
Discover the rarest and most secretive of cats,

from the Iberian lynx to the Bornean bay cat
African Wildlife
African safari
Travel expert
Jarrod Kyte from Steppes Travel gives his insight
as to why you should experience a trip to Kenya
Picture Africa in your minds eye and chances are you will
visualise the vast, acacia-dotted plains of the Masai Mara. It
is a land so quintessentially African that you have to remind
yourself it is real and not just a film set or an elaborate
computer-generated image. The worlds greatest natural
spectacle the wildebeest migration is Kenyas must-see attraction, but
it is no one trick pony. The majestic backdrop of Mount Kenya makes the
Laikipia plateau a spectacular place for a safari while Samburus dramatic
landscape, distinct wildlife and charismatic people are not to be missed. Top
all this off with a week on the coast and you have a winning holiday!
Best safari spots
National Parks key

1 Masai Mara National Reserve
2 Mount Kenya National Park
3 Lake Nakuru National Park
4 Tsavo National Park
Hippo
Although said to be
dangerous, hippos
are mostly aggressive
towards the end of the
dry season in October.
This is when males fight
over space as water
levels have decreased
in the absence of rain.
Lion
Chimpanzee
The only chimps in Kenya live
in a 250-acre rescue centre
at the Ol Pejeta Conservancy.
The sanctuary is open
between 10am and 4.30pm.
Elephant
These big cats
are most abundant in areas
full of prey species such as
zebras and gazelles. Remember
that lions spend most of their
time at rest rather than hunting.
Around 35,000 elephants live

in Kenya and over one third of
them can be found in Tsavo
National Park. Groups are seen
by watering holes, and tour
operators will know the best
areas to search.
Leopard
What you need to know

When to go
The dry season is the ideal time to visit
Kenya, from June to September. These are
the peak months for wildlife sightings.
Though off the beaten track,

Samburu is the best place in Kenya
to see leopards. Sightings are never
guaranteed, but the bravest travellers
can camp out in big cat country to
improve their chances.
How to get there

Fly from a huge range of starting points
to Jomo Kenyatta International Airport in
Nairobi. Once there, you can hire a car or
arrange a transfer with your tour company.
Weather conditions
The maximum temperatures in the dry
season are up to 30 degrees Celsius (86
degrees Fahrenheit). Rain is still possible
in the dry season, but it peaks in April and
May.
What to take
Whether its witnessing the great Masai Mara migration,

taking a hot air balloon tour or coming face to face with
wildlife, Kenya offers an experience for every traveller
Sun cream and insect repellents are a

must, along with light, neutral-coloured
clothes and layers for the cool mornings
and evenings. Dont forget your camera to
capture every moment.
What youll see

Wildlife is unpredictable, but safari
guides know what they are doing. Visit a
conservancy like Ol Pejeta to see animals
under protection of humans.
118
119
THE BIG FIVE
INFINITE PLAINS
Get closer to the iconic mammals that have

turned Africa into a legendary continent
Join us in a safari across

Africas savannahs

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What are some of the iconic wildlife mentioned in the document?

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NEW

20 All about African lions

32 Endangered Asiatic lion

40 Tigers vs. lions

90 All about cheetahs

100 Double life of the cougar

106 Senses of the Eurasian lynx

112 Spotters guide to the Iberian lynx

114 Bornean bay cat

The ultimate showdown with the two most famous felines

42 Endangered Siberian tiger

44 Tigers and man

50 All about leopards

60 Secrets of the snow leopard

66 Amur leopard: Back from the brink

72 Sunda clouded leopard

74 All about jaguars

84 Mysteries of the panther

126 All about African elephants

138 Journey with giraffes

148 Saving the iconic rhino

156 Zebras: Strength in numbers

20 All about African lions

32 Endangered Asiatic lion

40 Tigers vs. lions

42 Endangered Siberian tiger

44 Tigers and man

50 All about leopards

60 Secrets of the snow leopard

66 Back from the brink: Amur leopard

72 Sunda clouded leopard

74 All about jaguars

84 Mysteries of the panther

90 All about cheetahs

100 Double life of the cougar

106 Senses of the Eurasian lynx

112 Spotters guide to the Iberian lynx

114 Bornean bay cat

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Despite their differences in size and

The big cat all-stars

Check out the fastest, strongest and most

Found across Africas plains and

All the members of the family felidae, from the

Often to be found high up in the

The cat with the largest ears

Territory Sub-Saharan Africa

The slightly gangly-looking serval is one of the

Wild cats of the world

The cat thats both spotted and striped

Ranging from southern Texas to the northern reaches

Territory Central and South

Ocelots have superb

The cat that looks the most familiar

You would be forgiven for thinking