J. Robert Oppenheimer
| Robert Openhajmer | |
 | |
| Rođenje | 22. april 1904. Njujork |
|---|---|
| Smrt | 18. februar 1967. Prinston |
| Polje | fizika |
Robert Openhajmer (engl. J. Robert Oppenheimer[1], Njujork, 22. april 1904 — Prinston, 18. februar 1967), američki fizičar.
Bio je direktor Instituta za napredne studije u Prinstonu. Poznat je po radovima iz nuklearne fizike. Godine 1936. otkrio je tip nuklearnih reakcija poznatih pod nazivom stripping reakcije, koje su važne pri određivanju nuklearne strukture. Tokom Drugog svetskog rata bio je na čelu istraživačkog rada za proizvodnju atomske bombe u Los Alamosu. Posle rata negativno se odnosio prema projektu izrade H-bombe, pa je 1954. optužen zbog simpatija prema komunizmu. Iako su policijska ispitivanja dokazala njegovu lojalnost SAD, ipak mu je zabranjen pristup poverljivim dokumentima o nuklearnom istraživanjima. Iako je ostao bez direktnog političkog uticaja, Openhajmer je nastavio da predaje, piše i radi u oblasti fizike. Deceniju kasnije, predsednik Džon F. Kenedi mu je dodelio nagradu Enriko Fermi, što je bio gest političke rehabilitacije. Kao naučnik, Openhajmer je najviše ostao zapamćen po tome što je bio glavni osnivač Američke škole teorijske fizike dok je bio na Univerzitetu Berkli.
- ↑ Značenje slova J u imenu J. Robert Oppenheimer je izvor mnogih zabuna. Istoričari Elis Kimbol Smit i Čarls Vajner su sumirali opšto istorijsko mišljenje u svom delu Robert Oppenheimer: Letters and recollections (Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 1980), na strani 1: Da li 'J' u Robertovom imenu predstavlja Džulijus (engl. Julius; Njujork, 22. april 1904 — Prinston, 18. februar 1967) ili, kao što je sam Robert jednom rekao 'ne predstavlja ništa', možda nikada neće biti u potpunosti razrešeno. Njegov brat Frenk kaže da je 'J' bilo simbolično, gest u smeru davanja imena najstarijem sinu po ocu, ali u isto vreme signal da njegovi roditelji nisu želeli da Robert bude 'junior'. U delu Pitera Gudčajlda, J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatterer of Worlds (Houghton Mifflin: Boston, 1981), se kaže da je Robertov otac, Džulijus, dodao prazan inicijal kako bi Robertovom imenu dao dodatnu distinkciju, ali Gudčajldova knjiga nema fusnote, tako da je izvor ovog tvrđenja nejasan. Robertovo tvrđenje da J. predstavlja ništa je uzeto iz autobiografskog intervjua koji je sproveo Tomas S. Kun, 18. novembra 1963. Kada je istraživao Openhajmera tokom tridesetih i četrdesetih godina dvadesetog veka, i sam FBI je bio zbunjen ovim J, i pogrešno je ocenjeno da ono verovatno stoji za Džulijus ili, čudnije, Džerom (engl. Jerome). Sa druge strane, u Openhajmerovom rodnom listu stoji Džulijus Robert Openhajmer, sudeći prema nekim skorijim biografijama.
- Anderson, Leif E.; Whitaker, Ewen A. (1982). NASA Catalogue of Lunar Nomenclature. Springfield, Virginia: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. OCLC 9424347.
- Bethe, Hans (1968). The Road from Los Alamos. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 0-88318-707-8. OCLC 22661282.
- Bird, Kai; Sherwin, Martin J. (2005). American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41202-6. OCLC 56753298.
- Carson, Cathryn (2005). „§Introduction”. u: Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A.. Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California. str. 1–10. ISBN 0-9672617-3-2. OCLC 64385611.
- Cassidy, David (2005). J. Robert Oppenheimer and the American Century. New York: Pi Press. ISBN 0-13-147996-2. OCLC 56503198.
- Conant, Jennet (2005). 109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5007-9.
- Feldman, Burton (2000). The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige. New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-537-X.
- Groves, Leslie (1962). Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project.. New York: Harper & Brothers. ISBN 0-306-70738-1.
- Haynes, John Earl (2006). Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials that Shaped American Politics. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-67407-7.
- Herken, Gregg (2002). Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-8050-6588-1.
- Hewlett, Richard G.; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). The New World, 1939–1946. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-520-07186-7.
- Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). Atomic Shield, Volume II, 1947–1952. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-520-07187-5.
- Hijiya, James A. (June 2000). „The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer” (PDF). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 144 (2). Arhivirano iz originala na datum 2013-05-15. Pristupljeno December 16, 2013.
- Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (1993). Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44132-3.
- Hollinger, David A. (2005). „§Afterward”. u: Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A.. Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, Univ. of California. str. 385–390. ISBN 0-9672617-3-2. OCLC 64385611.
- Hufbauer, Karl (2005). „J. Robert Oppenheimer's Path to Black Holes”. u: Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A.. Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, Univ. of California. str. 31–47. ISBN 0-9672617-3-2. OCLC 64385611.
- Jones, Vincent (1985). Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History.
- Jungk, Robert (1958). Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists. New York: Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-15-614150-7. OCLC 181321.
- Kelly, Cynthia C. (2006). Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project: Insights into J. Robert Oppenheimer, "Father of the Atomic Bomb". Hackensack, New Jersey: World Scientific. ISBN 981-256-418-7. OCLC 65637244.
- Monk, Ray (2012). Robert Oppenheimer: A Life Inside the Center. New York; Toronto: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-50407-2.
- Pais, Abraham (2006). J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516673-6. OCLC 65637244.
- Polenberg, Richard (2002). In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: The Security Clearance Hearing. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University. ISBN 0-8014-3783-0. OCLC 47767155.
- Polenberg, Richard (2005). „The Fortunate Fox”. u: Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A.. Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, Univ. of California. str. 267–272. ISBN 0-9672617-3-2. OCLC 64385611.
- Rhodes, Richard (October 1977). „'I Am Become Death...': The Agony of J. Robert Oppenheimer”. American Heritage. Arhivirano iz originala na datum 2006-05-07. Pristupljeno May 23, 2008.
- Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-44133-7. OCLC 13793436.
- Smith, Alice Kimball; Weiner, Charles (1980). Robert Oppenheimer: Letters and recollections. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2620-5. OCLC 5946652.
- Spangenburg, Ray; Moser, Diane (2004). Science Frontiers, 1946 to the Present. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-816-06880-7. OCLC 63147774.
- Stern, Philip M. (1969). The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial. New York: Harper & Row. OCLC 31389.
- Strout, Cushing (1963). Conscience, Science and Security: The Case of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer. Chicago: Rand McNally.
- Szasz, Ferenc M. (1984). The Day the Sun Rose Twice. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-0767-1. OCLC 10779209.
- United States Atomic Energy Commission (1954). In the Matter of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. Pristupljeno 20 February 2013.
- Wolverton, Mark (2008). A Life in Twilight: The Final Years of J. Robert Oppenheimer. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-37440-2. OCLC 223882887.
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- Biography and online exhibit created for the centennial of his birth Arhivirano 2013-12-04 na Wayback Machine-u
- 1965 Audio Interview with J. Robert Oppenheimer by Stephane Groueff Voices of the Manhattan Project
- PBS American Experience / The Trials of J. Robert Oppenheimer Arhivirano 2009-02-19 na Wayback Machine-u
- J. Robert Oppenheimer na sajtu IMDb
- Was Oppenheimer a member of the Communist Party? documents on the question
- On Atomic Energy, Problems to Civilization audio file of UC Berkeley talk, November 1946
- Oppenheimer talking about the experience of the first bomb test (video file, "Now I am become death, destroyer of worlds.")
- Scanned and declassified government documents relating to the Oppenheimer Hearings and H-Bomb decision Arhivirano 2008-08-27 na Wayback Machine-u
- "Freedom and Necessity in the Sciences" audio and documents from a lecture at Dartmouth College, April 1959