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Several studies from Asia found that fluctuating temperatures influenced mental health and well-being, impacting productivity and livelihoods. For example, long-term exposure to high and low temperatures in [[Taiwan]] resulted in a 7% increase of major depressive disorder incidence per 1 °C increment in regions with an average annual temperature above the median 23 °C.<ref name="Charlson" />
Several studies from Asia found that fluctuating temperatures influenced mental health and well-being, impacting productivity and livelihoods. For example, long-term exposure to high and low temperatures in [[Taiwan]] resulted in a 7% increase of major depressive disorder incidence per 1 °C increment in regions with an average annual temperature above the median 23 °C.<ref name="Charlson" />

==== Wildfires ====
Studies from North America have shown that experiences of evacuation and isolation due to wildfires, as well as feelings of fear, stress, and uncertainty, contributed to acute and long-term negative impacts on mental and emotional well-being. Prolonged smoke events were linked to respiratory problems, extended time indoors, and disruptions to livelihood and land-based activities, which negatively affected mental well-being.<ref name="Charlson" />

==== Floods ====
An Australian study in rural communities concluded that the threat of drought and flood are intertwined and contributed to decreased well-being from stress, anxiety, loss, and fear.<ref name="Charlson" /> A cohort study from the UK looking at the longterm impact of flooding found psychological morbidity persisted for at least three years after the flooding event.<ref name="Charlson" />


==== Increased carbon dioxide concentrations ====
==== Increased carbon dioxide concentrations ====

Revision as of 12:25, 7 April 2022

Smoke in Sydney's CBD from large bushfires (in 2019), affecting general health and mental health in particular. The likelihood of bushfires is increased by climate change.

Global climate change can have substantial negative impacts on mental health and wellbeing, especially for vulnerable populations and those with pre-existing serious mental illness.[1] There are three broad pathways by which the effects of climate change on mental health can take place: directly, indirectly or via awareness. The direct pathway includes stress related conditions being caused by exposure to extreme weather events, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Scientific studies have linked mental health outcomes to several climate-related exposures—heat, humidity, rainfall, drought, wildfires, and floods.[2] The indirect pathway can be via disruption to economic and social activities, such as when an area of farmland is less able to produce food. And the third pathway can be of mere awareness of the climate change threat, even by individuals who are not otherwise affected by it.

Mental health outcomes have been measured in several studies through indicators such as psychiatric hospital admissions, mortality, self harm and suicide rates. Vulnerable populations and life stages include people with pre-existing mental illness, indigenous peoples, children and adolescents.

The emotional responses to the threat of climate change can include eco-anxiety, ecological grief and eco-anger. While unpleasant, such emotions are often not harmful, and can be rational responses to the degradation of the natural world, motivating adaptive action.[3]

Pathways

Flooding in the Brisbane suburb of Sumner in 2011, affecting mental health of residents (floods in Queensland are predicted to become more frequent and severe due to climate change)
Flooded street in the Brisbane suburb of Yeronga in 2011.
People looking at frozen ice sheets breaking apart in the water with a mountain view (this process will be accelerated due to Arctic sea ice decline).
See also: Effects of climate change on human health

There are three causal pathways by which climate change causes psychological effects: directly, indirectly or via awareness (or "psychosocial").[4] In some cases, people may be affected via more than one pathway at once.[5][6][7] Various reviews use different nomenclature to designate the three causal pathways. e.g. some designate the "Awareness" pathway using the term "Indirect impact" , while grouping "Indirect" effects via financial and social disruption under "Psychosocial".[1]

Direct pathway

The direct pathway includes stress-related conditions being caused by exposure to extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods and wildfires. These conditions can result in trauma-related events, such as dislocation from climate-change induced natural disasters, such as flooding or fire, losing friends and family, or other traumatic events. The effect of being exposed to such events can be increased mental health illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder, depression, and generalized anxiety disorder.[4][8] These effects often occur simultaneously, as well as individually.[9] A large amount of literature exists concerning the association between disasters and mental health (without explicitly linking an increase in frequency and severity to climate change).[2]

Most commonly this is short term stress, from which people can often soon make a rapid recovery. But sometimes chronic conditions set in, especially among those who have been exposed to multiple events, such as post traumatic stress, somatoform disorder or long term anxiety. A swift response by authorities to restore a sense of order and security can substantially reduce the risk of any long term psychological impact for most people. Though individuals who already suffered from mental ill health, especially psychosis, can need intensive care, which can be challenging to deliver if local mental health services were disrupted by the extreme weather.[6][5][10]

Physical health can be severely impacted by climate change (see also effects of climate change on human health). The deterioration of a person's physical health can also lead to a deterioration in a person's mental health.[11]

The less extreme direct manifestations of climate change can also have direct psychological effects. The single most well studied linkage between weather and human behavior is that between temperature and aggression. Various reviews conclude that high temperatures cause people to become bad tempered, leading to increased physical violence.[6][12][13][14]

Increased temperatures and heatwaves

Several studies have shown that there is a correlation between elevated temperatures and psychiatric hospital admissions for a range of mental and neurological disorders (dementia, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, somatoform disorders, and disorders of psychological development).[2]

Mortality has also been found to be influenced by high ambient temperatures for people living with mental illness and neurological conditions.[2] Another European study supports this finding with increased mortality risk for people with psychiatric disorders during heat waves from 2000 to 2008 in Rome and Stockholm, particularly for older people (75+) and women.[2] Projections of mortality under different climate change scenarios in China also estimate increasing trends in heat-related excess mortality for mental disorders but a decreasing trend in cold-related excess mortality.[2]

Temperature has also been associated with self-harm and suicide rates.[2] Using data from the US and Mexico, suicide rates were found to increase by 0.7% and 3.1%, respectively, for a 1 °C increase in monthly average temperature.[2]

Several studies from Asia found that fluctuating temperatures influenced mental health and well-being, impacting productivity and livelihoods. For example, long-term exposure to high and low temperatures in Taiwan resulted in a 7% increase of major depressive disorder incidence per 1 °C increment in regions with an average annual temperature above the median 23 °C.[2]

Wildfires

Studies from North America have shown that experiences of evacuation and isolation due to wildfires, as well as feelings of fear, stress, and uncertainty, contributed to acute and long-term negative impacts on mental and emotional well-being. Prolonged smoke events were linked to respiratory problems, extended time indoors, and disruptions to livelihood and land-based activities, which negatively affected mental well-being.[2]

Floods

An Australian study in rural communities concluded that the threat of drought and flood are intertwined and contributed to decreased well-being from stress, anxiety, loss, and fear.[2] A cohort study from the UK looking at the longterm impact of flooding found psychological morbidity persisted for at least three years after the flooding event.[2]

Increased carbon dioxide concentrations

Drivers of climate change may also have a physiological effects on the brain, in addition to their psychological impacts. By the end of the 21st century people could be exposed to indoor CO2 levels of up to 1400 ppm, triple the amount commonly experienced outdoors today. This may cut humans' basic decision-making ability indoors by ~25% and complex strategic thinking by ~50% due to carbon dioxide toxicity.[15][16][17]

Indirect pathway

The indirect pathway occurs via disruption to economic and social activities, such as when an area of farmland becomes infertile due to desertification or a decrease in tourism due to damage to the landscape. This can lead to increased stress, depression and other psychological conditions such as anxiety.

Climate change can affect wellbeing and mental health also through indirect consequences, such as "loss of land, flight and migration, exposure to violence, change of social, ecological, economic or cultural environment".[8]

In several parts of the world, climate change significantly impacts people's financial income, for example by reducing agricultural output, or by making an area unattractive for tourism. This can cause significant stress, which in turn can lead to depression, suicidal ideation, and other negative psychological conditions. Consequences can be especially severe if financial stress is coupled with significant disruption to social life, such as relocation to camps.[18] For example, in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the suicide rate for the general population rose by about 300%, but for those who were displaced and had to move into trailer parks, it rose by over 1400%. Effective government interventions, similar to those used to relief the stress from a financial crisis, can alleviate the negative conditions caused by such disruption, however this is sometimes not easy, especially in some of the less prosperous countries in the global south.[19][6][20]

Indirect effects on mental health can occur via impacts on physical health. Physical health and mental health have a reciprocal relationship, so any climate change related effect that affects physical health can potentially indirectly affect mental health too.[21] Environmental disruption, such as the loss of bio-diversity, or even the loss of inanimate environmental features like sea-ice, cultural landscapes, or historic heritage can also cause negative psychological responses, such as Ecological grief or Solastalgia.[20][22][23][3]

Increasing awareness pathway

See also: Eco-anxiety
Twelve large blocks of ice cast off from the Greenland ice sheet are harvested from a fjord outside Nuuk and presented in a clock formation in Copenhagen in 2014. The work raises awareness of climate change by providing a direct and tangible experience of the reality of melting arctic ice.

The third pathway can be of mere awareness of the climate change threat, even by individuals who are not otherwise affected by it. This can be, for instance, feeling intimidated by the threats to food and water security, posed by climate change which can lead to war.

The increasing "awareness of the existential dimension of climate change" can influence people's wellbeing or challenge their mental health, especially for children and adolescents.[8] Awareness for climate change in young people has grown in Europe as evidenced by the “Fridays for Future” movement that started in summer 2018.[8] This can lead to higher emotional distress amongst young people, as well as feelings of fear, sadness, and anger, apocalyptic and pessimistic feelings - which can lead to grief, anxiety and hopelessness - all factors which can impact people's mental health.[8]

Simply knowing about the risks posed by climate change, even from those not otherwise affected by it, can cause long lasting psychological conditions, such as anxiety and other forms of distress. This can especially affect children, and has been compared to nuclear anxiety which occurred during the Cold War. Conditions such as eco-anxiety are very rarely severe enough to require clinical treatment. While unpleasant and thus classified as negative, such conditions have been described as valid rational responses to the reality of climate change.[6][24]

Evidence suggests a growing indirect effect of climate change is psychological distress, anxiety, and grief, which even occurs among people who have not personally experienced any direct negative impacts.[25][26]

Types of mental health outcomes

Mental health is a state of well-being where an individual can recognize their abilities, handle daily stresses of life, productively work, and able to contribute to their community.[27] There are a multitude of mental illnesses that affect everyone differently. The types of mental health outcomes that are related to the effects of climate change (for example during heat waves) can be grouped as follows:

Vulnerable populations and life stages

Climate change does not impact everyone equally; those of lower economic and social status are at greater risk and experience more devastating impacts.[1]

People with pre-existing mental illness

Higher temperatures can affect people taking certain psychotropic medications (including hypnotics, anxiolytics, and antipsychotics).[2] They can have an increased risk of heatstroke and death as a result of high temperatures.[2]

Indigenous peoples

See also: Climate change and indigenous peoples and Climate migrant
The lifestyle and hunting areas of Inuit in Alaska will be affected due to melting sea ice.
The loss of sea-ice can have psychological impact on people who value it. "We are people of the sea ice. And if there's no more sea ice, how do we be people of the sea ice?" – Inuit elder.[28]

Inuit communities

See also: Climate change in Canada § Impacts on indigenous peoples

Qualitative studies reporting the unique mental health impacts of climate change on Inuit communities in Canada have described a loss of place-based solace, land-based activities such as hunting, and cultural identity due to changing weather and local landscapes.[2]

Climate change has devastating effects on Indigenous peoples' psychological wellbeing as it impacts them directly and indirectly. As their lifestyles are often closely linked to the land, climate change directly impacts their physical health and financial stability in quantifiable ways. There is also a concerning correlation between severe mental health issues among Indigenous peoples worldwide and environmental changes.[29] The connection and value Indigenous cultures ascribe to land means that damage to or separation from it, directly impacts mental health. For many, their country is interwoven with psychological aspects such as their identity, community and rituals.[29]

Inadequate government responses which neglect Indigenous knowledge further worsen negative psychological effects linked to climate change. This produces the risk of cultural homogenization due to global adaptation efforts to climate change and the disruption of cultural traditions due to forced relocation.[29][30] Countries with lower socio-economic status and minority groups in high socio-economic areas are disproportionately affected by the climate crisis. This has created climate migrants due to worsening environmental conditions and catastrophic climate events.[31]

Indigenous peoples of Australia

See also: Climate change in Australia § Impacts on indigenous Australians

Studies conducted with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples from Australia also highlight the environmental impacts of climate change on emotional wellbeing, including increased community distress from deteriorating the connection to country.[2] Heat also appeared to be associated with suicide incidence in Australia’s Indigenous populations; however, other socio-demographic factors may play a more critical role than meteorological factors.[2]

Children

See also: Climate change and children

Climate change is a serious threat to children and adolescent mental health.[8] Children's mental health, their rights and climate change need to be seen as interlinked topics, not separate points.[8]

Children and young adults are the most vulnerable to climate change impacts.[32] Many of the climate change impacts which affect children's physical health also lead to psychological and mental health consequences.[32] Children who live in geographic locations that are most susceptible to the impacts of climate change, and/or with weaker infrastructure and fewer supports and services suffer the worst impacts.[32]

Even though children and young adults are the most vulnerable group regarding impacts of climate change, they have received far less research focus as compared to adults. The World Health Organization states that more than 88% of the existing burden of disease attributable to climate change occurs in children younger than 5 years. The impacts of climate change on children include them being at a high risk of mental health consequences like PTSD, depression, anxiety, phobias, sleep disorders, attachment disorders, and substance abuse.[32] These conditions can lead to problems with emotion regulation, cognition, learning, behavior, language development, and academic performance.[32]

A 2018 study argued that it was crucial to gather information about how children are psychologically affected by climate change because of three major reasons:[32]

  • Children will bear a larger burden of the negative consequences of climate change over their lifetimes, and hence, we need to know how to reduce these impacts and protect them;
  • They are the next leaders of society and how they are responding psychologically now has importance for their current and future decision-making;
  • They will need the capacity to adapt to a climate-changed world, including a rapid transition to a low-carbon economy psychologically and physically and they will require particular knowledge, attitudes, and attributes to facilitate this adaptation .

Adolescents

Lack of political advocacy and change, with an increase in media attention, has brought upon ecological grief, which has had particular impacts on adolescent mental health. Climate change affects adolescents differently and in a multitude of ways. Many of these ways intersect as each adolescent processes their trauma and distress. Adolescents with pre-existing mental illnesses experience an elevated risk of ecological grief and distress.[33]

While these feelings are not directly harmful to the adolescent's physical health and conditions, they are unpleasant and a rising issue. Ecological grief, distress, anxiety, and anger are the most popular emotions sparked among adolescents. Psychologists, specifically climate psychologists, are experiencing difficulties in originating the source of these emotions, and methods to aid those in need and prevent those not as affected.[34]

Being forced to move, or displacement is becoming more common as the climate crisis rises. Forced displacement may be caused by natural disasters, reduction of food or food security, famine, water scarcity, or other environmental impacts.[35] This displacement alone evokes feelings of grief and loss by being forced to move from a place of comfort to someplace unknown. Reduction of food, famine and water scarcity will indirectly impact an adolescent's health by invoking fear and anxiety, as well as grief and loss.

As an adolescent, relationships are important. Displacement can put strains on an adolescent's social relationships, as well as prevent them from further developing their social skills and relationships. Community conflict can also indirectly impact an adolescent's mental health. The community may experience conflicting views on how to approach climate change, climate change methods, and climate change awareness. Surrounded by negative emotions, and situations can heavily way on a developing adolescent. They may not want to personally experience this conflict with others and pull back from social interactions. They may possess different ideas, but struggle to get someone to listen due to their age. Feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and fear become prevalent.[11]

Environmental and climate specific constructs

Climate anxiety (eco-anxiety)

This section is an excerpt from Eco-anxiety.[edit]
Eco-anxiety (short for ecological anxiety and also known as eco-distress or climate-anxiety) is a challenging emotional response to climate change and other environmental issues.[36] Extensive studies have been done on ecological anxiety since 2007, and various definitions remain in use.[37] The condition is not a medical diagnosis and is regarded as a rational response to the reality of climate change; however, severe instances can have a mental health impact if left without alleviation.[38][39] There is also evidence that eco-anxiety is caused by the way researchers frame their research and their narratives of the evidence about climate change: if they do not consider the possibility of finding any solution to overcome climate change and for individuals to make a difference, they contribute to this feeling of powerlessness.[40]

Eco-grief

This section is an excerpt from Ecological grief.[edit]
After a Blue Origin spaceflight

      It was among the strongest feelings of grief I have ever encountered. The contrast between the vicious coldness of space and the warm nurturing of Earth below filled me with overwhelming sadness. Every day, we are confronted with the knowledge of further destruction of Earth at our hands: the extinction of animal species, of flora and fauna... things that took five billion years to evolve, and suddenly we will never see them again because of the interference of mankind. It filled me with dread. My trip to space was supposed to be a celebration; instead, it felt like a funeral.

— William Shatner in his Boldly Go autobiography[41]

Ecological grief (or eco-grief), or in particular climate grief, refers to the sense of loss that arises from experiencing or learning about environmental destruction or climate change.[42][43][44][45][46] For example, scientists witnessing the decline of Australia's Great Barrier Reef report experiences of anxiety, hopelessness, and despair.[47] Groups impacted heavily also include young people feeling betrayal from lack of environmental action by governments and indigenous communities losing their livelihoods.[48][49]

Solastalgia

This section is an excerpt from Solastalgia.[edit]
Solastalgia (/ˌsɒləˈstældʒə/) is a neologism, formed by the combination of the Latin words sōlācium (solace or comfort), 'solus' (desolation) with meanings connected to devastation, deprivation of comfort, abandonment and loneliness and the Greek root -algia (pain, suffering, grief), that describes a form of emotional or existential distress caused by negatively perceived environmental change. A distinction can be made between solastalgia as the lived experience of negatively perceived change in the present and eco-anxiety linked to worry or concern about what may happen in the future (associated with "pre-traumatic stress", in reference to post-traumatic stress).

Co-benefits

While most study on the psychological impact of climate change finds negative effects, there may be some positive impacts via direct or indirect pathways.

While the psychological impact of climate change is largely negative, related social engagement can have positive effects on mental wellbeing.

Climate activism

Direct experience of the negative impacts of climate change may also lead to personal changes that can be seen as positive. Direct experiences of environmental events such as flooding have resulted in greater psychological salience and concern for climate change, which in turn predicts intentions, behaviors. and policy support for climate change.[3][50][51]

At a personal level, emotions like worry and anxiety are a normal, if uncomfortable, part of life. They can be seen as part of a defense system that identifies threats and deals with them. From this perspective, anxiety can be useful in motivating people to seek information and take action on a problem.[52][3][53] Anxiety and worry are more likely to be associated with engagement when people feel that they can do things. Feelings of agency can be strengthened by including people in participatory decision-making. Problem-focused and meaning-focused coping skills can also be promoted. Problem-focused coping involves information gathering and trying to find out what you personally can do. Meaning-focused coping involves behaviors such as identifying positive information, focusing on constructive sources of hope, and trusting that other people are also doing their part.[52][3] A sense of agency, coping skills, and social support are all important in building general resilience.[54][55][56] Education may benefit from a focus around emotional awareness and the development of sustainable emotion-regulation strategies.[57]

For some individuals, the increased engagement caused by the shared struggle against climate change reduces social isolation and loneliness.[58] At a community level, learning about the science of climate change, and taking collective action in response to the threat, can increase altruism and social cohesion, strengthen social bonds, and improve resilience. Such positive social impact is generally associated only with communities that had somewhat high social cohesion in the first place, prompting community leaders to act to improve social resiliency before climate-related disruption becomes too severe.[20][6][59]

Mitigation and adaptation efforts

There are potential mental health benefits of mitigation actions taken by individuals, such as active transport, increased physical activity, and healthier diets.[60]

History

Early investigation of the mental health impacts for climate change began in the 20th century, and became more topical in the 21st. In Asia, investigations intensified markedly after the 2004 Tsunami.[61][62]

See also

References

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