Jump to content

Ocean temperature: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
more compact TOC
Sentences copied from Geologic temperature record, see that page for attribution history. This obviously needs more work. I have the feeling that there is a suitable Wikipedia article that covers this topic out there which I haven't found yet.
Line 48: Line 48:


[[Ocean currents]] are caused by varying temperatures associated with sunlight and air temperatures at different latitudes, as well as by prevailing winds and the different densities of saline and fresh water. Air tends to be warmed and thus rise near the [[equator]], then cool and thus sink slightly further poleward. Near the poles, cool air sinks, but is warmed and rises as it then travels along the surface equatorward. Driven by this sinking and the upwelling that occurs in lower latitudes, as well as the driving force of the winds on surface water, the ocean currents act to circulate water throughout the entire sea. When global warming is added into the equation, changes occur, especially in the regions where deep water is formed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trenberth |first1=K |last2=Caron |first2=J |year=2001 |title=Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1234671 |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=14 |issue=16 |pages=3433–43 |bibcode=2001JCli...14.3433T |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<3433:EOMAAO>2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
[[Ocean currents]] are caused by varying temperatures associated with sunlight and air temperatures at different latitudes, as well as by prevailing winds and the different densities of saline and fresh water. Air tends to be warmed and thus rise near the [[equator]], then cool and thus sink slightly further poleward. Near the poles, cool air sinks, but is warmed and rises as it then travels along the surface equatorward. Driven by this sinking and the upwelling that occurs in lower latitudes, as well as the driving force of the winds on surface water, the ocean currents act to circulate water throughout the entire sea. When global warming is added into the equation, changes occur, especially in the regions where deep water is formed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trenberth |first1=K |last2=Caron |first2=J |year=2001 |title=Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1234671 |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=14 |issue=16 |pages=3433–43 |bibcode=2001JCli...14.3433T |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<3433:EOMAAO>2.0.CO;2}}</ref>

== In the geologic past ==
{{Main|Geologic temperature record}}
Temperature reconstructions based on oxygen and silicon isotopes from rock samples have predicted much hotter Precambrian sea temperatures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knauth |first1=L. Paul |date=2005 |title=Temperature and salinity history of the Precambrian ocean: implications for the course of microbial evolution |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |volume=219 |issue=1–2 |pages=53–69 |bibcode=2005PPP...219...53K |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.10.014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shields |first1=Graham A. |last2=Kasting |first2=James F. |date=2006 |title=A palaeotemperature curve for the Precambrian oceans based on silicon isotopes in cherts |journal=Nature |volume=443 |issue=7114 |pages=969–972 |bibcode=2006Natur.443..969R |doi=10.1038/nature05239 |pmid=17066030 |s2cid=4417157}}</ref> These predictions suggest ocean temperatures of 55–85&nbsp;°C during the period of {{Ma|2000|3500}}, followed by cooling to more mild temperatures of between 10-40&nbsp;°C by {{Ma|1000}}. [[Ancestral sequence reconstruction|Reconstructed proteins]] from Precambrian organisms have also provided evidence that the ancient world was much warmer than today.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gaucher |first1=EA |last2=Govindarajan |first2=S |last3=Ganesh |first3=OK |date=2008 |title=Palaeotemperature trend for Precambrian life inferred from resurrected proteins |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=704–707 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..704G |doi=10.1038/nature06510 |pmid=18256669 |s2cid=4311053}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Risso |first1=VA |last2=Gavira |first2=JA |last3=Mejia-Carmona |first3=DF |date=2013 |title=Hyperstability and substrate promiscuity in laboratory resurrections of Precambrian b-lactamases |journal=J Am Chem Soc |volume=135 |issue=8 |pages=2899–2902 |doi=10.1021/ja311630a |pmid=23394108}}</ref>

During the later portion of the [[Cretaceous]], from {{Ma|100|66}}, average global temperatures reached their highest level during the last ~200 million years.<ref name="Renne2013">{{cite journal |last1=Renne |first1=Paul R. |last2=Deino |first2=Alan L. |last3=Hilgen |first3=Frederik J. |last4=Kuiper |first4=Klaudia F. |last5=Mark |first5=Darren F. |last6=Mitchell |first6=William S. |last7=Morgan |first7=Leah E. |last8=Mundil |first8=Roland |last9=Smit |first9=Jan |date=7 February 2013 |title=Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary |journal=Science |volume=339 |issue=6120 |pages=684–687 |bibcode=2013Sci...339..684R |doi=10.1126/science.1230492 |pmid=23393261 |s2cid=6112274}}</ref> This is likely to be the result of a favorable configuration of the continents during this period that allowed for improved circulation in the oceans and discouraged the formation of large scale ice sheet.{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 16:42, 28 October 2022

The ocean temperature varies by depth, geographical location and season. Both the temperature and salinity of ocean water differs. Warm surface water is generally saltier than the cooler deep or polar waters;[1] in polar regions, the upper layers of ocean water are cold and fresh.[2] Deep ocean water is cold, salty water found deep below the surface of Earth's oceans. This water has a very uniform temperature, around 0-3 °C.[3] The ocean temperature also depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with the Sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F) while near the poles the temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about −2 °C (28 °F). There is a continuous circulation of water in the oceans. Thermohaline circulation (THC) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes.[4][5] Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator as a deep sea current, driven by changes in the temperature and density of the water, before eventually welling up again towards the surface.

Ocean temperature as a term is used either for the temperature in the ocean at any depth, or specifically for the ocean temperatures that are not near the surface (in which case it is synonymous with "deep ocean temperature").

It is clear that the oceans are warming as a result of climate change and this rate of warming is increasing.[6]: 9 [7] The upper ocean (above 700 m) is warming fastest, but the warming trend extends throughout the ocean.

Definition and types

Graph of different thermoclines (depth versus ocean temperature) based on seasons and latitude.

Sea surface temperature

This section is an excerpt from Sea surface temperature.[edit]
Sea surface temperature since 1979 in the extrapolar region (between 60 degrees south and 60 degrees north latitude).[8]
Sea surface temperature (or ocean surface temperature) is the temperature of ocean water close to the surface. The exact meaning of surface varies in the literature and in practice. It is usually between 1 millimetre (0.04 in) and 20 metres (70 ft) below the sea surface. Sea surface temperatures greatly modify air masses in the Earth's atmosphere within a short distance of the shore. The thermohaline circulation has a major impact on average sea surface temperature throughout most of the world's oceans.[9]

Deep ocean temperature

The temperature further below the surface is called "ocean temperature" or "deep ocean temperature". Ocean temperatures (more than 20 metres below the surface) also vary by region and time, and they contribute to variations in ocean heat content and ocean stratification.[10] The increase of both ocean surface temperature and deeper ocean temperature is an important effect of climate change on oceans.[10]

Deep ocean water is the name for cold, salty water found deep below the surface of Earth's oceans. Deep ocean water makes up about 90% of the volume of the oceans. Deep ocean water has a very uniform temperature, around 0-3 °C, and a salinity of about 3.5% or 35 ppt (parts per thousand).[11]

Measurements

There are a variety of techniques for measuring ocean temperature. Away from the immediate sea surface, general temperature measurements are accompanied by a reference to the specific depth of measurement. This is because of significant differences encountered between measurements made at different depths, especially during the daytime when low wind speed and a lot of sunshine may lead to the formation of a warm layer at the ocean's surface and strong vertical temperature gradients (a diurnal thermocline).[12]

Sea surface temperature measurements are confined to the top portion of the ocean, known as the near-surface layer.[13] They can be measured with thermometers or from satellites. Weather satellites have been available to determine this parameter since 1967, with the first global composites created during 1970.[14]

Argo program

This section is an excerpt from Argo (oceanography).[edit]
Argo is an international programme for researching the ocean. It uses profiling floats to observe temperature, salinity and currents. Recently it has observed bio-optical properties in the Earth's oceans. It has been operating since the early 2000s. The real-time data it provides support climate and oceanographic research.[15][16] A special research interest is to quantify the ocean heat content (OHC). The Argo fleet consists of almost 4000 drifting "Argo floats" (as profiling floats used by the Argo program are often called) deployed worldwide. Each float weighs 20–30 kg. In most cases probes drift at a depth of 1000 metres. Experts call this the parking depth. Every 10 days, by changing their buoyancy, they dive to a depth of 2000 metres and then move to the sea-surface. As they move they measure conductivity and temperature profiles as well as pressure. Scientists calculate salinity and density from these measurements. Seawater density is important in determining large-scale motions in the ocean.

Increasing temperature due to climate change

The illustration of temperature changes from 1960 to 2019 across each ocean starting at the Southern Ocean around Antarctica.[17]
Further information: Effects of climate change on oceans
This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change on oceans § Rising ocean temperature.[edit]

It is clear that the ocean is warming as a result of climate change, and this rate of warming is increasing.[18]: 9  The global ocean was the warmest it had ever been recorded by humans in 2022.[19] This is determined by the ocean heat content, which exceeded the previous 2021 maximum in 2022.[19] The steady rise in ocean temperatures is an unavoidable result of the Earth's energy imbalance, which is primarily caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases.[19] Between pre-industrial times and the 2011–2020 decade, the ocean's surface has heated between 0.68 and 1.01 °C.[20]: 1214 

The majority of ocean heat gain occurs in the Southern Ocean. For example, between the 1950s and the 1980s, the temperature of the Antarctic Southern Ocean rose by 0.17 °C (0.31 °F), nearly twice the rate of the global ocean.[21]

The warming rate varies with depth. The upper ocean (above 700 m) is warming the fastest. At an ocean depth of a thousand metres the warming occurs at a rate of nearly 0.4 °C per century (data from 1981 to 2019).[22]: Figure 5.4  In deeper zones of the ocean (globally speaking), at 2000 metres depth, the warming has been around 0.1 °C per century.[22]: Figure 5.4  The warming pattern is different for the Antarctic Ocean (at 55°S), where the highest warming (0.3 °C per century) has been observed at a depth of 4500 m.[22]: Figure 5.4 
This section is an excerpt from Sea surface temperature § Recent increase due to climate change.[edit]
Overall, scientists project that all regions of the oceans will warm by 2050, but models disagree for SST changes expected in the subpolar North Atlantic, the equatorial Pacific, and the Southern Ocean.[23] The future global mean SST increase for the period 1995-2014 to 2081-2100 is 0.86°C under the most modest greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, and up to 2.89°C under the most severe emissions scenarios.[23]

Causes

The root cause of these observed changes is the Earth warming due to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, such as for example carbon dioxide and methane.[24] This leads inevitably to ocean warming, because the ocean is taking up most of the additional heat in the climate system.[25]

Main physical effects

Increased stratification and lower oxygen levels

Warming of the ocean surface due to higher air temperatures leads to increased ocean temperature stratification: The decline in mixing of the ocean layers stabilises warm water near the surface while reducing cold, deep water circulation. The reduced up and down mixing reduces the ability of the ocean to absorb heat, directing a larger fraction of future warming toward the atmosphere and land. Energy available for tropical cyclones and other storms is expected to increase, nutrients for fish in the upper ocean layers are set to decrease, as is the capacity of the oceans to store carbon.

Warmer water cannot contain as much oxygen as cold water. As a result, the gas exchange equilibrium changes to reduce ocean oxygen levels and increase oxygen in the atmosphere. Increased thermal stratification may lead to reduced supply of oxygen from the surface waters to deeper waters, and therefore further decrease the water's oxygen content.[26] The ocean has already lost oxygen throughout the water column, and oxygen minimum zones are expanding worldwide.[27]: 471 

Changing ocean currents

Main articles: Ocean § Ocean currents and global climate, and Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

Ocean currents are caused by varying temperatures associated with sunlight and air temperatures at different latitudes, as well as by prevailing winds and the different densities of saline and fresh water. Air tends to be warmed and thus rise near the equator, then cool and thus sink slightly further poleward. Near the poles, cool air sinks, but is warmed and rises as it then travels along the surface equatorward. Driven by this sinking and the upwelling that occurs in lower latitudes, as well as the driving force of the winds on surface water, the ocean currents act to circulate water throughout the entire sea. When global warming is added into the equation, changes occur, especially in the regions where deep water is formed.[28]

In the geologic past

Main article: Geologic temperature record

Temperature reconstructions based on oxygen and silicon isotopes from rock samples have predicted much hotter Precambrian sea temperatures.[29][30] These predictions suggest ocean temperatures of 55–85 °C during the period of 2,000 to 3,500 million years ago, followed by cooling to more mild temperatures of between 10-40 °C by 1,000 million years ago. Reconstructed proteins from Precambrian organisms have also provided evidence that the ancient world was much warmer than today.[31][32]

During the later portion of the Cretaceous, from 100 to 66 million years ago, average global temperatures reached their highest level during the last ~200 million years.[33] This is likely to be the result of a favorable configuration of the continents during this period that allowed for improved circulation in the oceans and discouraged the formation of large scale ice sheet.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Ocean Stratification". The Climate System. Columbia Univ. Archived from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
  2. ^ "The Hidden Meltdown of Greenland". Nasa Science/Science News. NASA. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
  3. ^ "Temperature of Ocean Water". UCAR. Archived from the original on 2010-03-27. Retrieved 2012-09-05.
  4. ^ Rahmstorf, S (2003). "The concept of the thermohaline circulation" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6924): 699. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..699R. doi:10.1038/421699a. PMID 12610602. S2CID 4414604.
  5. ^ Lappo, SS (1984). "On reason of the northward heat advection across the Equator in the South Pacific and Atlantic ocean". Study of Ocean and Atmosphere Interaction Processes. Moscow Department of Gidrometeoizdat (in Mandarin): 125–9.
  6. ^ IPCC, 2019: Summary for Policymakers. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M.  Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.001.
  7. ^ Cheng, Lijing; Abraham, John; Hausfather, Zeke; Trenberth, Kevin E. (2019). "How fast are the oceans warming?". Science. 363 (6423): 128–129. Bibcode:2019Sci...363..128C. doi:10.1126/science.aav7619. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30630919. S2CID 57825894.
  8. ^ "Copernicus: March 2024 is the tenth month in a row to be the hottest on record | Copernicus". climate.copernicus.eu. Retrieved 2024-08-15.
  9. ^ Rahmstorf, S (2003). "The concept of the thermohaline circulation" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6924): 699. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..699R. doi:10.1038/421699a. PMID 12610602. S2CID 4414604.
  10. ^ a b Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G.  Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L.  Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211–1362, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
  11. ^ "Temperature of Ocean Water". UCAR. Archived from the original on 2010-03-27. Retrieved 2012-09-05.
  12. ^ Vittorio Barale (2010). Oceanography from Space: Revisited. Springer. p. 263. ISBN 978-90-481-8680-8.
  13. ^ Alexander Soloviev; Roger Lukas (2006). The near-surface layer of the ocean: structure, dynamics and applications. シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社. p. xi. Bibcode:2006nslo.book.....S. ISBN 978-1-4020-4052-8. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  14. ^ P. Krishna Rao, W. L. Smith, and R. Koffler (January 1972). "Global Sea-Surface Temperature Distribution Determined From an Environmental Satellite" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 100 (1): 10–14. Bibcode:1972MWRv..100...10K. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1972)100<0010:GSTDDF>2.3.CO;2. Retrieved 2011-01-09.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Argo Begins Systematic Global Probing of the Upper Oceans Toni Feder, Phys. Today 53, 50 (2000), Archived 11 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine doi:10.1063/1.1292477
  16. ^ Richard Stenger (19 September 2000). "Flotilla of sensors to monitor world's oceans". CNN. Archived from the original on 6 November 2007.
  17. ^ Cheng, Lijing; Abraham, John; Zhu, Jiang; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John; Boyer, Tim; Locarnini, Ricardo; Zhang, Bin; Yu, Fujiang; Wan, Liying; Chen, Xingrong; Song, Xiangzhou; Liu, Yulong; Mann, Michael E. (2020). "Record-Setting Ocean Warmth Continued in 2019". Advances in Atmospheric Sciences. 37 (2): 137–142. doi:10.1007/s00376-020-9283-7. ISSN 1861-9533.
  18. ^ "Summary for Policymakers". The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (PDF). 2019. pp. 3–36. doi:10.1017/9781009157964.001. ISBN 978-1-00-915796-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-03-29. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  19. ^ a b c Cheng, Lijing; Abraham, John; Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John; Boyer, Tim; Mann, Michael E.; Zhu, Jiang; Wang, Fan; Locarnini, Ricardo; Li, Yuanlong; Zhang, Bin; Yu, Fujiang; Wan, Liying; Chen, Xingrong; Feng, Licheng (2023). "Another Year of Record Heat for the Oceans". Advances in Atmospheric Sciences. 40 (6): 963–974. Bibcode:2023AdAtS..40..963C. doi:10.1007/s00376-023-2385-2. ISSN 0256-1530. PMC 9832248. PMID 36643611. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  20. ^ Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G. Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change Archived 2022-10-24 at the Wayback Machine. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Archived 2021-08-09 at the Wayback Machine [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211–1362
  21. ^ Gille, Sarah T. (2002-02-15). "Warming of the Southern Ocean Since the 1950s". Science. 295 (5558): 1275–1277. Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1275G. doi:10.1126/science.1065863. PMID 11847337. S2CID 31434936.
  22. ^ a b c Bindoff, N.L., W.W.L. Cheung, J.G. Kairo, J. Arístegui, V.A. Guinder, R. Hallberg, N. Hilmi, N. Jiao, M.S. Karim, L. Levin, S. O'Donoghue, S.R. Purca Cuicapusa, B. Rinkevich, T. Suga, A. Tagliabue, and P. Williamson, 2019: Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities Archived 2019-12-20 at the Wayback Machine. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate Archived 2021-07-12 at the Wayback Machine [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. In press.
  23. ^ a b Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G.  Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, USA, pages 1211–1362, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
  24. ^ Doney, Scott C.; Busch, D. Shallin; Cooley, Sarah R.; Kroeker, Kristy J. (2020-10-17). "The Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems and Reliant Human Communities". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 45 (1): 83–112. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083019. ISSN 1543-5938. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  25. ^ Cheng, Lijing; Abraham, John; Hausfather, Zeke; Trenberth, Kevin E. (2019). "How fast are the oceans warming?". Science. 363 (6423): 128–129. Bibcode:2019Sci...363..128C. doi:10.1126/science.aav7619. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30630919. S2CID 57825894.
  26. ^ Chester, R.; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 9: Nutrients oxygen organic carbon and the carbon cycle in seawater". Marine geochemistry (3rd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley/Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-34909-0. OCLC 781078031.
  27. ^ Bindoff, N.L., W.W.L. Cheung, J.G. Kairo, J. Arístegui, V.A. Guinder, R. Hallberg, N. Hilmi, N. Jiao, M.S. Karim, L. Levin, S. O’Donoghue, S.R. Purca Cuicapusa, B. Rinkevich, T. Suga, A. Tagliabue, and P. Williamson, 2019: Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. In press.
  28. ^ Trenberth, K; Caron, J (2001). "Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports". Journal of Climate. 14 (16): 3433–43. Bibcode:2001JCli...14.3433T. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<3433:EOMAAO>2.0.CO;2.
  29. ^ Knauth, L. Paul (2005). "Temperature and salinity history of the Precambrian ocean: implications for the course of microbial evolution". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 219 (1–2): 53–69. Bibcode:2005PPP...219...53K. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.10.014.
  30. ^ Shields, Graham A.; Kasting, James F. (2006). "A palaeotemperature curve for the Precambrian oceans based on silicon isotopes in cherts". Nature. 443 (7114): 969–972. Bibcode:2006Natur.443..969R. doi:10.1038/nature05239. PMID 17066030. S2CID 4417157.
  31. ^ Gaucher, EA; Govindarajan, S; Ganesh, OK (2008). "Palaeotemperature trend for Precambrian life inferred from resurrected proteins". Nature. 451 (7179): 704–707. Bibcode:2008Natur.451..704G. doi:10.1038/nature06510. PMID 18256669. S2CID 4311053.
  32. ^ Risso, VA; Gavira, JA; Mejia-Carmona, DF (2013). "Hyperstability and substrate promiscuity in laboratory resurrections of Precambrian b-lactamases". J Am Chem Soc. 135 (8): 2899–2902. doi:10.1021/ja311630a. PMID 23394108.
  33. ^ Renne, Paul R.; Deino, Alan L.; Hilgen, Frederik J.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mark, Darren F.; Mitchell, William S.; Morgan, Leah E.; Mundil, Roland; Smit, Jan (7 February 2013). "Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary". Science. 339 (6120): 684–687. Bibcode:2013Sci...339..684R. doi:10.1126/science.1230492. PMID 23393261. S2CID 6112274.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_temperature&oldid=1118744783"