Mieszko I

Mieszko I
Imagined image by Jan Matejko
Reign	c. 960 – May 25, 992
Royal House	Piast
Coat of Arms	The Piast Eagle
Parents	Siemomysł, Gorka
Consorts	Dobrawa of Bohemia, Oda von Haldensleben
Children	With Dobrawa: Bolesław I the Brave, Świętosława With Oda: Mieszko, Świętopełk, Lambert
Date of Birth	c. 935
Place of Birth	?
Date of Death	May 25, 992
Place of Death	Poznań, Poland
Place of Burial	Cathedral Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul, Poznań, Poland

Mieszko I (c. 920/45 – May 25, 992), was a Duke of the Polans since 960 until his death. Member of the Piast dynasty, he was son of the legendary Siemomysł, grandchild of Lestek and father to Bolesław I the Brave, the first crowned King of Poland, and Świętosława(-Sygryd?), a Nordic Queen.

The first historical ruler of Poland, Mieszko I is considered as the de facto creator of the Polish state. He continued the policy of both his father and grandfather, who were rulers of the pagan tribes located in the area of the present Greater Poland; either through alliances or by use of military force, he subordinated Kuyavia and probably Gdańsk Pomerania and Masovia. For most of his reign, Mieszko I was involved in a war for Western Pomerania, and finally he conquered the borders of the Odra River. In the last years of his life he entered into a war against Bohemia, winning Silesia and probably Lesser Poland.

Mieszko I's marriage in 965 to the Přemyslid princess Dobrawa and his baptism ca. 966 put him and his country in the western cultural circle of Christianity. Apart from the great conquests during his reign (which proved to be fundamental for the future of Poland), Mieszko I was renowned for his internal reforms, aimed at expanding and improving the Monarchical system.

According to older sources, Mieszko I was a wise politician, a talented leader and charismatic ruler. He successfully used diplomacy, concluding an alliance with Bohemia first, and then with Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire. In foreign policy, first of all, he placed the interests of his country foremost, even entering into agreements with his former enemies. On his death, he left to his sons a country of greatly expanded territory with a much higher position in Europe.

Mieszko I also appeared as "Dagome" in a papal document from about 1085 AD called "Dagome iudex", which mentions a gift of land to the Pope almost a hundred years earlier.

Life

Date of Birth

There is no certain information of any source on Mieszko I's life before he took the government over his lands. Only the Lesser Poland Chronicle ranked the date of his birth between the years 920–931 (depending on the version of the manuscript), but modern researchers don't recognize the Chronicle as a reliable source. Several historians on the basis of its investigations could determined the date of Mieszko I's between 922–945; the activity of the Duke in his final years of life put the date of his birth closed to the last year.

Origin and meaning of his name

There are three major theories concerning the origin and meaning of Mieszko I's name. The most popular theory, proposed by Jan Długosz, explains that Mieszko is a diminutive of Mieczysław, a combination of two elements or lexemes: Miecz meaning sword and Sław meaning famous. Today, this theory is rejected by the majority of Polish historians, who consider the name Mieczysław to have been invented by Długosz to explain the origin of the name Mieszko. Today, we know that ancient Slavs never formed their names using either animal names or weapon names. Ancient Slavic names were abstract in nature. The same explanation rules out another theory about the origin of name Mieszko, which links the name with the Polish word miś/miśko meaning bear, as no animal names were used to form honorable Polish names among Polish nobility.

The second most popular theory about the origin and sense of Mieszko's name can be traced to the very old legend, firstly described by Gallus Anonymus, according to which Mieszko I was blind during his first seven years of life and then. The chronicler related this story as follows:

At that time Prince Siemomysł urgently asked to the elderly people of his country to find a cure for the blindness of his son. They explained that this blindness meant that Poland was since them blind, but now was illuminated by Mieszko and his power over neighboring nations.

The translation was a clear reference to the later baptism of the Duke:

For Poland, who was blind before, knowing nothing about the true God or the principles of the Catholic faith, but thanks of the enlightened of Mieszko the country also was enlightened, because he adopted the faith, and the Polish nation was saved from death and destruction.

In addition, is known that the Slavic word "mzec" can be interpreted as “having his eyes closed” or “be blind”. Yet again, today it's almost certain that this legend was used as a metaphor in allusion to the old Slavic pagan ceremony known as the "postrzyżyny": during that ceremony hair cutting was performed to every boy at the age of seven. In that symbolic rite a child became a man. That explains that Mieszko I wasn't blind in fact. He was blind only metaphorically. Besides his son’s name was also Mieszko and it is hard to believe that he was also blind. In addition as we know today ancient Slavs used only abstract names among nobility.

The third theory links the name of Mieszko with his other name, Dagome, as it appeared in the document called Dagome iudex. We know this document only from a copy prepared by an anonymous monk who was not familiar with Polish language or Polish names. It is possible that while copying the document he made a mistake and wrote down Dagome instead of Dagomer or even Dagomir. The name Dagomir is used to this day and its construction is similar to other Polish names like for example: Władimir/Włodzimierz or Casimir/Kazimierz. The evolution of the “-mir” element to “-mierz” is due to two separate developments: first, the regular change of the vowel "i" to "(i)e" before "r", and second, the modification of the nominative case by the vocative for certain names (hence, Kazimierz replaced Kazimier based on the vocative Kazimierze). It is debatable whether the name Mieszko is a nickname formed from the second part of the name *Dago-mierz, since the merger in pronunciation of "sz" with the devoiced "rz" which would appear in this position is quite recent. The word mir can be translated as peace.

Duke of the Polans

Beginning of his reign

Poland and its neighbours as of 960–992

Mieszko I took the throne after his father's death ca. 950–960, probably closer to the latest date. Due to the lack of resources may not be exactly what it inherited from the earth. Certainly they are among the areas inhabited by Polans and Goplans, as well as the Sieradz-Łęczyca lands. It's possible that this lands belonged earlier to Masovia and Gdańsk Pomerania. Soon the new ruler had faced the task of integrating the relatively large, ethnically and culturally heterogeneous territory. Although residents of areas controlled by Mieszko I speaked in the majority one language, have similar beliefs and reached a similar level of economic development and civilization, the basic form of their social structure was tribal. It appears that cooperating with the Duke since the beginning could favored the further unification of the country.

The visit of the Sephardi Jewish traveller Abraham ben Jacob to the Polish state is now considered as the first reliable description about Poland under the reign of Mieszko I. His notes about his long trip were probably presented in 966 at the court of Emperor Otto I. He presented Mieszko I as a reigning prince on a vast area with a well-organized tribal group. The precise records of ben Jacob's trips were recopilated firstly by Widukind of Corvey and half a century later, by the Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg.

By the time that Mieszko I took the power, the pagan Poland began to expanding in new directions. Maybe in the first years of the reign, if not done so by his father or grandfather, Mieszko I conquered Masovia. Perhaps at the beginning of the 960s is also likely, at least partially obtain Gdańsk Pomerania. Mieszko I's interests were concentrated mainly on the areas ocuped by the Polabian Slavs, who in a short time was subordinated to him. As Widukind of Corvey wrote, Mieszko I's own tribe was called the Licicaviki (now commonly identified in the Lubusz land). After the complete conquest of the Polish tribes, Mieszko I entered in the German sphere of influence.

In 963 the German Margrave Gero conquered territories occupied by the Łużyczan and Słupian tribes, as a result of direct contact with the Polish state. At the same time (about 960) began the Mieszko I expansion against the Volinian and Veleti tribes. During this state of war occur the visit of Abraham ben Jacob, who recorded all this situations. According to him, Mieszko I had fought against the Weltaba tribe, commonly identified with the Veletis. Wichmann the Younger, a Saxon nobleman who now was a leader of a band of Slavics, defeated Mieszko I twice, and ca. 963 he even killed an unknown brother of the Polish Duke. The borders of the Odra River were also a source of disputes with Germany. In addition, the Veletis allied with Bohemia, and they could conquer Silesia and Lesser Poland.

War against Margrave Gero and homage to the Emperor

The chronicles of Thietmar showed some problems of interpretation in the informations of the attack Margrave Gero on the Slavic tribes who, in effect, subordinated to the authority of the Emperor Lusatia and Selpuli (actually the Słupian tribes) and Mieszko with his subjects. According to the majority of modern historians summarize the fact that Thietmar made a mistake and in the chronicle of Widukind correctly stated that the war who had faced Mieszko I during this time was against Wichmann the Younger. By the other hand, the supporters of Gero's invasion stated that actually the Margrave carried out a successful invasion, with the result that Mieszko I was forced to pay tribute to the Emperor and also was compelled to adopt the Christianism him and his country. In consecuence, this theory proposes the introduction of Christianity as a result of this war, but this argument wasn't confirm with the known German sources of that time.

The tribute was then a separate issue, since (according to the chronicles of Thietmar) Mieszko I actually paid homage to the Emperor from the earth "usque in Vurta fluvium" (near to the Warta River). It's accepted with all probability that Mieszko I himself decided to pay tribute in order to avoid an invasion similar to Lusatia. This was to be in 965, or at least 966. Probably the tribute only affected the Lubusz land, which was in the German sphere of influence. A further confirmation about the voluntary tribute to Germany was since early 967 Mieszko I is defined in the Saxon chronicles as the Emperor's ally (Latin: amicus imperatoris).

Baptism of Poland

See also: Baptism of Poland

Probably in 964 Mieszko I began negotiations with the Bohemian ruler Boleslav I the Cruel. As a result, in 965 Mieszko I married with his daughter Dobrawa (also named Dobrava, Dubrawka or Dabrówka). The conclusion of an alliance is likely to come from the Polish ruler. It's estimated that in February 965 the alliance (and probably also the marriage) was officially performed.

The next step was the baptism in the Catholic faith over Mieszko I and all his country. There are different hypotheses concerning the event. Frequently it's assumed that it was a political decision, which Mieszko I converge with Bohemia and to facilitate his actions against the Polabians. At the same time, the baptism given to him a possibility of future attacks and forced to retreat the invassions of Margrave Gero in catholic territories. An additional reason could also be the desire of Mieszko I to ended the growing alienation of his land with the rest of Europe.

Different hypothesis linked the veracity of the above-mentioned adoption of the Christianity thanks to Gero's invassions. According to them, it was clearly that the actions of the Margrave who forced the conversion of Poland, which was to be an act of subordination to the Emperor, made without the mediation of Pope.

However, according to Gallus Anonymus, was the Bohemian Princess Dobrawa who convinced her husband to change of religion. The chronicles of Thietmar confirmed the intervention of the Princess. There are no reasons or sources who supported that influence of Dobrawa over Mieszko I; however, was to be noted that similar conversions showed in the contemporary chronicles were attributed to the wives of pagan rulers.

Is generally recognized that the baptism of Mieszko I took place in 966. The place is unknown; could be in any of the cities of Empire (like Regensburg) but also in the Polish cities of Gniezno or Ostrów Lednicki. Assumption that the baptism was adopted at the hands of Bohemia in order to avoid the dependence of Poland to Germany is incorrect, because Bohemia didn't have their own church until ca. 973. At the time of the baptism of Mieszko I the most importand diocese was placed in Regensburg; thus, generally, it's concluded that the Polish ruler accepted the baptism in that place. However, the religious vocabulary (words like baptism, sermon, prayer, church, apostle, bishop or confirmation) were widely known before the conversion through the Bohemian church and were probably imported by Princess Dobrawa when she married with Mieszko I. Perhaps with her came the first Polish Bishop, Jordan. It cannot be excluded that the real reason was the existence in the area near the Bohemian and Slavic borders of the mission who follows the precepts of the Byzantine Greek brothers and later Saints Cyril and Methodius, were was performed the liturgy in Slavic language and customs. Mieszko I could see the existence of a clear and notorious Slavic liturgy an this was another important motive for his decision of took the baptism. However, the liturgy in the Slavic Language in Bohemia have occurred 100 years after Mieszko I's adoption of Christianity.

Consecuences of Mieszko I's baptism and the conversion of Poland

Through the adoption of Christianity by Mieszko I and the Polish state, both formally joined to the group of Christian rulers of Europe and. The Holy Roman Empire or any other Christian country, in theory, have no rights to attack Poland under any pretext, because the Duke became a member of the Christian circle.

The baptism also started the influence of the Latin into Polish culture. One of the first issues of the new faith was the organization of his church. The missionary bishopric who started by Jordan in 968 used the Latin liturgy and was directly subordinate to the Papacy; in that year, Mieszko I built a church dedicated to Saint George at Gniezno and founded the first cathedral in Poznań, placed under the archdiocese of Magdeburg and dedicated to Saint Peter. The existence of a church institution emphasized the individuality and independence of the Polish state. Another manifestation of the development of the Christianity in Poland was the construction of churches, mainly in Poznán, Gniezno and Ostrów Lednicki.

At the time of the reign of Mieszko there was no single place serving as the capital, instead he built several castles around his country. Of the most important were: Poznań, Gniezno and Ostrów Lednicki. The latter was a ring-fort some 460 feet in diameter, containing his residence, a fine stone palace, the country's first monumental architecture.

The Christianization has also led to political changes. The newly European structure crushed with the independent and arrogance of the Komes. Clergy who arrived into the country also contribute to the development of education and culture. At the end of the reign of Mieszko I (ca. 990) Poland began to pay tribute to the Pope (Peter's Pence).

However, the conversion of the Polish townspeople was a long-term process and will not be completed during the reign of Mieszko I; even in some villages, the old Slavic beliefs and customs remains until the 16th century.

The conquest of Pomerania

After the normalization of his relations with the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia, Mieszko I reanuded his plans to conquer Pomerania. On 21 September 967 the Polish-Bohemian troops prevailed in the decisive Battle against the Volinians leaded by Wichmann the Younger, subordinating the borders of the Odra River. The German chronicles confirm these activities, and perhaps even support them; the death of Wichmann soon after from his injuries probably satisfied the Emperor's interests. There is also showing the position of the Polish ruler among the German people. Widukind of Corvey reported that the dying Wichmann asked to Mieszko I submit his arms to Emperor Otto I. Thus, one year after his baptism Mieszko I wasn't longer regarded as worthy of trust by the Emperor.

Until today remains as a mystery was the result of Mieszko I's fights for the Western Pomerania. Subsequent clashes of Bolesław III Wrymouth in the region suggests that the conquest wasn't easy, and perhaps not even been completed successfully. In one version of the legend of St. Wojciech specifies that Mieszko I gave his daughter in marriage to a Pomeranian prince, who previously, by the request of his father-in-law, took the holy water of the baptism. This message (as well as the later difficults who faced Bolesław I the Brave during his reign in order to conquer that land), suggests that the region wasn't formally included in the Polish state, but only paid homage to him. An indirect proof of this was noted in the introduction of the first section of the chronicles of Gallus Anonymus about Pomerania: Often, while the heads of their forces defeated by the Polish prince sought salvation in the baptism, but again, they soon repudied the Christian faith and re-initiate the war against Christians.

War against Margrave Odo I of Ostmark

In 972 Poland suffered the attack of Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark. According to the chronicles of Thietmar, this attack was an arbitrary action, without the consent of the Emperor:

Meanwhile, the noble margrave Hodo, collected his army and attacked with it to Mieszko, who faithfuly paid tribute to the Emperor for the Warta river.

See also: Battle of Cedynia

There are different hypotheses concerning about the reasons for this invasion. Some believed that Margrave Odo wanted to stop the growth power of the Polish state. Another theory (and take by the majority of historians as the most probable) was that the Margrave began his attack against Mieszko I in order to protect the Volinian state from the Polish influence, with the high risk who this could made to his interests. It's also noted that they called the Margrave and asked his help in the defense of his Lusatian lands. In any event, Odo I invaded Poland and on 24 June 972 took place the decisive battle at the village of Cidini, commonly identified with Cedynia. At first, the Margrave defeated Mieszko I's forces; only the Duke's brother Czcibor defeated the Germans in the second stage of the battle, resulting in a great loss of their troops. It appears that Mieszko I intentionally caused the retreat and attack by surprise the flank of the German troops. After this battle, Mieszko I and Margrave Odo I were called to the Imperial Diet of Quedlinburg in 973 to justify their conduct. The exact judgment of the Emperor is unknown, but it's certain that the sentence wasn't carried out because he died a few weeks after the Diet. In general terms, the sentence was desfavorable to the Polish ruler. Some sources indicates that Mieszko I wasn't present in Quedlinburg; instead, he was forced to sent his son Bolesław as a hostage.

The war with Odo I was extremely strange and a surprising event, according to the German chronicler Thietmar, who had a high respect to Mieszko I. About this event he wrote:

Mieszko wasn't fear to enter in the places were is known that Hodo was also, or sit next to him.

The decisive battle, fought in 979, ensured Mieszko's position as ruler of the area (or forced him to make an allegiance with Emperor Otto II). The following year he celebrated his temporary conquest by dedicating a fortress at Gdańsk in 999.

Acquisitions in the east

According to further archaeological researchs, during the 970s the later Sandomierz Voivodeship probably belonging to an unknown tribe who is described by the written sources as the Wiślanami, Mazowszanami or Lędzianie, who also habited the district of Lędzian (often referred to as Grody Czerwieńskie) in the Polish state. Due to the lack of acknowledgment of the reliable sources, this assumptions are considered as quite uncertain. Doubts are associated with the second of these territories. It's possible that these lands belonged in fact to Bohemia, which was in this period up to the borders of the Western Bug and Styr Rivers. The Primary Chronicle stated that in 981 Mieszko I lost the territories when Włodzimierz (the Rurikid Vladimir I, Prince of Kiev) took the Lachom towns and castles of Przemyśl, Grody Czerwieńskie and other strongholds (...). The word "Lachom" suggests that the Russian ruler don't conquest lands belonging to Mieszko I, but rather about the tribe Lędzian. The problem of interpretation arises from the fact that in the Russian literature of that period, "Lachom" describes both all Polish subjects, and the same tribe Lędzian. The conquest of Sandomierz is not a fact. Perhaps this territory was annexed to Poland later, together with the domains of the Vistulans.

However, some historians suggest and supported the opposite idea that the Sandomierz, Lubelszczyzna and Grody Czerwieńskie were annexed by Poland in the 970s. This lands, as valuables in terms of territory and trade may be were the points for a future attack against the later Lesser Poland, then in the hands of Bohemia. It was to be the central hub of Sandomierz, and Grody Czerwieńskie, Przemyśl and Chełm assumed the functions of defensive borders.

War against the Holy Roman Empire

The death of Emperor Otto I in 973 put in jeopardy Mieszko I's homage to Germany. Soon he sided with the late Emperor's brother Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, who wanted to take the throne in detriment of hias infant nephew Otto II. Mieszko I's brother-in-law, Duke Boleslav II of Bohemia also joined to the opposition. In addition to the concept of revenge for the veredict in the Diet of Quedlinburg, it's believed that Mieszko I supported the Bavarian Duke with the purprose to change the status of his cooperation with Germany, wanted to achieve something more. The participation of Mieszko I in the conspiracy against Otto II was documented in only one source, the Chronicles of the monastery of Altaich in his entry of the yea 974. The Duke of Bavaria was defeated, and Emperor Otto II regained full power. Shortly afterwards, the young Emperor marched against Bohemia in a retaliatory expedition, and in 978 he forced Duke Boleslav II to submit.

During this time (in 977) Mieszko I's wife, Dobrawa, died. Initially, the event has not caused any visible impact, and the Polish ruler maintained his alliance with Bohemia.

In 979 Otto II began his attack against Poland. Mention of this event can be found in the Chronicle of the Bishops of Cambrai in the 11th century. The effects of this trip are unknown but is assumed that the Emperor was the losing party. Due to the bad weather, the Emperor returned to the borders of Thuringia and Saxony in December of that year. Is uncertain if the attack actually took place or not. The German chronicles, only stated that it was a trip "to the Slavs". Thesis of Otto II's invasion is now supported by archaeological discoveries. In the last quarter of the 10th century has been a radical expansion of the fortifications in Gniezno and Ostrów Lednicki, which may be associated with the Polish-German war. There are assumptions based on whether or not the length of trips that enable it to reach up into Poznán.

The Polish-German agreement was concluded in the spring or possibly summer of 980, because in November of that year Otto II left his country and went to Italy. It appears that during this time Mieszko I married with Oda, daughter of Dietrich of Haldensleben, Margrave of the North March after abducting her from the monastery of Kalbe. The chronicler Thietmar described the event as follows:

When his mother died Bolesław's father married without permission from the Church with a nun of the monastery in Kalbe, who was daughter of Margrave Dietrich. Oda - was her name and her great scroll. For this action, the groom give preference to the man of war (...). Given, however, to a homeland and the need to ensure the peace, and because he didn't want to the break his relations, found an appropriate way to obtain the Church consent. Thanks to the followers of Christ, were returned to his native country many prisoners after taken off his chains and also were opened the gates of prisons criminals.

Although Thietmar not mentioned any word about this alleged "war", the further actions after the agreement, acting for the good of his homeland and release of prisoners indicate that actually this happened.

The marriage with Oda significantly affected the position and prestige of Miesko I, which since them was closely linked with the Saxon aristocracy. As a son-in-law of Margrave Dietrich, he gained an ally in one of the most influential politicians of the Holy Roman Empire.

Cooperation with Sweden and War against Denmark

Probably in the early 980s Mieszko I entered into an alliance with Sweden against Denmark, who was sealed with the marriage of Mieszko I's daughter Świętosława with the Swedish King Erik. The contain of the treaty is known (although not entirely reliable) directly from the Danish tradition of the court given by Adam of Bremen. In this text, probably as a result of confusion, he gives Mieszko I the name of his son:

The King of the Swedish, Erik, entered into an alliance with the powerful Polish King, Bolesław. Bolesław given his daughter or sister to Erik in marriage. By this way the Danish were defeated by the Swedish and Slavis.

Mieszko I decided that the alliance with Sweden probably in order to safeguard its influence in Pomerania against the Danish King Harald I and his son Sweyn. The Danish were defeated ca. 991, and his ruler captured. The dynastic alliance with Sweden have affected the equipment and conditions of Mieszko I's troops. Perhaps then the Duke count with the support of Varangian branches, which was indicate by the presence of archaeological excavations in the vicinity of Poznán.

Participation in the German Civil War

In 982 Emperor Otto II suffered a disastrous defeat against the Saracens in Italy. Therefore, the subsequent weakening of the Imperial power during 983 caused a great confusion in the Polabian lands. The German authority in the area ceased to exist and the Polabian tribes began to threaten the Empire. The suddenly death of Otto II at the end of that year made further complications. At the end two of the Polabian tribes, the Veletis and the Obotrites maintained his independence from Germany during the next two centuries.

The Emperor left a minor successor, Otto III, who was placed under the care of Henry II of Bavaria. Like in 973, Mieszko I stood at the side of the Bavarian Duke. This fact is confirm in the chronicles of Thietmar:

Arrived there (at the Diet of Quedlinburg) have also, among many other princes: Mieszko, Mściwoj and Bolesław promised to support him under oath as king and ruler.

In 984 the Bohemians conquest Meissen, and in the same year Henry II finally resigned his pretentions over the German throne.

The rule played by Mieszko I in the subsequent struggles is unclear because of the conflicts between the contemporary sources. Probably in 985 the Polish ruler ended his alliance with Bavaria and passed at the side of the Emperor. It's believed that Mieszko I made this change in order to threaten his interests over the Polabian lands. This was a problem of both Polish and German rulers, while remaining outside of the interests of Bohemia. According to the Chronicle of Hildesheim in the entry of the year 985 is noted that Mieszko I came to help the Saxons in his fight against some Slavic forces, which are presumably Polabians.

One year later, the Polish ruler had a personal meeting with the Emperor, a event who was mentioned in the Chronicles of Hersfeldt:

Otto the boy-King was ally of Bohemia, but Mieszko arrives with gifts and chage his mind.

Thietmar and other contemporary chronicles clearly stated that the gift given by Mieszko I to the Emperor was a tribute to him. After the meeting who consolidated the Polish-German alliance, Mieszko I joined to the expedition leaded by Otto against the Slavs in their territory. It's unclear whose Slavic territory in question was invaded. Perhaps it was a new expedition against the Polabians. Another theory indicated that in fact this was an expedition against Bohemia, the first in which Mieszko I participated. It's possible them when the Polish ruler expanded his domains to Lesser Poland.

The content of the Chronicles of Thietmar about this expedition is extremely doubtful, because showed little credibility at the view of the political situation of that time, when is noted the settlement concluded between the German King and the Bohemian ruler, Boleslav II the Pious.

Another point of discussion was the visit of Mieszko I to Otto III, who is showed by Thietmar as an act of subordination to the King. Modern historians had the opinion that Mieszko I's trip was only with the purprose of recognized Otto III as a King, while others suggests that in fact this was a formal homage to Germany.

War against Bohemia and the 990 conquest of Lesser Poland

Probably at consencuence of the German invasion to Bohemia, the friendly relations between them and the Poland were broken. The Bohemians reasumed his earlier alliance with the Veletis, which is caused the war in 990, when Mieszko I was supported by the Empress Theophanu. Duke Boleslav II perhaps was the first in attack. As a result of the conflict Silesia was incorporated to Poland. However, the annexation of Silesia could also take place around 985, since this year began the build of Piast fortresses in Wrocław, Opole and Głogów.

The questions about Lesser Poland still remains. It's likely that Mieszko I won it before the 990, as indicated by the mixed records of the Thietmar chronicles. In light of this theory, the conquest of Lesser Poland could be a reason, or rather one of the lands captured during the first stage of the war. Many historians suggests that the domination of Lesser Poland was only nominal and may be was limited to the indirect control of Kraków and perhaps other important cities. The theory is based in the lack of archaeological discoveries, when at that point was important the build of fortifications who consolidated the Polish authority in this land.

Lesser Poland was later only during the reign of Mieszko I's oldest son, Bolesław I the Brave, as which is indirectly indicated in the chronicles of Thietmar.

Some historians, on the basis of the chronicle of Cosmas of Prague, believed that the conquest of the lands around the Vistula River was made long after the death of Mieszko I, specifically in the year 999. There is a theory according to which in this period during which Lesser Poland was in the hands of Bohemia the authority over this lands was given to Bolesław I.

Dagome iudex

Main article: Dagome iudex

At the end of his life (ca. 991-92), Mieszko I issued a document called Dagome iudex, where are described the frontiers of his domains; also, the Polish ruler placed his lands under the sovereignty of the Pope, who in turn give to them the country as a fief. The document is only preserved in regestum, a fact who difficult his study and analysis.

There are two main theories about the reasons behind the Dagome iudex:

• According to the first theory the document was one of the first efforts to transform and consolidated the Catholic Church and a proper organization of them who could covered the whole territory of Mieszko I. In accordance with the understanding also led to a payment by Poland of the Peter's Pence.

• The second theory assumes that the document was made by Mieszko I in order to protect the interests of his second wife Oda and their sons (who were named in the document) before his own death. Bolesław, Mieszko I's eldest son, wasn't named in the document, a event who widely supported this hypothesis. However, the absence from the Dagome iudex of one of Mieszko I and Oda's sons, Świętopełk, refuted this theory, although modern historians explain this omission with the fact that Świętopełk perhaps died before the document was issued.

The Dagome iudex is of capital importance for Polish history in giving a general description of the future Polish state in that period.

Death and Succession

During his last years of life, Mieszko I remained loyal to the Holy Roman Empire. In 991 he arrived at the Imperial Diet of Quedlinburg, where was performed the customary exchange of gifts with Otto III and Empress Teophanu. In the same year he took part in a joint trip with the young King to Brandenburg.

Mieszko died on 25 May 992. Sources didn't give any reasons to believe that his death occurred from causes other than natural. According to Thietmar the Polish ruler died from "old age and a recurrent fever". It may have been buried in the Poznań Cathedral. In fact, the remains of the first historical ruler of Poland were never been found and until today, it's unknown were exactly are them. In the years 1836-1837 was a made a "tomb" for Mieszko I and his successor Bolesław I the Brave (whose damaged remains were found at the 14th century) in the Golden Chapel (Template:Lang-pl) at the Poznań Cathedral.

According to Thietmar Mieszko I divided his domains among a number of princes. They were probably his sons: Bolesław I the Brave, Mieszko and Lambert.

Organization of the Polish state under Mieszko I

The basis of the earlier Polish state was represented in his growning military power. Mieszko I managed to create an army composed of about 3,000 wojów. Perhaps among them were the Varangians, as is proved in further archaeological excavations at the vicinity of Poznań. Thanks to this increased forces, the Polish could defeated weaker neighboring tribes and conquer their lands. Also, the first Piasts reforced their rule over that areas burning the local castles and replaced them with newly fortresses, relocated in more estrategical positions. Archaeological studies show that this alleged practice took place only at the end of the reign of Mieszko I, when he had already established his prestige.

The largest social group in the Polish state, the peasants (kmiecie), began to cultivating their own land. This originated the creation of tributes for the size and extension of the peasant lands (for example, the Poradlne). Another characteristic initiated during Mieszko I's reign was the existence of the służebnych villages, which are specializing in the production of certain products.

After the conversion to the Christianism, Poland found many trade routes, which developed in a extensive and notorious trade politic. They could exported amber, fruits and salt (extracted from the districts of Kujawy and Kolobrzeg) to other countries, but also imported harrows, crafts, tools and ornaments.

Marriages and Issue

Mieszko's coin

From his first marriage he had a son, his successor Boleslaus, and two daughters, Sygryda (Świętosława) and one whose name is unknown. Sygryda was the wife (as queen Sigrid the Haughty) of Eric the Victorious, king of Sweden and then (as queen Gunhilda) of king Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, and mother of king Canute of Denmark and England. "Świętosława" is generally accepted by historians as the best approximation of this first daughter's Slavic name. The second daughter was most likely married to a Pomeranian Slavic Prince.

From his second marriage he had three sons; Mieszko, Lambert, and Świętopełk.

In 1999 the archeologist Hanna Kóčka-Krenz found Mieszko's palace in Poznań.

Bibliography

• Jasiński K., Rodowód pierwszych Piastów, Warszawa-Wrocław (1992), s. 54-70.
• Labuda G., Mieszko I, (w:) Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. 21, 1976.
• Labuda G., Mieszko I, Wyd. Ossolineum, Wrocław 2002, ISBN 83-04-04619-9
• Labuda G., Pierwsze państwo polskie, Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Kraków 1989, ISBN 83-03-02969-X
• Szczur S., Historia Polski średniowiecze", rozdz. 2.2.1 Państwo gnieźnieńskie Mieszka I (s. 47-57) i 2.4.1 Drużyna książęca (s. 83-84), Wydawnictwo Literackie 2002, ISBN 83-08-03272-9

See also

• Prehistory of Poland (until 966)
• Poland in the Early Middle Ages
• History of Poland (966-1385)