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Governance mechanisms can reduce water insecurity in transboundary groundwater contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Tamee R. |last2=Varady |first2=Robert G. |last3=Zuniga-Teran |first3=Adriana A. |last4=Gerlak |first4=Andrea K. |last5=Staddon |first5=Chad |date=2017 |title=Governing a shared hidden resource: A review of governance mechanisms for transboundary groundwater security |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2468312417300044 |journal=Water Security |language=en |volume=2 |pages=43–56 |doi=10.1016/j.wasec.2017.11.002}}</ref> They require processes that "(1) enhance context-specific and flexible international mechanisms; (2) address the perpetual need for groundwater data and information; (3) prioritize the precautionary principle and pollution prevention, in particular; (4) where appropriate, integrate governance of surface and subsurface water and land; and (5) expand institutional capacity, especially of binational or multinational actors."
Governance mechanisms can reduce water insecurity in transboundary groundwater contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albrecht |first=Tamee R. |last2=Varady |first2=Robert G. |last3=Zuniga-Teran |first3=Adriana A. |last4=Gerlak |first4=Andrea K. |last5=Staddon |first5=Chad |date=2017 |title=Governing a shared hidden resource: A review of governance mechanisms for transboundary groundwater security |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2468312417300044 |journal=Water Security |language=en |volume=2 |pages=43–56 |doi=10.1016/j.wasec.2017.11.002}}</ref> They require processes that "(1) enhance context-specific and flexible international mechanisms; (2) address the perpetual need for groundwater data and information; (3) prioritize the precautionary principle and pollution prevention, in particular; (4) where appropriate, integrate governance of surface and subsurface water and land; and (5) expand institutional capacity, especially of binational or multinational actors."

Approaches to improve water security include natural resources, science, and engineering approaches, political and legal tools, economic and financial tools, policy and governance strategies.<ref name=":3" />{{rp|102}}


=== Core elements ===
=== Core elements ===

Revision as of 12:18, 12 April 2022

Water security is a concept that describes the fundamental societal goal of water policy and water management, whereby the productive potential of water is harnessed and its destructive impact is limited.[1] Water has productive contributions to human and ecosystems’ well-being, livelihoods and development. It can also have destructive impacts on societies and ecosystems when there is too much water (flood), too little water (drought and water scarcity) or poor quality (polluted) water.[1] Water security has been defined as "the reliable availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks".[2] Achieving water security, by managing water resources, is a key factor to achieve growth, sustainable development and poverty reduction.[2] The main three factors that determine a society's ability to sustain water security include: hydrologic environment, socio-economic environment and changes in the future environment (climate change).[1]

The absence of water security is termed "water insecurity". Water insecurity is regarded as a growing threat to humanity.[3]: 4 

Definitions and scale

The term “water security” is often used with varying definitions by different people.[2][4][5]: 5  When compared to the the terms “food security” and “energy security”(which refer to reliable access to food or energy), an important difference with "water security" is that not only is the absence of water a threat but also its presence when there is too much.[2]

A working definition of water security by UN-Water was provided in 2013 as follows:[6]

Water security is defined here as the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being , and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability. [...] The term “water security” offers a common framework and a platform for communication.

— UN-Water, [4]: 1 

A similar definition is that by WaterAid in 2012:

WaterAid defines water security as: Reliable access to water of sufficient quantity and quality for basic human needs, small-scale livelihoods and local ecosystem services, coupled with a well managed risk of water-related disasters.

— WaterAid, [4]: 5 

World Resources Institute also uses a similar definition in 2020:

"For purposes of this report, we define water security as the capacity of a population to

▪ safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socioeconomic development;

▪ protect against water pollution and water-related disasters; and

▪ preserve ecosystems, upon which clean water availability and other ecosystem services depend."[3]: 17 


Whilst most areas of the world are at risk of experiencing some form of water insecurity, some regions are more vulnerable than others. According to the Pacific Institute "While regional impacts will vary, global climate change will potentially alter agricultural productivity, freshwater availability and quality, access to vital minerals, coastal and island flooding, and more. Among the consequences of these impacts will be challenges to political relationships, realignment of energy markets and regional economies, and threats to security".[7]

According to Nature (2010), about 80% of the world's population (5.6 billion in 2011) live in areas with threats to water security. Water insecurity is a shared threat to human and nature and it is pandemic. Human water-management strategies can be detrimental to wildlife, such as migrating fish. Regions with intensive agriculture and dense populations, such as the US and Europe, have a high threat of water security. Water is increasingly being used as a weapon in conflict.[8] Water insecurity is always accompanied by one or more issues such as poverty, war and conflict, oppression of women and minorities and environmental degradation.[9] Researchers estimate that during the 2010–2015 period, ca US$800 billion will be required to cover the annual global investment in water infrastructure required to mitigate if not reverse water insecurity threats. Good management of water resources can jointly manage biodiversity protection and human water security. Preserving flood plains rather than constructing flood-control reservoirs is a cost-effective way to control floods while protecting the biodiversity of wildlife that occupies such areas.[10]

The term water security encompasses ideas and concepts regarding sustainability, integration and adaptiveness of water resource management and has a complex history.[11] There are four key areas of focus: increasing economic welfare, enhancing social equity, moving towards long-term sustainability and reducing water related risks.[12] Risks can be further classified as hazards (droughts, floods and quality deterioration), exposure and vulnerability.[12] Water security is sometimes sought by implementing water desalination, pipelines between sources and users, water licences with different security levels and war.

Urban water security can also understood from a systems perspective, given its complexity and cross-disciplinary nature. This involves understanding the types of pressures on the water system (such as climate change and urbanization), the state of the water system (water stocks and flows), the impact of the water system on water services provision (such as affordability and availability), and responses (including institutional reforms).[12]

More recently sustained empirical research has challenged the many ways in which water security is quantified, noting the multiplicity of measures[13] and the various scales at which they apply.[14] Subsequently there has been considerable progress in developing and rolling out meaningful ways of assessing water insecurity, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Improved metrics, and especially metrics linked directly to the experience of water insecurity are also allowing development specialists to more appropriately assess the efficacy of development programmes.

Water security as a concept emerged in the 21st century.[1]

Water as a destructive force

Water is a force for destruction:[2]

  • Catastrophically through drought, flood, landslides and epidemic
  • Progressively through erosion, inundation, desertification, contamination and disease.

This destructive aspects water are related to its "extraordinary power, mobility, indispensability and unpredictability".

Water risk

"Water risk" refers to the "possibility of an entity experiencing a water-related challenge (e.g., water scarcity, water stress, flooding, infrastructure decay, drought)".[15]: 4  Water risk is inversely related to water security, meaning that as water risk increases, water security decreases. Water risk is complex and multidimensional. It includes risks from natural disasters such as flooding and drought, which can lead to infrastructure failure and worsen hunger.[16] When these risks are realized, they result in water scarcity or other problems. The potential economic effects of water risk are significant. Entire industries, such as the food and beverage, agriculture, oil and gas, utilities, semiconductor and industries, are threatened by water risk. Agriculture uses 69% of global freshwater, making the industry extremely vulnerable to water stress.[17]

The financial sector is becoming more aware of the potential impacts of water risk and the need for its proper management. By 2025, $145 trillion in assets under management are expected to be exposed to water risk.[18]

To help mitigate water risk, companies can develop water risk management plans.[16] These can then be used by financial markets to measure company environmental, social and governance (ESG) performance and identify leaders in water risk management.[19][17] The World Resources Institute has also developed an online water data platform named Aqueduct for risk assessment and water management. China Water Risk is a nonprofit dedicated to understanding and managing water risk in China. The World Wildlife Fund has a Water Risk Filter that helps companies assess and respond to water risk with scenarios for 2030 and 2050.[20] The World Wildlife Fund has also partnered with DWS, which provides additional business solutions to water risk including water-centric investment funds.[21]

Water conflict

This section is an excerpt from Water conflict.[edit]
Water conflict typically refers to violence or disputes associated with access to, or control of, water resources, or the use of water or water systems as weapons or casualties of conflicts. The term water war is colloquially used in media for some disputes over water, and often is more limited to describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over the rights to access water resources.[22][23] The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users, public or private.[24] A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though they are rarely traditional wars waged over water alone.[25] Instead, water has long been a source of tension and one of the causes for conflicts. Water conflicts arise for several reasons, including territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.[26]

Determining factors

The main three factors that determine a society's ability to sustain water security include:[2]

  1. Hydrologic environment
  2. Socio-economic environment
  3. Changes in the future environment (climate change)

Hydrologic environment

The hydrologic environment is a determinant of water security due to water resource availability, its inter- and intra-annual variability and its spatial distribution. An "easy to manage" hydrologic environment would be one with relatively low rainfall variability, with rain distributed throughout the year and perennial river flows sustained by groundwater base flows. A “difficult” hydrology is one with absolute water scarcity (i.e. deserts) or low-lying lands where there is severe flood risk; regions where rainfall is markedly seasonal, or a high inter-annual climate variability.[2]

Socio-economic environment

The socio-economic environment is a determinant for water security and refers the structure of the economy, behavior of its actors, natural and cultural legacies as well as policy choices. This factor also includes water infrastructure and institutions, macroeconomic structure and resilience, risk and the behavior of economic actors.[2]

Changes in the future environment (climate change)

Global climate change is "likely to increase the complexity and costs of ensuring water security".[27] This is because climate change is expected to lead to increased hydrological variability and extremes.

Climate change has many impacts on the water cycle, resulting in higher climatic and hydrological variability, which means that water security will be compromised.[4]: vII  Changes in the water cycle will threaten existing water infrastructure, making societies more vulnerable to extreme water-related events and resulting in increased insecurity.[4]: vII 

Specifically, climate change can lead to an "increased incidence of droughts in some areas, while others will see an increasing incidence of floods and other extreme events such as cyclones due to increasing trends in precipitation intensity". Drinking water supply can be threatened though melting of glaciers in terms of quantity, while saltwater intrusion from rising sea levels will compromise water quality.[4]: 16 

Climate change is about uncertainty and is an important long-term risk to water security.[5]: 21  However, climate change must be seen in the context of other existing challenges for water security which include: existing high levels of climate variability at low latitudes, population growth, increased demand for water resources, political obstacles, increased disaster exposure due to settlement of hazard-prone areas, and environmental degradation.[5]: 22 

Water demand for irrigation in agriculture is predicted to increase due to climate change. This is because evaporation rates and crop transpiration rate will be higher due to rising temperatures.[3]: 4 

Factors contributing to water insecurity

There are many risk drivers for water insecurity for example:[3]: 4 

  • Population growth and economic expansion which are increasing water demand in many regions of the world.
  • Increasing water pollution and low levels of wastewater treatment, which is making local water unusable.
  • Highly inefficient irrigation schemes in agriculture, instead of more efficient sprinkler or drip irrigation technologies.
  • Poor planning of water use around the world without regard to how much water is sustainably available, causing groundwater levels to drop, rivers and lakes to dry out, and local ecosystems to collapse.

Poverty

Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa

Low-income countries are at greater risk of not achieving water security. This can result in human suffering, sustained poverty, constrained growth and social unrest.[2] It has been found that: "Not coincidentally, most of the world’s poor face difficult hydrologies" (combined inter-annual and intra-annual variability). It has been found that greater rainfall variability is statistically associated with lower per capita incomes.[2]

Achieving water security, by managing water resources, is a key factor to achieve growth, sustainable development and poverty reduction.[2] Water security is therefore also linked to social justice and equitable distribution of environmental benefits and harms.[28] Sustainable development would result in lowered poverty and increased living standards for those most susceptible to the impacts of insecure water resources in the region, especially women and children.

Water scarcity

An important threat to water security is water scarcity. There can be several causes to water scarcity including low rainfall, climate change,[29] high population density, and overallocation of a water source. About 27% of the world’s population lived in areas affected by water scarcity in the mid 2010’s. Even by more conservative estimates, this is expected to increase to 42% by 2050.[30] Over-urbanization relative to water resources can create conditions of rapidly deteriorating household water security, particularly where pre-existing water and sanitation infrastructure is only poorly developed. Examples of periodic deep water scarcity that is inducing water insecurity include the ongoing California drought that started in early 2000s and the Cape Town Water Crisis (mid-2017 to mid-2018). In both cases pre-existing vulnerabilities were exacerbated by persistent climatic drought.

This section is an excerpt from Water scarcity.[edit]
Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.[31]: 560  Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands. This includes water needed for ecosystems to function. Regions with a desert climate often face physical water scarcity.[32] Central Asia, West Asia, and North Africa are examples of arid areas. Economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.[31]: 560  Many people in Sub-Saharan Africa are living with economic water scarcity.[33]: 11 

Water pollution

A broad category of threats to water security is environmental threats (water pollution). These include contaminants such as nutrients, pesticides and herbicides (usually from agriculture), heavy metals (usually from industry), and Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or "forever chemicals", climate change and natural disasters. Contaminants can enter a water source naturally through flooding. Contaminants can also be a problem if a population switches their water supply from surface water to groundwater or even from one surface source to another.

An example of this was the "Flint Water Crisis" in Flint, Michigan during 2014-2019 (Flint had changed its water source from treated water that was sourced from Lake Huron and the Detroit River to the Flint River).

This section is an excerpt from Water pollution.[edit]
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses.[34]: 6  It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater.[35] Water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation.[36] Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem services such as drinking water provided by the water resource.

Natural disasters and accidents

Natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires can damage man-made structures such as dams and fill waterways with debris. Another thread to water security includes radiation due to a nuclear accident.[37]

Other

Other threats to water security include terrorism.[37] Water insecurity can also be created by emergence of extensive new water uses such as hydraulic fracturing for energy resources.[38]

Approaches

Suitable institutions and infrastructure are needed to achieve water security.[39] Water infrastructure is needed to access, store, regulate, move and conserve the resource. These functions can be performed by a combination of natural assets (lakes, rivers, wetlands, aquifers, springs) and man-made assets (bulk water management infrastructure, such as multipurpose dams for river regulation and storage and inter-basin transfer schemes).[40]

Water security can be achieved at a national scale through investment in an "evolving balance of complementary institutions and infrastructure for water management".[40] This is important to avoid unforeseen and even unacceptable social and environmental costs from infrastructure measures that were designed to achieve water security.

Governance mechanisms can reduce water insecurity in transboundary groundwater contexts.[41] They require processes that "(1) enhance context-specific and flexible international mechanisms; (2) address the perpetual need for groundwater data and information; (3) prioritize the precautionary principle and pollution prevention, in particular; (4) where appropriate, integrate governance of surface and subsurface water and land; and (5) expand institutional capacity, especially of binational or multinational actors."

Approaches to improve water security include natural resources, science, and engineering approaches, political and legal tools, economic and financial tools, policy and governance strategies.[3]: 102 

Core elements

Core elements necessary to achieving and maintaining water security include:[4]: 2 

  • Access to safe and sufficient drinking water at an affordable cost in order to meet basic needs, which includes sanitation and hygiene
  • Protection of livelihoods, human rights, and cultural and recreational values;
  • Preservation and protection of ecosystems in water allocation and management systems
  • Water supplies for socio-economic development and activities (such as energy, transport, industry, tourism);
  • Collection and treatment of used water to protect human life and the environment from pollution;
  • Collaborative approaches to transboundary water resources management within and between countries;
  • The ability to cope with uncertainties and risks of water-related hazards, such as floods, droughts and pollution, among others; and,
  • Good governance and accountability, and the due consideration of the interests of all stakeholders

Country examples

Australia

This section is an excerpt from Water security in Australia.[edit]
Water security in Australia became a major concern in Australia in the late 20th and early 21st century as a result of population growth, recurring severe droughts, effects of climate change on Australia, environmental degradation from reduced environmental flows, competition between competing interests such as grazing, irrigation and urban water supplies, and competition between upstream and downstream users. For example, there is competition for the resources of the Darling River system between Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia.[42] Water reform was first placed on the national agenda at the 1994 Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meeting when a strategic framework was devised.[43] As the knowledge of surface and groundwater systems grew and the awareness of the significance of sustainable water markets increased, further water reform was agreed to at the 2004 COAG meeting, under a national blueprint known as the National Water Initiative (NWI).

China

Main article: Water resources of China § Water security
Yufeng Reservoir drought conditions, 2015.

China’s per capita water usage is just over a quarter of the global average.[44] The World Resources Institute lists many of the more populated areas of the country as experiencing high (40% - 80% of renewable ground water extracted yearly) or extremely high (>80%) water stress. The WRI has also evaluated a similar portion of the country in the range of 3 to 5 on their overall water risk index, a measurement accounting for a variety of qualitative and quantitative evaluations.[45] Issues relating to water quality and quantity are likely primary limiting factors in China’s sustainable economic and infrastructural development.[46]

China introduces five year plans every fifth year pertaining to various issues facing the country. They are a guiding initiative that do not necessarily pertain to legal enforcement, but rather economic and social guidance and planning.[47] In 2016, the Thirteenth Five-Year Plan was introduced along with the goal of limiting annual water consumption per year to 670 billion cubic meters. These guidelines played an important role in China showing a reduction in water consumption for the first time in over a decade in 2014.[48]

A number of laws have been passed in the last two decades that aimed to reduce water usage, waste, and pollution as well as increase disaster preparedness. The Water Law (amended 2002) was first passed in 1988, this amendment provided sections relating to water allocation right, extraction rights, use and conservation parameters, pollution prevention, and basin management. This law could be seen as a turning point in the early 2000s for water security recognition.[49] Many have come to criticize China for its failure to introduce effective water resource management practices earlier than their mid-2010s onset. For nearly a decade the regulations set forth in the Water Laws regulation were not effectively enforced, so although there were effective measures drafted, the issues continued to develop.[49]

United States

Drought conditions at California's Lake Oroville.
This section is an excerpt from Water supply and sanitation in the United States § Water security.[edit]
Water security is projected to be a problem in the future since future population growth will most likely occur in areas that are currently water stressed.[50] Ensuring that the United States remains water secure will require policies that will ensure fair distribution of existing water sources, protecting water sources from becoming depleted, maintaining good wastewater disposal, and maintaining existing water infrastructure.[51][52] Currently there are no national limits for US groundwater or surface water withdrawal. If limits are imposed, the people most impacted will be the largest water withdrawers from a water source.

See also

References

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