Rebuilding and new housing development after wildfire
Patricia M. Alexandre A D , Miranda H. Mockrin B , Susan I. Stewart A , Roger B. Hammer C and Volker C. Radeloff A
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A SILVIS Lab, Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
B USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 240 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO 80526-2098, USA.
C School of Public Policy, Oregon State University, 303 Fairbanks Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-3703, USA.
D Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
International Journal of Wildland Fire 24(1) 138-149 https://doi.org/10.1071/WF13197
Submitted: 18 November 2013 Accepted: 28 August 2014 Published: 8 December 2014
Abstract
The number of wildland–urban interface communities affected by wildfire is increasing, and both wildfire suppression and losses are costly. However, little is known about post-wildfire response by homeowners and communities after buildings are lost. Our goal was to characterise rebuilding and new development after wildfires across the conterminous United States. We analysed all wildfires in the conterminous USA from 2000 to 2005. We mapped 42 724 buildings, of which 34 836 were present before the fire and survived, 3604 were burned, 2403 were post-fire new development, and 1881 were burned and rebuilt. Before the fires, 38 440 buildings were present within fire perimeters (surviving plus burned). Within 5 years post-fire, there were 39 120 buildings (surviving, rebuilt and new development). Nationally, only 25% of burned homes were rebuilt within 5 years, though rates were higher in the west, the south and Kansas. New development rates inside versus outside fire perimeters were similar. That the number of buildings inside fire perimeters within 5 years post-fire was greater than pre-fire indicated that homeowners are either willing to face wildfire risks or are unaware of them; or that economic incentives to rebuild in the same place outweigh perceived risks.
Additional keywords: building digitalisation, fire perimeters, fire-adapted communities, post-wildfire community response, rebuilding patterns, wildland–urban interface.
References
Agee JK (1993) ‘Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests.’ (Island Press: Washington, DC)Bailey RG (2004) Identifying ecoregion boundaries. Environmental Management 34, S–26.
| Identifying ecoregion boundaries.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15883869PubMed |
Bar Massada A, Radeloff VC, Stewart SI, Hawbaker TJ (2009) Wildfire risk in the wildland–urban interface: a simulation study in north-western Wisconsin. Forest Ecology and Management 258, 1990–1999.
| Wildfire risk in the wildland–urban interface: a simulation study in north-western Wisconsin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Becker C (2009) Disaster recovery: a local government responsibility. PM Mag ICMA Publ. 91(2). Available at http://webapps.icma.org/pm/9102/public/cover.cfm?author=christine becker&title=disaster recovery: a local government responsibility [Verified 14 October 2014]
Blanchi R, Leonard J, Leicester R, Lipkin F, Boulaire F, Mcnamara C (2011) Assessing vulnerability at the urban interface. In ‘5th International Wildland Fire Conference’, 9–13 May 2011, Sun City, South Africa. Available at http://www.wildfire2011.org/index.php [Verified 14 October 2014]
Bond WJ, Keeley JE (2005) Fire as a global ‘herbivore’: the ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, 387–394.
| Fire as a global ‘herbivore’: the ecology and evolution of flammable ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Brewer NT, Weinstein ND, Cuite CL, Herrington J (2004) Risk perceptions and their relation to risk behavior. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 27, 125–130.
| Risk perceptions and their relation to risk behavior.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 15026296PubMed |
Brown DG, Johnson KM, Loveland TR, Theobald DM (2005) Rural land-use trends in the conterminous United States, 1950–2000. Ecological Applications 15, 1851–1863.
| Rural land-use trends in the conterminous United States, 1950–2000.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Busenberg G (2004) Wildfire management in the United States: the evolution of a policy failure. Review of Policy Research 21, 145–156.
| Wildfire management in the United States: the evolution of a policy failure.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cardille JA, Ventura SJ (2001) Occurrence of wildfire in the northern Great Lakes Region: effects of land cover and land ownership assessed at multiple scales. International Journal of Wildland Fire 10, 145–154.
| Occurrence of wildfire in the northern Great Lakes Region: effects of land cover and land ownership assessed at multiple scales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Champ PA, Donovan GH, Barth CM (2013) Living in a tinderbox: wildfire risk perceptions and mitigating behaviours. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 832–840.
| Living in a tinderbox: wildfire risk perceptions and mitigating behaviours.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Cohen JD (2000) Preventing disaster: home ignitability in the wildland–urban interface. Journal of Forestry 98, 15–21.
Cohn PJ, Williams DR, Carroll MS (2008) Wildland–urban interface residents’ views on risk and attribution. In ‘Wildfire Risk; Human Perceptions and Management Implications’.(Eds WE Martin, C Raish, B Kent) pp. 23–43. (RFF Press: Washington, DC)
Collins TW, Bolin B (2009) Situating hazard vulnerability: people’s negotiations with wildfire environments in the US south-west. Environmental Management 44, 441–455.
| Situating hazard vulnerability: people’s negotiations with wildfire environments in the US south-west.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 19597870PubMed |
Cutter SL, Barnes L, Berry M, Burton C, Evans E, Tate E, Webb J (2008) A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Global Environmental Change 18, 598–606.
| A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dale VH, Joyce LA, McNulty S, Neilson RP (2000) The interplay between climate change, forests, and disturbances. The Science of the Total Environment 262, 201–204.
| The interplay between climate change, forests, and disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXotlerurc%3D&md5=4ced7c00f5b474c3c2be13d8d740bff6CAS | 11087026PubMed |
Dale VH, Joyce LA, McNulty S, Neilson RP, Ayres MP, Flannigan MD, Hanson PJ, Irland LC, Lugo AE, Peterson CJ, Simberloff D, Swanson FJ, Stocks BJ, Wotton MB (2001) Climate change and forest disturbances. Bioscience 51, 723
| Climate change and forest disturbances.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Daly P, Brassard C (2011) Aid accountability and participatory approaches in post-disaster housing reconstruction. Asian Journal of Social Science 39, 508–533.
| Aid accountability and participatory approaches in post-disaster housing reconstruction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
DORA (2010) Summary of Boulder County land use WUI building codes effectiveness in the Fourmile Canyon Fire. 1. Available at SummaryofBoulderCountyLand_UseWUI_BuildingCodesandtheFourmileCanyonFire.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014].
Donovan GH, Champ PA, Butry DT (2007) Wildfire risk and housing prices : a case study from Colorado Springs. Land Economics 83, 217–233.
ESRI (2011) ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10 (Environmental Systems Research Institute: Redlands, CA)
Fillmore EP, Ramirez M, Roth L, Robertson M, Atchison CG, Peek-Asa C (2011) After the waters receded: a qualitative study of university officials’ disaster experiences during the Great Iowa Flood of 2008. Journal of Community Health 36, 307–315.
| After the waters receded: a qualitative study of university officials’ disaster experiences during the Great Iowa Flood of 2008.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 20844934PubMed |
Flatley WT, Lafon CW, Grissino-Mayer HD (2011) Climatic and topographic controls on patterns of fire in the southern and central Appalachian Mountains, USA. Landscape Ecology 26, 195–209.
| Climatic and topographic controls on patterns of fire in the southern and central Appalachian Mountains, USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Fujimi T, Tatano H (2012) Estimation of indirect economic loss caused by house destruction in a natural disaster. Natural Hazards 61, 1367–1388.
| Estimation of indirect economic loss caused by house destruction in a natural disaster.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Gibbons P, van Bomme L, Gill AM, Cary GJ, Driscoll DA, Bradstock RA, Knight E, Moritz MA, Stephens SL, Lindenmayer DB (2012) Land management practices associated with house loss in wildfires. PLoS ONE 7, e29212
| Land management practices associated with house loss in wildfires.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhvVyktbY%3D&md5=21b333125eacd8fc5d5adada708cc716CAS | 22279530PubMed |
Goforth BR, Minnich RA (2007) Evidence, exaggeration, and error in historical accounts of chaparral wildfires in California. Ecological Applications 17, 779–790.
| Evidence, exaggeration, and error in historical accounts of chaparral wildfires in California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 17494396PubMed |
Gorte RW (2011) Federal funding for wildfire control and management. Congressional Research Service, Report RL33990. Available at http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33990.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014]
Graham R, Finney M, Mchugh C, Cohen J, Calkin D, Stratton R, Bradshaw L, Nikolov N (2012) Fourmile Canyon Fire Findings, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-289. (Fort Collins, CO)
Haas JE, Kates RW, Bowden MJ (1977) ‘Reconstruction Following Disaster.’ (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA)
Hammer RB, Stewart SI, Radeloff VC (2009) Demographic trends, the wildland–urban interface, and wildfire management. Society & Natural Resources 22, 777–782.
| Demographic trends, the wildland–urban interface, and wildfire management.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Haughwout A, Peach RW, Sporn J, Tracy J (2012) The supply side of the housing boom and bust of the 2000s. Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Report No. 556 (revised October). (New York, NY)
Ingram JC, Franco G, Rio CR, Khazai B (2006) Post-disaster recovery dilemmas: challenges in balancing short-term and long-term needs for vulnerability reduction. Environmental Science & Policy 9, 607–613.
| Post-disaster recovery dilemmas: challenges in balancing short-term and long-term needs for vulnerability reduction.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Keeley JE, Fotheringham CJ (2003) Impact of past, present, and future fire regimes on North American Mediterranean shrublands. In ‘Fire and Climatic Change in Temperate Ecosystems of the Western Americas’. (Eds TT Veblen, WL Baker, G Montenegro, TW Swetnam) pp. 218–262. (Springer-Verlag: New York)
Lorimer CG (1977) The presettlement forest and natural disturbance cycle of north-eastern Maine. Ecology 58, 139–148.
| The presettlement forest and natural disturbance cycle of north-eastern Maine.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Lyons M, Schilderman T, Boano C (Eds) (2010) ‘Building Back Better: Delivering People-Centred Housing Reconstruction at Scale.’ (Practical Action Publishing: London)
Maranghides A, McNamara D, Mell W, Trook J, Toman B (2013) A case study of a community affected by the Witch and Guejito Fires: Report #2: Evaluating the effects of hazard mitigation actions on structure ignitions. Available at http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=913155 [Verified 14 October 2014].
McCaffrey SM, Stidham M, Toman E, Shindler B (2011) Outreach programs, peer pressure, and common sense: what motivates homeowners to mitigate wildfire risk? Environmental Management 48, 475–488.
| Outreach programs, peer pressure, and common sense: what motivates homeowners to mitigate wildfire risk?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 21706380PubMed |
McCaffrey S, Toman E, Stidham M, Shindler B (2013) Social science research related to wildfire management: an overview of recent findings and future research needs. International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, 15
| Social science research related to wildfire management: an overview of recent findings and future research needs.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXit1egtLY%3D&md5=8dcbccf4cb93141a8a9d487f642661cbCAS |
McMahon G, Gregonis SM, Waltman SW, Omernik JM, Thorson TD, Freeouf JA, Rorick H, Keys JE (2001) Developing a spatial framework of common ecological regions for the conterminous United States. Environmental Management 28, 293–316.
| Developing a spatial framework of common ecological regions for the conterminous United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MvovVemtg%3D%3D&md5=99862d16952329db9d47634cc751761cCAS | 11531234PubMed |
Mockrin MH, Stewart SI, Radeloff VC, Hammer RB, Alexandre PM (2014) Adapting to wildfire: rebuilding after home loss. Society & Natural Resources in press.
Montenegro G, Ginocchio R, Segura A, Keely JE, Gómez M (2004) Fire regimes and vegetation responses in two Mediterranean-climate regions. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 77, 455–464.
| Fire regimes and vegetation responses in two Mediterranean-climate regions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
National Interagency Fire Center (2011a) National Interagency Fire Center: statistics 2011(10/19). Available at http://www.predictiveservices.nifc.gov/intelligence/2011_statssumm/fires_acres.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014]
National Interagency Fire Center (2011b) Wildland Fire Summary and Statistics: Annual Report 2011. Available at http://www.predictiveservices.nifc.gov/intelligence/2011_statssumm/Annual_Report_2011.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014]
National Interagency Fire Center (2012) Wildland Fire Summary and Statistics: Annual Report 2012 – Resource Statistics. Available at http://www.predictiveservices.nifc.gov/intelligence/2012_statssumm/annual_report_2012.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014]
Nelson CA (2013) ‘Reshaping Metropolitan America: Development Trends and Opportunities to 2030 (Metropolitan Planning + Design).’ (Island Press: Washington, DC)
Norris FH, Stevens SP, Pfefferbaum B, Wyche KF, Pfefferbaum RL (2008) Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology 41, 127–150.
| Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 18157631PubMed |
Olshansky RB (2005) How do communities recover from disaster? A review of current knowledge and an agenda for future research. In ‘46th Annual Conference of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning’ 27 October 2005, Kansas City, MO. Available at http://cbr.tulane.edu/PDFs/ACSP%20Disaster%20Recovery%20Oct05%20Olshansky.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014]
Omernik JM (1987) Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77, 118–125.
| Ecoregions of the conterminous United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Radeloff VC, Hammer RB, Stewart SI, Fried JS, Holcomb SS, McKeefry JF (2005) The wildland–urban interface in the United States. Ecological Applications 15, 799–805.
| The wildland–urban interface in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Radeloff VC, Stewart SI, Hawbaker TJ, Gimmi U, Pidgeon AM, Flather CH, Hammer RB, Helmers DP (2010) Housing growth in and near United States protected areas limits their conservation value. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107, 940–945.
| Housing growth in and near United States protected areas limits their conservation value.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtV2is7c%3D&md5=22fb76b62769928947ea953cf242f42fCAS | 20080780PubMed |
Rowe G, Wright G (2001) Differences in expert and lay judgments of risk: myth or reality? Risk Analysis 21, 341–356.
| Differences in expert and lay judgments of risk: myth or reality?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MzltFClsQ%3D%3D&md5=08f06ea3200da6455159cf28222492e9CAS | 11414542PubMed |
Running SW (2006) Climate change. Is global warming causing more, larger wildfires? Science 313, 927–928.
| Climate change. Is global warming causing more, larger wildfires?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XosVClsro%3D&md5=e612aafa2180b9dfa313fbf46b17cae1CAS | 16825534PubMed |
Stewart SI, Radeloff VC, Hammer RB, Hawbaker TJ (2007) Defining the wildland–urban interface. Journal of Forestry 105, 201–207.
Sturtevant BR, Cleland DT (2007) Human and biophysical factors influencing modern fire disturbance in northern Wisconsin. International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, 398
| Human and biophysical factors influencing modern fire disturbance in northern Wisconsin.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Syphard AD, Radeloff VC, Hawbaker TJ, Stewart SI (2009) Conservation threats due to human-caused increases in fire frequency in Mediterranean-climate ecosystems. Conservation Biology 23, 758–769.
| Conservation threats due to human-caused increases in fire frequency in Mediterranean-climate ecosystems.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 22748094PubMed |
Syphard AD, Keeley JE, Bar Massada A, Brennan TJ, Radeloff VC (2012) Housing arrangement and location determine the likelihood of housing loss due to wildfire PLoS One 7, e33954
| Housing arrangement and location determine the likelihood of housing loss due to wildfireCrossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XltlOit7w%3D&md5=b5f8814d69a6a42c3a290c5f9aed9317CAS | 22470499PubMed |
United States Census Bureau (2001) Census of Population and Housing Topics – 2000. Available at http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/tiger-line.html [Verified 14 October 2014]
United States Census Bureau (2011) Census of Population and Housing Topics – 2010. Available at http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/tiger-line.html [Verified 14 October 2014]
USDA Forest Service (2011a) US Forest Service Archived Budget Information 2011(10/17). Available at http://www.fs.fed.us/publications/budget-2011/fy-2011-usfs-budget-justification.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014]
USDA Forest Service (2011b) Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity (MTBS) 2011(06/16). Available at www.mtbs.gov [Verified 14 October 2014]
Vannière B, Colombaroli D, Roberts N (2010) A fire paradox in ecosystems around the Mediterranean. Pages news 18, 63–65.
| A fire paradox in ecosystems around the Mediterranean.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Weller CE (2006) The end of the Great American housing boom – What it means for you, me and the US Economy. Available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2006/12/end_of_the_boom.html/issues/2006/12/pdf/housing_boom_report.pdf [Verified 14 October 2014].
Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW (2006) Warming and earlier spring increase western US forest wildfire activity. Science 313, 940–943.
| Warming and earlier spring increase western US forest wildfire activity.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar | 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XotFCitbo%3D&md5=33f81a6860735590a245ddafe692ee24CAS | 16825536PubMed |
Winter GJ, McCaffrey S, Vogt CA (2009) The role of community policies in defensible space compliance. For Policy Econ 11, 570–578.
| The role of community policies in defensible space compliance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
