1 Introduction

Gone are the days of the eighties when the controversy concerning postmodernism was most heated
in America among critics, philosophers, historians, and sociologists with special emphasis laid on its
periodization, recognition, and definition
1
. The debate has been transferred to Europe and new
members of critics, Lyotard, Habermas, Baudrillard, to name but a few, have continually participated in
it, but many claim that we are entering a new postmodern epoch, a new era of postmodernity,
fundamentally different from the modern era in culture, society, politics, economics, technology,
media
2
. The term,postmodern, has become synonymous with contemporary, which echoes
moderndesignating the present time, or contemporary
3
. S. Allan, a series editor, argues that
Indeed, itspostmodernismappearance in mass media discussions concerning topics as diverse as
architecture, drama, fashion, literature, music or film has become almost a daily occurrence
4
. Two
4520083
493
Evolution of A m erican P ostm odernism through I. H assan
O rpheus, P rom etheus, O edipus *
K eiji O K A ZA K I
199 28 191211
Vanishing Orpheus leaves behind a lyre without strings; the
moderns inherit it. Their song of silence responds to an ancient
sentence with intimations of transcendence, upward or
downward.The Dismemberment of Orpheus, 6
Prometheus, gnostic, dreamer, prophet, Titan transgressor and
trickster, giver of fire, maker of culture - Prometheus is our
performer. He performs Space and Time; he performs Desire.
He suffers.The Right Promethean Fire, 207
The term postmodernism is not only awkward; it is also
Oedipal, and like a rebellious but impotent adolescent, it cannot
separate itself completely from its parent. From
Postmodernism to Postmodernity: The local/global context, 8
K ey W ordsIhab Hassan, postmodernism, indetermanence, autobiography, Prometheus
Keiji OKAZAKI
decades, therefore, are long enough to generalize and summarize the opinions given on postmodernism
under a broader perspective than in the eighties.
This essay is to chart the development of Hassans meditations on postmodernism for thirty years,
tracing his efforts to define, diffuse, and practice it. I. Hassan1925~, one of the Americas most
influential contemporary literary and cultural critics, iswidely recognized as a leading theorist of
postmodernism
5
.
The argumentation surrounding postmodernism is particularly American in character
6
, because
America was the first to enjoy the unprecedentedly affluent and mass-produced society after the Second
World War, affecting substantially her life, culture, and idea, which stimulated critics to ponder on the
reasons, effects, expansion, and future of the new trend. Another reason why in America began the
discussion among intellectuals earlier than in any other country is that a new and innovative literary
theory was expected after theNew Criticismhad lost its effect in the sixties, a theory by which the
new form of literature avant-garde could be elucidated
7
. In a theoretical vacuum, I. Hassan
appeared as a literary critic and theorist, connecting the study of literature with that of new trend of
culture, postmodernism.
After graduating from the University of Cairo, Hassan was sent to America by the Egyptian
government to study engineering at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. When he took a masters
degree in engineering, he changed his course into literature. Thus he turned from a scientist into a
humanist, starting his scholastic career as an analyst and critic on the contemporary American literature.
His first book, entitled Radical Innocence1961, discusses the contemporary American novelists, S.
Bellow, J. Salinger, and the following book, The Literature of Silence1967deals with H. Miller and
S. Beckett. It was not until 1971 when he published The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a
Postmodern Literature that he launched into the study of culture at large, postmodernism. In this way,
Hassan relates literature with culture.
His contributions to the study of postmodernism are threefold: defining, diffusing, and practicing.
Though he didnt coin the term, postmodernism, Hassan was counted among the first to promulgate it.
He has traced its history, and given a minute and inclusive definition of it by creating the world-famous
and oft-quoted parallel columns of modernism and postmodernism. The twin terms used in them,
immanence and indeterminacy, or their compound, indetermanence, have become the gauge by which
the two isms can be distinguished. The debate on postmodernism has been accentuated since the meeting
at the University of Wisconsin in 1976 where Hassan played a leading role and read a keynote address
entitled,Prometheus as Performer: Toward a Posthumanist Culture?
8
. The French sociologist, J-F
Lyotard, was invited to the meeting and read a paper in the conference at which Hassan presided. His
book, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, presaged the heated debate on
Postmodernism in Europe. Hassan proclaimed thatthe postmodern debate drifted from America to
Europe
9
. Thus Hassan is regarded as a transmitter of postmodernism from America to Europe,
494
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
connecting postmodernism with poststructuralism. Hassan, moreover, is a practitioner of
postmodernism in that his activity as a scholar and critic covers the whole field of humanities, blurring
the boundary of genres. His writings, furthermore, are tinged with postmodern traits: fragmentary,
eclectic, allusive, being a collage of quotations, essays, travelogues, and autobiography.
He is a prolific scholar, author of a dozen books and nearly two hundred articles, many of which are
directly or indirectly, explicitly or implicitly, related with postmodernism, so that it will not be an easy
task to trace the trajectory of his ideas on postmodernism completely
10
. We, therefore, confine the focus
of analysis to his four books and some articles most directly connected with postmodernism, referring to
other related materials, if necessary, to make the point of argument clearer. The following books will be
dealt with in a chronological order: The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature,
Paracriticisms: Seven Speculations of the Times, The Right Promethean Fire: Imagination, Science, and
Cultural Change, The Postmodern Turn: Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture.
2 O rpheus, or the D efinition of the Term .
To probe into the origin of the termpostmodernismseems to be as difficult as to define it.
Hassan is probably among the first to tackle the problem. Though he insists that its origin remains
uncertain
11
, he gives us a brief history of the term. Hassan indicates that in 1934,Federico de Ons
uses the word postmodernismo to suggest a reaction against the difficulty and experimentalism of
modernist poetry. Hassan explicates thatin 1939, Arnold Toynbee takes up the term in a very
different sense, proclaiming the end of themodernWestern bourgeois order dating back to the
seventeenth century. Then, in 1945, says Hassan,Bernard Smith employs the word to suggest a
movement in painting, beyond abstraction, which we call Socialist Realism. In the fifties in America,
Charles Olson, in conjunction with poets and artists at Black Mountain College, speaks of a
postmodernism... By the end of that decade... Irving Howe and Harry Levin, respectively, argue that
postmodernism intimates a decline in high modernist culture
12
.
Hassan insists thatonly in the late sixties and early seventies, in various essays by Leslie Fiedler
and myself, among others, does postmodernism begin to signify a distinct, sometimes positive,
development in American culture, a critical modification, if not actual end, of modernism. It is in this
latter sense, I believe, changing masks and changing faces, that postmodern theory persists today
13
.
Tracing the genealogy of the term elucidates the shift of the connoted meanings ranging from the
usage attached to the artistic movement in South America, to the contemporary sense via historians
periodization. Ons, who was a close friend of the Spanish philosophers, Ortega and Unamuno, coined
the term to indicate a conservative and reversal trend of artistic expression.
Hassans study also makes it clear that the termpostmodernismwas mainly employed in the
artistic sphere and only in America in the sixties did it begin to be used in a broader context, that is, in
signifying a certain trend of culture and particular mode of thought: apathy, anarchy, avant-garde. The
495
Keiji OKAZAKI
496
decade witnessed a complete change or division from the former days
14
. The United States rushed into a
consumer society and experienced astonishing succession of liberation and counter-cultural movements.
The forms of thought and art shifted from static to performative, from the hypotactical to paratactical...
Not Heidegger but Derrida; not Matisse but Duchamp; not Schnberg but Cage; not Hemingway but
Barthelme
15
.
After tracing the transition of the meanings of the term, Hassan grappled with the difficult task of
defining it. He started his academic career as a critic on avant-garde literature and extended the work
into the sphere of contemporary American culture. His first1961and second1967books discuss
the latest American and avant-garde literature respectively, and the following one, The Dismemberment
of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature1971, is a kind of literary history not of modernism,
but of postmodernism, where he analyzes the works of Sade, Hemingway, Kafka, Genet, and Beckett, in
terms ofsilence, a key term of Hassans literary criticism. The writers share, Hassan opines, a
propensity for liberating from the history, extinguishing the form, and blurring the genre: theytend
toward vanishing forms
16
. In short, the new writers showed the common inclination towards silence,
one of the most notorious features of contemporary literature. Hassan succeeded in explicating the new
trend of the literature after the Second World War, literature of postmodernism. Hassan refers to the title
of his book saying thatanabstract reading of theOrphicmyth may insist on the conflict
between Apollo and Dionysos, art and nature, form and energy
17
.The dismemberment of Orpheus,
the scholar suggests, is a metaphor for the contemporary crisis in art, especially literature.Metaphors
spread a net to capture unseen life; their contours ripple with each haul. Because silence is more
metaphor than concept, it must need drift a little with the currents of our thought
18
. In this way, Hassan
extends his study from literature to art, from culture to consciousness, and concludes thatsilence
implies alienation from reason, society, and history, a reduction of all engagements in the created world
of men, perhaps an abrogation of any communal existence. Its radical empiricism resists and even
disrupts human systems, and elicits the babble in everyday words
19
.
In a similar vein, Hassan attempted to interpret the new trend of culture in general in his essay,
POSTmodernISM: A Paracritical Bibliography1971, which is later included in his anthology of
criticism, Paracriticisms: Seven Speculations of the Times1975. He mapped up the fundamental shift
of culture, enumerating various features peculiar to modernism and postmodernism. The minute and
detailed list is taken as a helpful guide for having a birds eye view of the distinction between
modernism and postmodernism. In the rubric of Modernism, he indicates seven features: urbanism
Baudelaire, Proust, Joyce, Eliot. technologismCubism, Futurism, Dadaism, dehumanization
elitism, primitivism, eroticismSado-masochism, solipsism, nihilism, antinomianism
discontinuity, iconoclasm, and experimentalisminnovation, dissociation
20
. In each counter column
are given the specific features of postmodernism: global village, spaceship earth, science fiction, anarchy
and fragmentation, entropy of meaning, the new sexuality, counter, occult, discontinuity, antiformalism,
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
497
indeterminancy, minimalism, and intermedia. The list of binary oppositions serves to formulate the
criterion of postmodernism, and, at the same time, illustrates his propensity for parallel columns
21
.
Hassan has continued to revise the checklist since then.
At first sight, the frames of reference are broad enough, consisting of various ideas and concepts of
thinkers, critics, philosophers, and, therefore, defy explanation. But his basic assumptions of dichotomy
between modernism and postmodernism may be summarized as follows; shifting from elitism to
antielitism and participation, the closeness of the modern city paralleling an anarchic and fragmented
postmodern city, transition from the wholeness of technology to the computer-aided technology and
media. Hassans concept of postmodernism appears to have derived from that of avant-garde literature
whose specific traits are silence and deformation. Following this concept, he takes up these artistic
movements as signifiers of postmodernism: radical play, comedy of the absurd, black humor, camp,
conceptual art, beat and hip, rock culture. As the literature of silence arrives at the discontinuity, art and
culture of postmodernism, Hassan argues, come to the apogee withentropy of meaning. Everything is
open, playful, rebellious, and discontinuous. In this way, Hassan gives us a device, a touching stone,
through which are gauged various contemporary phenomena.Hassans construction of the
postmodern, pioneering...Hewas the first to stretch it across the arts...
22
.
A decade later, Hassan revised his catalogues of modernism and postmodernism, enumerating ten
conceptual problems in its definition
23
.
Modernism Postmodernism
Romanticism/Symbolism Pataphysics/Dadaism
Formconjunctive, closed Antiformdisjunctive, open
Purpose Play
Design Chance
Hierarchy Anarchy
Mastery/Logos Exhaustion/Silence
Art Object/Finished Work Process/Performance/Happening
Distance Participation
Creation/Totalization Decreation/Deconstruction
Synthesis Antithesis
Presence Absence
Centering Dispersal
Genre/Boundary Text/Intertext
Semantics Rhetoric
Paradigm Syntagm
Hypotaxis Parataxis
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Metaphor Metonymy
Selection Combination
Root/Depth Rhizome/Surface
Interpretation/Reading Against Interpretation/Misreading
Signified Signifier
LisibleReaderly ScriptibleWriterly
Narrative/Grande Histoire Anti-narrative/Petite Histoire
Master Code Idiolect
Symptom Desire
Type Mutant
Genital/Phallic Polymorphous/Androgynous
Paranoia Schizophrenia
Origin/Cause Difference-Differance/Trace
God the Father The Holy Ghost
Metaphysics Irony
Determinacy Indeterminacy
Transcendence Immanence
The preceding table,Hassan admits,draws on ideas in many fields rhetoric, linguistics,
literary theory, philosophy, anthropology, psychoanalysis, political science, even theology and draws
on many authors European and American aligned with diverse movements, groups, and views. Yet
the dichotomies this table represents remain insecure, equivocal
24
.
Though provisional, as Hassan acknowledges, this binary scheme manifests the qualities intrinsic to
modernism and postmodernism and demonstrates the distinction lying between them, seen in every field
of literature, culture, and philosophy. Hassans contrastive table, consequently, has become an oft-
quoted barometer of the cultural change.
The rubric is too comprehensive, and, therefore, invites various forms of criticism. For instance,
Dadaism should be regarded as Modernism, but is placed in the column of postmodernism: Participation
contradicts anarchy, but both of them are put in the same columnpostmodernism: Classifying
semantics and metaphor into modernism, and rhetoric and metonymy into postmodernism is
oversimplified. Hassan made the same mistake as Lyotard did, of indicating the loss of thegreat story
in the postmodern era we have still various great stories
25
.
Hassan explicates the difficulty of definition of postmodernism, referring to ten conceptual
problems inherent to the concept itself
26
. To resolve the bottleneck, he proposes the distinction of three
modes of artistic changes in the last hundred years: avant-garde, modern, and postmodern.Avant-
gardeassaulted the bourgeoisie with their art...But their activism could turn inward, becoming
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
499
suicidal....Modernism, however, proved more stable, aloof, hieratic....Postmodernism strikes us by
contrast as playful, paratactical and deconstructionist...Yet postmodernism remainscooler... cooler,
less cliquish, and far less aversive to the pop, electronic society of which it is a part, and so hospitable to
kitch
27
. From the rough sketch of the cultural history, he deduced the twin features of postmodernism:
immanence and indeterminacy. The key terms are utilized to illustrate the postmodernism, which will be
analyzed in the following chapter.
As stated elsewhere, one of Hassans contributions to the study of postmodernism lies in activating
and diffusing the debate from America to Europe via French sociologist, Lyotard. Up until the
publication of Lyotards The Postmodern Condition, published in 1978 and translated into English in
1981, the controversies on postmodernism were purely American phenomena centering on the analysis
of the contemporary American culture: pop, rock, anarchy, avant-garde. Lyotard first launched into the
debate when he was invited to an International Symposium on Post-Modern Performance at the
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee in 1976. Lyotard read a paper namedThe Unconscious as Mis-
en-Scene, in a session hosted by Hassan
28
. At the meeting, Hassan read a paper, or performed an
academic play, entitledPrometheus as Performer: Toward a Posthumanist Culture? A University
Masque in Five Scenes for Anima. He made an academic paper into a monologue, and played both
as a playwright and protagonist, ranging from text to pretext, from context to paratext, from metatext to
mythotext, and from heterotext to postext, which was evaluated as a highly postmodern performance
29
.
Orpheus is surely no monster of hubris. The cults we associate with his name blend word and flesh into
the dance of existence. Orpheus sings, and his song moves stones, trees, and beasts. The reason is
simple: singing Orpheus restores himself to nature, and moves with the secret life of things
30
. Hassan
contributes to postmodernism as a performer, a contemporary Orpheus, as well as theorist.
3 P rom etheus, or Scientific P ostm odernism
In 1978, Hassan wrote an essay,Culture, Indeterminacy, and Immanence: Margins of the
PostmodernAge,and stepped forward by extending his thought into a novel sphere, science.
Thesocial and the cultural are tightly intertwined. Debates over the future direction of social and
global trends cannot afford to ignore the cultural dimensions
31
. Nor can science. Science is no
longer considered to be apart from culture. He tried to relate natural science with the study of
postmodernism by analyzing the innovative development of physics, particularly the Quantum Theory.
From the study, he deduced the concepts of immanence and indeterminacy: key terms designating the
specific features of postmodernism. The double terms were already used in the column of
postmodernism in the table mentioned before. He argues that current analogies between science,
culture, and sundry artistic and spiritual phenomena can prove too facile
32
.
Hassan regards the year 1905 as a turning point of natural science.In that year,Hassan asserts,
Albert Einstein published his paper on the Special Theory of Relativity. Events are always perceived
Keiji OKAZAKI
with reference to a particular frame; in another system of coordinates, thesameevents are not the
same. As Einstein succinctly put it:There is no absolute motion.Nor is there absolute time or space.
... In 1915, Einstein formulated the General Theory of Relativity, which reckoned with gravity and
inertial systems as elements of a unified field. ...Withboth theories Einstein forced the universe of
Galileo and Newton to reveal an entirely different face
33
. Then, Hassan goes on to enumerate the
revolutionary physicists and their innovative theories along with Excursus on Gdels Proof:
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle, Bohrs Principle of Complementarity.Physicsnow dispenses
with geometric models to describe subatomic events....Mechanism, determinism, materialism recede
before the flux of consciousness, a kind of noetic Heraclitean fire
34
.
After elucidation of the development of the Quantum Theory and new view of the universe, Hassan
insists thatit is now clear that science, through its technological extensions, has become an inalienable
part of our lives. More, the new Prometheus, quite as in the adamantine days of Zeus, assays nothing less
than the unification of mind
35
. His conclusion is thatinbrief, relativity, uncertainty,
complementarity, and incompleteness are not simply mathematical idealizations; they are concepts that
begin to constitute our cultural languages; they are part of a new order of knowledge founded on both
indeterminacy and immanence
36
.
In this way, he was the first to bring the two topics together, natural science and culture, or
postmodernism, and by doing so, deduced the fundamental twin concepts of postmodernism,
indeterminacy and immanence. Later, the double undercurrents of postmodernism were compounded
and a neologismindetermanencewas coined by him, which parallels the Derridas way of coining a
diffrancefrom difference and deferral; a key term of poststructuralism
37
.
Hassan elucidates the twin terms, implicating the relationship between culture and science, as
follows.
As in scientific so in cultural thought, indeterminacy fills the space between the will to unmaking
dispersal, deconstruction, discontinuity, etc.and its opposite, the integrative will. Cultural
indeterminacy, however, reveals itself with greater cunning and valency; choice, pluralism,
fragmentation, contingency, imagination are only a few of its ambiguous aspects
38
.
His explanation leads to the conclusion thatthroughall these concepts moves a vast will to
undoing, affecting the body politic, the body cognitive, the erotic body, the individual psyche the
entire realm of discourse in the West
39
. His concept ofunmakingechoes the French philosophers
favorite words such asdeconstruction,unmythtifying, anddecentering, but the term is used in
particularly American context in thatitsurely need not deny an ideal of harmonious perfection; nor
is strangeness sometimes but the action of an immanent future in our lives
40
. Indeterminacy, a vast will
to undoing, or better still, indeterminacies called by Hassan, is a blanket term, designating tendencies
500
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
501
within postmodernism:resistance of closure, and celebration of ambiguity, discontinuity, heterodoxy,
pluralism, and the like
41
.
As for immanence, he employs it without religious echo to designate the capacity of mind to
generalize itself in symbols, intervene more and more into nature, act through its own abstractions, and
project human consciousness to the edges of the cosmos
42
. Hassan goes on to explain thatthis
mental tendency may be further described by words like diffusion, dissemination, projection, interplay,
communication, which all derive from the emergence of human beings as language animals, homo
pictor, or homo significans, creatures constituting themselves, and also their universe, by symbols of
their own making
43
.
Hassan concludes that the double tendencies, immanence and indeterminacy, or the will of
unmaking and the capacity of mind to generalize itself in symbols, have become its own environment,
characterizing the postmodernism. The two concepts have been universal in thatour sense of
immanence has become at once more semiotic and more technological; and our sense of indeterminacy,
no longer the possession of a few, has become almost a decree of our cultural consciences
44
. Thus
Hassan linked science and culture, an epoch-making attempt in the history of the study of
postmodernism, and succeeded in finding between themnot analogies, but rather similarities of
structure, structural homologies
45
.
4 O edipus, or P ostm odern Turn
Hassan, who once accepted the postmodernism turn, the Oedepian disruption of postmodernism
from modernism, gradually revised his concept, and in the eighties did he come to form the opinion that
thepostmodern periodmust be perceived in terms both of continuity and discontinuity, the two
perspectives being complementary and partial
46
. Hassan betrays his recognition thatModernism and
postmodernism are not separated by an Iron Curtain or Chinese Wall; for history is a palimpsest, and
culture is permeable to time past, time present, and time future. We are all, I suspect, a little Victorian,
Modern, and Postmodern, at once. And an author may, in his or her own life time, easily write both a
modernist and postmodernist work
47
. He concludes thatThe Appolonian view, rangy and abstract,
discerns only historical conjunctions; the Dionysian feeling, sensuous though nearly purblind, touches
only the disjunctive moment
48
. We have to see a period in terms both of continuity and discontinuity.
Wecannot claim that everything before 1960 is modern, everything after, postmodern
49
. They
now co-exist.
What lies behind the change of concept, from disruption of postmodernism from modernism to
uninterruptedness of the latter. To quote Hassans own words,The term postmodernism is not only
awkward; it is also Oedipal, and like a rebellious impotent adolescent, it cannot separate itself
completely from its parentmodernism...Oedipal or parasitical if you wish...it remains a conflictual
dialoguewith the older movement
50
. Behind the change of his opinion seem to lie four elements,
Keiji OKAZAKI
502
linguistic, historical, political, and aesthetic.
The first reason is linguistic, which is inherent in the term,postmodernismitself.
Morphologically, Hassan asserts,theword postmodernism ... evokes what it wishes to surpass or
suppress, modernism itself. The term thus contains its enemy within, as the terms romanticism and
classicism, baroque and rococo, do not
51
. The prefixpostis a temporal signifier, presupposing
modernism, but the exact definition of modernism, an apparently impossible task, will not make
postmodernism stand on its own as baroque and rococo do
52
. Postmodernism, therefore, cant be
separated completely from the modernism, andto call ones own period in historypostmodernis
an extraordinary act of hubris
53
. Hassan regards this as a morphological instability of the term.
Hassan argues thatpostmodernism suffers from a certain semantic instability: that is, no clear
consensus about its meaning exists among scholars
54
, because the term is too young in its usage to be
realized in general, and a phenomenon can be called modernism, postmodernism, avant-gardism or even
neo-avant-gardism.
Hassan goes on to elucidate the second instability of the term postmodernism, saying thatA
related difficulty concerns the historical instability.... There is already some evidence that
postmodernism, and modernism even more, are beginning to slip and slide in time, threatening to make
any diacritical distinction between them desperate
55
. The postmodern period, therefore, should be
viewed in terms both of continuity and discontinuity, which shows the marked turn of his concept of
postmodernism. Hassan was fond of binary opposition, either/or, but the two instabilities inherent in the
term make him take a compatible stance, and/or. Hassan started as an anti-modernist-cum-pro-
postmodernist, confessing thathissympathies are in the present,
56
but gradually betrayed doubt of
the ongoing process of postmodernism, regarding it impossible to sever modernism from
postmodernism.
Concerning the political reason, P. Anderson argues that Hassans concept of the binary opposition
between modernism and postmodernism,had a built-in limit: the move to the social was barred
57
.
The eighties witnessed the upsurge of political shift:the euphoria of the Reagan boom, and the
triumphant ideological offensive of the Right, culminating in the collapse of the Soviet bloc...
58
. Under
these revolutionary political situations which show a marked contrast with the sixties apathy,
anarchy, avant-garde the conventional distinctions lost bearing on our thought, suggesting the end of
history, or finality of humanism. Hassan expounds that words likeleft and right, base and
superstructure, production and reproduction, materialist and idealist... have become nearly
unserviceable, except to perpetuate prejudice
59
. The recognition of the contemporary conservative
political tendency made Hassans initial distaste for ideological rage and the hectoring of religious and
secular dogmatists grow larger
60
, keeping him aloof from political scenes, which led him to withdraw
from the debate on postmodernism in the end of the eighties
61
.
The fourth reason is aesthetical. P. Anderson opines that the reason is internal to his account of the
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
arts itself
62
. Some critics argue that nearly all of the notions of postmodernism seem to be based on its
being anextension, intensification, subversion, or repudiation of modernism
63
, and Hassans primary
anticipation was for theexasperated forms of classic modernism Duchamp or Beckett to be
intensified and extended, which wasjust what De Ons had presciently termedultramodernismin
the thirties
64
. But the contemporary trend of arts, postmodernism, has extended and intensified, another
aspect of modernism, for whichWarhol could stand as short-hand the languid or decorative
involution of modernist lan which De Ons had contrasted aspostmodernism
65
. In time, however,
Hassan sensed that the former aspect, ultramodernism, would be predominant, but the end result fell
short of his expectation. In The Postmodern Turn: Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture1987,
he confesses thatPostmodernismitself has also changed, taken, as I see it, a wrong turn. Caught
between ideological truculence and demystifying nugacity, caught in its own kitsch...
66
.
Modernism was never a monolithic phenomenon, so that there would be various forms of reaction,
rejection, anticipation to each face of it. With time the suppressed side of postmodernism, popular,
commercialism, mass-produced, increased to intrude on his awareness, and finally came to assault him.
At the Grand Palais in Paris,under the banner ofStyles 85 the banner portrayed Einsteins head
with tongue waggishly thrust out , a hundred hectares of postmodern designs, ranging from
thumbtacks to yachts, displayed another aspect of postmodernism. Walking through the bright farrago,
hectares of esprit, parody, persiflage,hebegan to feel the smile onhislips freeze
67
. A sudden
surge of awakening caused him to recognize the reality of the postmodernism: postmodernism itself has
changed, taken a wrong turn
68
. What remains, according to him, arekitsch, camp, pop, ... hermetically
reflexive, or simply otiose
69
. Hassans reaction at the garalley parallels that of A. Huyssens at the
Seventh Documenta in Kassel in 1981 where he felt what he saw wasfad, advertising pitch and hollow
spectacle
70
. Thus, linguistic, historical, political, and aesthetic reasons made Hassan disillusioned and
disabused with the end-result of postmodernism, and compelled him to retire from the debate at the end
of the eighties. But his untiring and inexhaustible energy was directed into another sphere of
postmodernism, playing the role of a practitioner.
5 P rom etheus forever, or a P ractitioner
As analyzed above, Hassan has contributed to defining, diffusing and practicing, of postmodernism.
He has long been regarded as the leading critic on postmodernism in America. But in the eighties,
postmodernism changed, so did his stance. Critical concern on postmodernism shifted from America to
Europe, and Hassan himself gradually lost interest in theorizing it
71
. He, instead, began to act as a
practitioner of postmodernism and betrayed himself in his writings: postmodern tendency to increase the
personal character of discourse.
Hassans critical works, though highly academic and theoretical, are characterized by the
propensity for demonstrating personal tone with autobiographical elements, replete with self-references.
503
Keiji OKAZAKI
504
This inclination is present in his entire work as an undercurrent, covering literature, culture, science,
performance, thus crossing the boundary, blurring genres, which he calledparacriticism. Its earliest
implication was revealed in The Dismemberment of Orpheus1971.
Wenever end by writing the book we began; nor do we write the book that others read. This is
the decree of the imagination in its necessary clash with existence. We change to live, and living
change still further. It is all too likely that some uneasiness in this work may betray a manner that I
consider no longer my own. I dare to write only in the present
72
.
For Hassan,writing is neither a pastime nor a mere professional necessity; it is an existential
quest, a risk
73
. Hassan confesses thatthevarieties of critical experience are endless. I shall speak
only of three, desiring, reading, acting...These are all fragments of an autobiography, itself but a sentient
reed in the universe
74
. Founded on the belief, the idea ofparacriticismwas propounded by him, a
trial for crossing over genre.
I am not certain what genre these seven pieces make. I call them paracriticism: essays in language,
traces of the times, fictions of the heart. Literature is part of their substance, but their critical edge is
only one of many edges in the mind, I would not protest if they were denied the name of
criticism
75
.
In short, his writings reveal distinctively postmodern traits: fragmentary, ambiguous, playful, self-
reflexive
76
. His essays are a collage of fragmentary evidences, quoting, self-quoting, blurring genre.
Some critics, therefore, criticize him for his innovative postmodern style arguing thatHassans
approach is symptomatic...an ironic, detached, playful, and wilfully cryptic and allusive use of
postmodern discourse. A paradigmatic example of a certain postmodern style, Hassans book is a
pastiche of fragmentary essays...
77
. Hassan himself admits thathiswriting offended most when it
addressed postmodernism in paracritical form. The paracritical mode certainly was fallible, at its worst
otiose, at its best a timely affront to orthodoxy; in any case, it was unrepeatable
78
. Still, he retorts that
postmodern critics should decenter their work.He wondered why so many radical ideas, meant to
revolutionize consciousness and change the world, found only banal and clumsy expression
79
. He
professes himself a practitioner as well as theorist, of postmodernism, and embarks on writing
autobiography, which is, according to him, an extension of his critical work. His attitude as a critic
reminds us of the famous aphorism by Paul Valry saying thatthere is no theory that is not in fact a
carefully concealed part of the theorists own life story
80
. In Hassans mind, theory and practice are
both sides of a coin, too tightly combined to separate.
In 1986, Hassan published a highly challenging and intriguing autobiography: Out of Egypt:
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
505
Scenes and Arguments of an Autobiography. The book is challenging in that it is against the convention
of autobiography: non-lineal, fragmentary, non-self-revealing. His autobiography is intriguing as well
for its mystifying mode of narrative: the fragmentary evidences dont allow readers to make sense of his
whole life, which parallels Barthesautobiography, arranged in alphabetical order from antipathy to
writing, thus fragmenting and deconstructing his identity
81
. In a similar vein, Hassans autobiography is
composed of sections called memoirs, scenes, and arguments, where he betrays the recollection of his
youth, talks with his wife, and mediations on love, life, death, pedagogue, beauty and beast.
We sense two selves embedded in the unprecedented way of writing: the subjectiveIand the
objectiveI. The former observes, contemplates, and records the latter. Theobserved I, on the other
hand, intervenes in, intrudes into, thewriting I. The duality of protagonist-cum-narrator structure
betrays itself in the depiction of the maternal relationship with his son, the autobiographer, followed by
that of his conjugal conversation.
This evening,my wifeseyes fall on the lines about my mothers spitz. She laughs:Will
sibling rivalry never end?Then in a darker voice:How was your mother really?
82
.italics
original
Note the use of the three different tenses of the verb. In this passage, the past encroaches on the
present, the moment of writing the autobiography. The future tense suggests the ongoing process of
story-telling. The reader is put in a world of a chronological disorder. The same is true of the depiction
of the conversation with his only son, Geoffrey, who asks the writerincredulously:Dad, youre
writing an autobiography? But you never spoke of Egypt at home!...He has brought the snapshotof
his mothersto Munich to remind me of my parents?
83
. In this writing, there is a temporal and
spatial mixing: chronologically past, present, and future mingle, and spatially Egypt, Munich, and
Milwaukee intertwine. As the subtitle suggests, Hassans autobiographical work is not autobiography
proper, but a mlange of past recollection, conjugal conversation, and theoretical speculation on many
subjects covering all humanities. In short, his autobiographical writing contains trait of postmodernism
in that it is a collage of various genres.
The propensity for including personal details in his criticism culminates in composing
autobiography. No other critic has put into practice the idea thatcriticism and autobiography are
difficult to separate, since they are both self-conscious discoursesaboutlanguage and thus engaged
in the same task
84
, more faithfully than Hassan. As a practitioner of postmodernism, he should be
regarded as its forerunner. He is another Prometheus whotransformsthe cultural critics role,
just as Prometheuss theft of fire transformed human power to approach that of the gods
85
. He
wonderswhat role can the critic play when history shakes?His answer isonly a modest but dual
role: one of subversion, the other of making
86
. As a critic, he proceedsin three continuous
Keiji OKAZAKI
movements: desiring, reading, acting,throughout his life
87
.
6 C onclusion
Tracing Hassans development of ideas of postmodernism has made it clear that he is indeed the
leading theorist as well as practitioner of postmodernism. He has investigated the origin of the term, and
made a definition of it in binary oppositions, resuming these lists several times. He has expanded the
target of the study of postmodernism from literature to culture in general, extending into science.
Hassan, moreover, has played the role of diffusing the debate on postmodernism in Europe by inviting
Lyotard, the author of The Postmodern Condition, to the conference in America. Though Hassan seems
to have lost interest in theorizing postmodernism, his critique of contemporary culture is still sharp, and
the table of binary oppositions he proposed has not lost its validity as an indicator of separation of
modernism from postmodernism. As a postmodernist, Hassan writes in a style peculiar to
postmodernism: being rife with fragments, a mlange of many genres. As Hutcheon insists, Hassans
theoretical works as well as the travelogue and the autobiography blur the distinctions between the
discourses of theory and literature
88
.
Hassans conclusion saying thatI know less about postmodernism today than I did thirty years
ago, when I began to write about it... Noconsensus obtains on what postmodernism really means
89
,
illustrates how ambiguous and intriguing the term is. His final words may affirm that the attempt at
defining it is incompatible with and antithetical of postmodernism. But as a born avant-gardist, he has
set himself a tough assignment.
As long as we recognize the present state of the world as postmodernism, Hassans contributions
will remain as the starting point from which debate begins.To study the present is an inherently risky
business in which one is bound to make mistakes which become only too evident when they are
eventually seen with the benefit of hindsight. The intellectual risks are worth taking, however, since
some critical understanding of ones own time is a vital resource for surviving it, let alone changing it
90
.
Hassan tackles the aporia, postmodernism, and sings as Orpheus did, giving us fire and knowledge, like
Prometheus.

* I would like to thank my two former faculty members for their encouragement to study the works of I. Hassan.
Prof. Reiichiro Hashimoto presented me with Hassans Out of Egypt in memory of his retirement, and Prof. Yorio
Nishimura invited me to attend a seminar held in Osaka where I. Hassan gave a lecture on contemporary American
literature. This paper owes a great deal to their help, though every flaw in it is mine.
N otes
1 McGuigan, p. 5; Best and Kellner, p. ix. Debates on postmodernism were heated in Japan in the eighties. Her
unprecedented prosperity allowed for a discussion about postmodernism in conjunction with the appearance of a
506
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
507
group of young and innovative scholars and critics callednew academism, but with the burst of economical
bubble, the bitter controversy came to an end at the end of the eighties. Unlike in America, the controversy was
transient in Japan.
2 Ibid., p. viii. To differentiate the twin terms, postmodernity and postmodernism, is an intriguing question.
McGuigan argues thatpostmodernism refers to philosophical ideas mainly derived from poststructuralist
theory, and cultural formations, especially associated with popular culture. Postmodernity, in contrast, refers to
societal or civilizational claims.McGuigan, p. 2. In a similar vein, Lyon insists that with regard to
postmodernism, the accent is on the cultural, and with postmodernity, the emphasis is on the social.Simply
put, they lie in the impossibility of separating the cultural from the social, however desirable the distinction
might be.Lyon, p. 6. Hassan shares the opinion with additional definition saying thatpostmodernismand
postmodernity are not necessarily identical; the latter is a more inclusive historical term, implying the end of a
cycle that began with the European Renaissance.Hassan1980a, pp. 107~108. Narrower conception of
postmodernism is taken by Giddens arguing thatPostmodernism, if it means anything, is best kept to refer to
styles or movements within literature, painting, the plastic arts, and architecture. It concerns aspects of aesthetic
reflection upon the nature of modernity.McGuigan, p. 4. McGuigan maintains thatFor Lyotard, the
postmodern is an epistemological condition, a condition, that is, which is to do with how knowledge is
legitimized.Ibid., p. 6.
3 Some critics, of course, reject the nomenclaturepostmodernism, and among them is Hutcheon who argues
thatwhat I want to call postmodernism is fundamentally contradictory, resolutely historical, and inescapably
political.Hutcheon, p. 4.
4 McGuigan, p. ix. Lyon shares the same opinion with McGuigan saying thatsince the 1980spostmodernity
has engendered a huge, sometimes angry, sometimes anxious, debate in many disciplines from geography to
theology and from philosophy to political science...So the postmodern has leaked out well beyond the ivory
towers, denoting for many a range of everyday lived experiences.Lyon, p. 4.
5 Hutcheon, p.49.
6 McGuigan argues thatwhat was comparatively new was that it should be happening so markedly in mass-
popular culture. This, no doubt, emanated from the counterculture of the 1960s.McGuigan, p. 8. He cites
Huyssens words indicatingthe specifically American character of postmodernism.Ibid., p.9. See, Huyssen,
p. 11, pp. 16~17.
7 L. Anderson, p. 16, p. 139; P. Anderson, p. 16.
8 Another conference which stimulated debate on postmodernism was the forum on the question of
Postmodernism at the MLA Meeting in 1978 organized by Hassan, who read the Keynote speech entitledThe
Question of Postmodernism. See Hassan1980b, p. 125, fn. 1.
9 Hassan1987, p.222. Hassan explains his relationship with Lyotard minutely in the same book. Ibid, p.233, fn.
27.
10Scheer-Schzler, p. 240.
11Hassan1987, p. 85. Cf, Hutcheon, pp. 37~38.
12Hassan2001, pp. 6~7; P. Anderson, pp. 3~4. Hassan gives us a short bibliography of postmodern criticism
including his own articles, covering G. Steiner, H. Kenner, L. Fiedler, S. Sontag, R. Poirier, and J. Barth. Hassan
1975, pp.45~46; Hassan1987, pp. 31~32.
13Hassan2001, p. 7,: Hassan1980b, p.118.
Keiji OKAZAKI
14Hassan1982, p. 261, p.266. Hutcheon insists by quoting Kristeva that the 1960s witnessedlimits of
language, of subjectivity, of sexual identity, and we might also add: of systematization and uniformization.
Hutcheon, p.8.
15Hassan2001, p.7.
16Hassan1982, p.247.
17Ibid., p.5.
18Ibid., p.12.
19Ibid., p.13.
20Hassan1975, pp.49~52; Hassan1987, pp. 35~37.
21Hassan1975, pp.54~58; Hassan1987, pp.39~44.
22P. Anderson, p.19.
23Hassan1982, pp.267~268; Hassan1987, pp. 91~92.
24Hassan1982, p.269; Hassan1987, p. 92.
25Lyon, p.55. P. Anderson insists that the triumph of capitalism in the eighties damaged the Lyotards
presupposition of the loss ofgrand narrative. P. Anderson, pp. 33-35.
26Hutcheonp.49
27Hassan1982, pp. 266~267; Hassan1987, pp. 90~91.
28Hassan1987, p. 231, fn. 7.
29Hassan1980a, pp. 187~207.
30Hassan1982, p.5.
31Lyon, p.17.
32Hassan1980a, p. 105.
33Ibid., pp. 98~100.
34Ibid., pp. 101~102.
35Ibid., p. 104.
36Ibid., p. 105.
37Hassan1982, p. 263. His terms echo Deriddasindeterminacy of language. Derrida asserts that every word
contains no central meaning of its own, which is differed and deferred. He compounded the twin verbs and
coineddiffrance. G. Allen, pp. 65~66; Lyon, p.11, p. 13; Currie, pp. 45~47.
38Hassan1980a, p. 109.
39Hassan2001, p. 4.
40Hassan1980a, p. 92.
41Klinkowitz, p. 114.
42Hassan2001, p.4.
43Loc. cit.
44Hassan1980a, p. 115.
45Ibid., p.106.
46Hassan1982, p. 264; Hassan1987, p. 88.
47Loc. cit.
48Loc. cit. On the question of continuity and disruption, opinions differ. Hutcheon insists thatpostmodernism
cannot simply be used as a synonym for the contemporary.... WhatI want to call postmodernism is
508
Evolution of American Postmodernism through I. Hassan
509
fundamentally contradictory, resolutely historical, and inescapably political.... thesecontradictions are
certainly manifest in the important postmodern concept ofthe presence of the past.Hutcheon, p. 4.
McGuigan argues concerning A.Giddens thatGiddens rejects postmodernity on both philosophical and
sociological grounds: he believes that rational knowledge of the social world is possible and that this can be
derived from analysis of the institutional parameters of modernity in alate,highorradicalizedphase.
McGuigan, p.4.
49Hassan2001, p.8.
50Loc. cit.
51Hassan1982, p. 263; Hassan1987, p. 267.
52Hassan2001, p.8. Concerning a deluge of the prefixpost, Best and Kellner name the first chapter of their
book asThe Time of the Postsand opine thataccordingto many, we live in the time of theposts
postindustrialism, postFordism, postMarxism, posthumanism, posthistory, and postmodernism. The termpost
signifies a historical sequencing in which a previous state of affairs is superceded and thus functions in the first
instance as a periodizing term.Best and Kellner, p.3.
53McGuigan, p.2.
54Hassan1982, p. 263.; Hassan1987, p. 267.
55Loc. cit.
56Hassan1987, p.45. Jameson classifies critics on postmodernism into four, putting the following labels: pro-
postmodernist, anti-postmodernist, pro-modernist, and anti-modernist. Jameson, p. 36. By this criterion, Hassan
was anti-modernist-cum-pro-postmodernist but halfway through academic research, he turned into anti-
postmodernism.
57P. Anderson, p. 19.
58Ibid., p. 32.
59Hassan1987, p. 227. Cf., P. Anderson, p. 19.
60Hassan1987, p. 178.
61P. Anderson, p. 19.
62Ibid., p. 17.
63Hutcheon, p. 49.
64P. Anderson, p. 19.
65Ibid., p.20.
66Hassan1987, p. xvii.
67Ibid., p.229. Cf., P. Anderson, p. 120.
68Hassan1987, p. xviii.
69Ibid., p. 216.
70Huyssen, p. 8. Huyssen concludes thatDocumenta 7 can stand as the perfect aesthetic simulacrum: facile
eclecticism combined with aesthetic amnesia and delusions of grandeur. It represents the kind of postmodern
restoration of a domesticated modernism... and it parallels the conservative political attacks on the culture of the
1960s...Loc. cit. Cf.,Hassan1987, p. 216.
71Hassan points out the three academic events as a stimulus to propagate the controversy on postmodernism in
Europe: The Milwaukee and New York City conferences in 1976 and 1978 attended by J-F Lyotard and J.
Kristeva respectively, and The Theodor W. Adorno Prize Lecture in Frankfurt in 1980 where J. Habermas
Keiji OKAZAKI
delivered a paper. Hassan1987, p. 231, fn.7, p. 233, fn.27. Hassan analyses the contemporary situation as
follows.Let postmodernism now work itself out as it might. Perhaps all we have learned from it is what the
gods have taught us in both myth and history: that even in their own omnivorous eyes, the universe is not single,
but still One and Many as it shows itself to our sight.Ibid., p. 230. He now believes in pragmatic pluralism, or
Jamesian pragmatism. Ibid., p. 214.
72Hassan1982, p. xviii.
73Scheer-Schzler, p. 242.
74Hassan1987, p. 147.
75Hassan1975, p. xi.
76McGuigan quotes Becks comment saying thatIndividualization of life situations and processes thus means
that biographies become self-reflexive; socially prescribed biography is transformed into biography that is self-
produced and continues to be produced. Decisions on education, profession, job,... no longer can be, they must
be made.McGuigan, p. 130. Becks comment echoes Hassansunmaking,indeterminacy, and
immanence.
77Best and Kellner, p. xiii, fn. 2.
78Hassan1995, p. xiv.
79Loc. cit.
80Hassan cites the words in slightly modified version. Hassan1980a, p. 29. In the book, he inserts excerpts of
his private journal recorded in France into the academic articles, becausethese intertexts still offer a context
forhistext.Ibid., p. xviii. Cf., W.S. Hassan, p.9,; Klinkowitz, p.118.
81L. Anderson, pp. 70~76. Anderson argues thatthebook then offers repeated beginnings; not the
reconstruction of a past nor a writing about the past but the continuing accretion, through the present act of
writing....Ibid., pp.71~72.
82Hassan1986, p.31.
83Ibid., pp. 11~12.
84L. Anderson, p. 6.
85Klinkowitz, p. 119.
86Hassan1987, p. 165.
87Ibid., p. 164.
88Hutcheon cites J. Derrida, R. Barthes, and Hassan as an evidence ofthe blurring of the distinctions between the
discourses of theory and literature.Hutcheon, pp.10~11.
89Hassan2001, p.1.
90McGuigan, p.7.
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