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'{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}} {{Infobox caste | caste_name = Sengunthar | image = | caption = | classification = | religions = [[Hinduism]] | languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] | populated_states = [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Puducherry]] | related = [[Senaithalaivar]], [[Tamil people]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkola+senapati&dq=kaikkola+senapati&cd=2|title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India|first=Vijaya|last=Ramaswamy|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1985|access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref> }} '''Sengunthar''' ({{IPA-tt|sɛŋkʊnʈɻ|}}), also known as the '''Kaikolar''' and '''Sengunthar Mudaliyar''', is a community of [[Tamil people]] commonly found in the [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Puducherry]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=hrXUAAAAMAAJ&q=Pondicherry+sengunda|title=Census of India, 1961, Volume 25, Part 4, Issue 1|author=India. Office of the Registrar General|publisher=Manager of Publications|year=1964}}</ref> and also in some other parts of South India and [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern Province]] of [[Sri Lanka]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=a0cqAAAAMAAJ&q=Kaikular|title=Modern Ceylon Studies|volume=4|publisher=University of Ceylon|year=1975}}</ref>. They are traditionally a weaving community. They are sub divided into numerous clans based on a [[patrilineal]] system called ''Koottam'' or ''Kulam'', which is similar to [[gotra]]s. ==Etymology== The old mention of the caste is in 'Diwakara nigandu' A Tamil Lexicon also callea 'Adhi Diwakaram by Senthan Diwakarar, Kaarugar (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), Sengunthar padaiyar (soldiers), Senaithalaivar (army commander), Kaikolar (Weaver)."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&cd=1&dq=kaikkolar+diwakaram&q=+diwakaram#search_anchor|title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1985}}</ref>All the five names mention same people. Kaikolar means men with stronger arms<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|publisher=New Age International|year=1999|isbn=978-8-12241-198-0|page=491}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana}}</ref> i.e soldiers. later it denotes ''Kaikkolar'' comes from the words ''kai'' (hand) and ''kol'' (a shuttle used in looms) as Weaver. The appended ''-ar'' means ''people''.<ref name="Mines2">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=54–55}}</ref> ''Sengunthar'' means ''red spear people'', which the community believes connects them to the god [[Murugan]], who is known as a red god. They believe that the original nine Kaikolars, called ''Navaveerargal'', served in an army fighting on behalf of Murugan and that they descend from these nine people.<ref name="Mines2"/> The Mudaliar title, denot y Commander-in- cheifoff 'Kaikolapadai' Medieval and Later hG greaC choza empire as Kaikola-muda<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_12/stones_101_to_125.html|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_12/stones_101_to_125.html|title=Kaikola mudali|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_12/stones_101_to_125.html|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>l mudali means ' mudanmai'(leader). i. ==History== ===Myth of origin=== [[Shiva]] was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, [[Parvati]], was frightened, and retired to her chamber and in so doing, dropped nine beads from her anklets. Siva converted the beads into as many females, to each of whom was born a hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely [[Veerabaahu|Virabahu]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.no/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2017|isbn=978-1-53810-686-0|page=231}}</ref> Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar with [[Subrahmanya]] at their head, marched in command of a large force, and destroyed the demons. Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Siva that they adopt a profession, which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature and weaving being such a profession, they were trained in it. Chithira valli, daughter of Virabahu, one of the above commanders was married to King Musukuntha Cholan . The descendants of Navaveerargal and Musukunthan were claimed as first generation of Sengunthars. <ref name="Mines 11">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=54–55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ORwNmkDswqwC&q=Mucukuntan#v=snippet&q=Mucukuntan&f=false|first=Rajeshwari|last=Ghose|title=The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation|page=78–82|year=1996|isbn=9788120813915|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref> ===Chola period=== The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthar occurs in ''Adhi Diwakaram'', a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, is thought to refer to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&cd=1&pg=PA15|title=Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=15|first=Vijaya|last=Ramaswamy|year=1985}}</ref> Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the [[Chola dynasty]], the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the [[Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavolu|Ayyavole 500 trading group]] during the Chola period and there are also references in the 12th century that suggest they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet [[Ottakoothar]] glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.<ref name="sinopoli">{{cite book|title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650|first=Carla M.|last=Sinopoli|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=9781139440745|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA188|page=188}}</ref> They were militarized during the medieval [[Chola]] period, when some of them held the title ''Brahmadaraya'' or ''Brahmamarayan'', which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government.<ref>{{cite book|title=Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift|author1=S. Sankaranarayanan|author2=S. S. Ramachandra Murthy|author3=B. Rajendra Prasad|author4=D. Kiran Kranth Choudary|publisher=Harman Pub. House|year=2000|page=114}}</ref>{{full|date=January 2019}} Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as ''Samanta Senapathigal''<ref name="manickam"/>{{Page needed|date=April 2014}} or ''Senaithalaivar''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkola+senapati&dq=kaikkola+senapati&cd=2|title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India|first=Vijaya|last=Ramaswamy|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1985|access-date=4 December 2011}}</ref>{{pn|date=October 2018}}<ref name="manickam">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=WTRuAAAAMAAJ&cd=26&dq=senapatigal&q=terinja+kaikkolar#search_anchor|title=Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400|first=V.|last=Manickam|publisher=Makkal Veliyeedu|year=2001}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2014}} According to Vijaya Ramaswamy, in early thirteenth century large number of Kaikolars were migrated to [[Kongu Nadu]] from [[Tondaimandalam]]. <ref name="Ramaswamy 66">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&dq=Weaver+Folk+Traditions+as+a+Source+of+History&q=Kaikkolar#v=snippet&q=Kaikkolar&f=false|title=Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India|first=Vijaya|last=Ramaswamy|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|page=172–174}}</ref> ===Vijayanagara period=== After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985" /><ref name="Mines3">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984}}</ref><ref name="de Neve 2005">{{cite book|title=The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy|first=Geert|last=de Neve|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2005|isbn=9788187358183|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbkEJAEVCIC}}{{page needed|date=November 2013}}</ref> According to Deepak Kumar, the Sengunthar weavers very often figure in the capacity of kudi, i.e. tenant-cultivators and also holders of kaniyachi, that is hereditary possession over the land.<ref name="Kumar">Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar{{full|date=November 2013}}</ref> During the period of [[Sadasiva Raya]] of Vijayanagara empire, the sthanathar of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.<ref name="Ramaswamy 1985">{{cite book|title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India|first=Vijaya|last=Ramaswamy|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1985}}{{Page needed|date=April 2014}}</ref><ref name="Kumar" /> According to Himanshu Prabha Ray, in 1418 in Tiruvannamalai temple, Sengunthars were given the right to blow the conch, ride palanquins and elephants and wave the temple fly whisk.<ref>{{cite book|title=Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies|editor-first=Ruth|editor-last=Barnes|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|page=27|isbn=978-1-13443-040-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y3mCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|first=Himanshu Prabha|last=Ray|chapter=Far-flung fabrics - Indian textiles in ancient maritime trade}}</ref> In 16th century some of the Kaikolars were migrated to Kerala region from Tamil region.<ref name="Ramaswamy 66"/> ==Traditions and festivals== Sengunthar Shaivite priests are vegetarian, wear the [[sacred thread]], and shave their foreheads in the [[Brahmanic]] fashion. Both alcoholic and sexual abstinence are valued, as is control of the passions. But when they are concerned with the sacred locus of the interior, meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent. Sengunthars thus follow both a priestly model and a Dravidian tradition.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India|first=Mattison|last=Mines|date=August 1982|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=9|issue=3|pages=467–484|jstor=643998|doi=10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020}}</ref>The ''Kaikola Teesikar'' or ''Desigar'' who were non Brahmin priest at temples of [[Murugan]]. Sengunthar community practices both the vegetarian and non vegetarian traditions.<ref name="Mines 5">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=15}}</ref> Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own ''Kula Deivam'' (deity). Sengunthars share [[Murugan]] as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as [[Ankalamma|Angalamman]] or [[Ambayamman]].<ref name="Mines 6">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=62-64}}</ref> The ''Sura Samharam'' festival is a traditional ritual where the Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of [[Karthikeya]] and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/001946468201900103|title=Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|volume=19|pages=47–62|year=1982|last=Ramaswamy|first=Vijaya}}</ref> [[File:Nallur Kandasamy front entrance.jpg|thumb|300px|right|'''Kandaswamy Kovil, Nallur, Sri Lanka ''', where flag ceremony held.]] In the flag hoisting ceremony at [[Sri Lanka]] [[Nallur Kandaswamy temple]], the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in old [[Jaffna Kingdom]] have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry the flag as the ceremony of ''Sura Samharam'' battle. The houses of Sengunthars are beautifully decorated curtains with the picture of rooster, the legendary vehicle of Lord Muruga hang in their houses, in the day of the flag ceremony.<ref>{{cite news|URL=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=32283|title=Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple|language=English|work=[[The Island (Sri Lanka)]]|author=Dr. Kumar Vadivel|location=Nallur, Sri Lanka|publisher=Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=15598|title=Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins|language=English|work=[[TamilNet]]|location=Nallur, Sri Lanka}}</ref> ===Nadu system=== Historically there were 4 thisai nadus, which in turn was divided into 17 kilai nadus, exclusive of thisai nadus, totally making 72 nadus in the Sengunthar. The thisai nadus were Sivapuram (Walajabad) to the east, Thonthipuram to the south, Virinjipuram to the west, Chozhasingapuram (Sholinghur) to the north.<ref name="Mines 12">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=73-98}}</ref> The head of 72 nadu was [[Kancheepuram|Kancheepuram nadu]] which was called as Mahanadu by the Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines 13">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=171}}</ref> The head officer of Mahanadu were called as Aandavar and Aandavar is highest authority leader for Sengunthars.<ref name="Mines 14">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=167}}</ref> The head officer of the each nadu council were called as Naattaanmaikarar or Periyadhanakarar or Pattakarar.<ref name="Mines 15">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=171}}</ref> ==Subgroups== There are some divisions among Kaikolar based on their traditions. ===Chinna Thaali Kaikolar=== Cinn taali Kaikolar, also known as Saami katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom now defunct.<ref name="Mines 8">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=172}}</ref> Women of this section worn small size of the Thali or [[Mangala sutra]] . This section allow widows to wear colored [[sari]]s as other women.<ref name="Mines 7">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=24-25}}</ref> They are mainly found in the Eeruurunaadu <ref name="Mines 9">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=169}}</ref>( [[Salem district|Salem]] and [[Namakkal]] districts ). ===Periya Thaali Kaikolar=== Periya taali Kaikolar, also known as Kongu Kaikolar and Vellai kaikkoolar. Women of this section wore big size of the Thali. Widows belonging this section wore white or saffron [[sari]]s and they were mainly found in the [[Erode]] side of the [[Bhavani River]].<ref name="Mines 7"/> ===Rattukaara Kaikolar=== Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar because they weave with warps composed of double threads and they are traditional [[carpet]] makers. They are mainly found in West region of Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Mines 7"/> ===Thalaikooda Mudaliyar=== They are called Thalaikooda Mudaliyar( meaning "head refusers"), because it is said that in 12th century they refused to sacrifice the heads of their first sons to the caste poet, [[Ottakoothar]] to compose poem so they were outcast in that time. Talaikooda Mudaliar are originally from Koorainaadu, in [[Tanjore]] district.<ref name="Mines 10">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=27}}</ref> Now they are found in [[Pondicherry]]<ref name="Martinson">{{cite journal|title=Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India|first=Mattison|last=Mines|date=August 1982|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=9|issue=3|pages=477|jstor=643998}}</ref> region. ==Occupation== Most members of this community were professional weavers, textile merchants and other textile based professions. They were known for good craftsmanship in weaving clothes of all varieties. They usually weave silk fabrics in [[Kancheepuram district|Kancheepuram]] and [[Salem district|Salem]] districts. They weave Lungis in [[Vellore district|Vellore]] and [[Tiruvannamalai district|Tiruvannamalai]] district. They weave Bedcovers at [[Chennimalai]] area. They weave coarsed fabric in [[Tiruchengode]] region. They weave Carpets at [[Bhavani]] area. They weave fine count sarees at [[Coimbatore district|Coimbatore]] and [[Madurai district|Madurai]] districts. Some of them are engaged in other business also.<ref name="Mines 16">{{Harvnb|Mines|1984|pp=18 - 21}} </ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy|editor=illustrated|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2005|page=170|isbn=9788187358183|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ppbkEJAEVCIC|first=Geert|last=de Neve}}</ref> ==Sengunthars from 20th century== Sengunthars are classified and listed as a [[Backward Class]] by the governments of both Tamil Nadu and India.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm|title= List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu|publisher= Government of Tamil Nadu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/kerala.html|title=Central list of backward classes|publisher= Government of India}}</ref> ==Literary references== *''Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/SenguntharPrabanthaThiratu|title=Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu|accessdate=4 December 2011}}</ref> is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=hj0eAAAAIAAJ&dq=sengunta|title=The Indian Economic and Social History Review-Delhi School of Economics|last=|first=|date=1982|publisher=Vikas Publishing House|isbn=|location=|pages=|language=en}}</ref>{{full|date=October 2018}} The collection contains: *''Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh'' by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram *''Eetti Ezhubathu'', the major literary work about the Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of [[Rajaraja Chola II]]. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA188|title=Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil|publisher=|year= 1975|access-date=4 December 2011|isbn=978-9004041905|last=Spuler|first=Bertold}}</ref> *''Ezhupezhubathu'', a sequel to ''Eetti Ezhubathu'' written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies. *''Kalipporubathu'', a collection of ten stanzas compiled by [[Kulothunga Chola III]]. These stanzas were written after ''Ezhupezhubathu'' to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III *''Thirukkai Vazhakkam'', which describes the good deeds of Sengunthars and their Saivite religious principles. It was written by Puhalendi. *''Sengunthar Silaakkiyar Malai'' was written by Kanchi Virabadhra Desigar. It describes the legends and eminent personalities of the Sengunthar community. ==Notable people== {{Further|List of Sengunthars}} ==See also== *[[Adaviyar]] *[[Padmashali]] *[[Tanti]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}} ==References== {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|last=Mines|first=Mattison|year=1984|title=The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade and Territory in South India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521267144|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y089AAAAIAAJ|ref=harv}} ==Further reading== *{{cite book|title=Tamil revivalism in the 1930s|first=Eugene F.|last=Irschick|year=1986}} *{{cite book|title=Dialogue and History: Constructing South India, 1795-1895|first=Eugene F.|last=Irschick|publisher=University of California Press|year=1994|isbn=9780520914322|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwEOfHfUFTkC}} *{{cite book|title=Globalising Migration History: The Eurasian Experience|first1=Jan|last1=Lucassen|first2=Leo|last2=Lucassen|publisher=BRILL|year=2014|isbn=978-9-00427-136-4}} {{refend}} [[Category:Indian castes]] [[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]] [[Category:Weaving communities of South Asia]]'