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[[File:Saffron8.jpg|thumb|Saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', with its vivid crimson stigmas and styles]]
[[File:PISTILLI DI ZAFFERANO.jpg|thumb|Saffron "threads", plucked from crocus flowers and dried]]
'''Saffron''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|f|r|ə|n|,_|-|r|ɒ|n}})<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|saffron|access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref> is a spice derived from the flower of ''[[Crocus sativus]]'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]] and [[style (botany)|styles]], called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a [[seasoning]] and [[Food coloring|colouring agent]] in food. The saffron crocus was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Saffron's taste and [[iodoform]]-like or [[hay]]-like fragrance result from the [[phytochemical]]s [[picrocrocin]] and [[safranal]].{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=423}}<ref name="Katzer2010">{{cite web |last=Katzer |first=G. |date=2010 |title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) |work=Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages |url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com//engl/Croc_sat.html |access-date=1 December 2012}}</ref> It also contains a [[carotenoid]] pigment, [[crocin]], which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. [[History of saffron|Its recorded history]] is attested in a 7th-century BC [[Assyria]]n botanical treatise,{{Sfn|Russo|Dreher|Mathre|2003|p=6}} and it has been [[Trade and use of saffron|traded and used]] for thousands of years. As of 2024, [[Iran]] produced some 90% of the world total for saffron.<ref name="menia">{{cite journal |vauthors=Menia M, Iqbal S, Zahida R, Tahir S, Kanth RH, Saad AA, Hussian A |title=Production technology of saffron for enhancing productivity (see PDF)|journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry |date=2018 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1033–1039 |url=https://www.phytojournal.com/archives?year=2018&vol=7&issue=1&ArticleId=2634 |language=en |issn=2349-8234}}</ref><ref name="hooker">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-41110151|title=The problem for the world's most expensive spice|last=Hooker|first=Lucy|date=13 September 2017|access-date=12 January 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> At US$5,000 per kg or higher, saffron has long been the world's costliest spice by weight.{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=53}}{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-pics-world-s-costliest-spice-blooms-in-kashmir/20121109.htm|title=World's COSTLIEST spice blooms in Kashmir|publisher=[[Rediff]]|access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref>
==Etymology==
{{Further|History of saffron}}
A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word "saffron". It might stem from the 12th-century [[Old French]] term ''safran'', which comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|safranum}}, from the Persian ({{lang|Fa|زعفران}}, ''za'farān''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=saffron|title=Saffron|date=2016|publisher=etymonline.com ([[Online Etymology Dictionary]]), Douglas Harper|access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> from the Persian word ''zarparān'' ({{lang|fa|زرپران}}) meaning "gold strung" (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it creates when used as flavour).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen|first=Asya|last=Asbaghi|date=1988|publisher=O. Harrasowitz|isbn=978-3-447-02757-1|location=Wiesbaden|oclc=19588893}}</ref>
==Species==
{{Main|Crocus sativus}}
===Description===
[[File:860808-Saffronfarm-01-IMG 7707-2.jpg|alt=Saffron Flowers|thumb|Crocus flowers which yield red saffron stigmas]]
[[File:Saffron onions-IMG 7549-2.jpg|alt=Saffron onions|thumb|Corms]]
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Saffron-62-1160x773.jpg|alt=Saffron harvest|thumb|Several women in traditional clothes are collecting saffron in one of the farms of [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Torbat Heydarieh]] city of Khorasan Razavi]] -->
The domesticated saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', is an autumn-[[flowering plant|flowering]] [[perennial plant]] unknown in the wild. It probably descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'' which is also known as "wild saffron"{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} and is native to [[mainland Greece]], [[Euboea]], [[Crete]], [[Skyros]] and some islands of the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="Atticasaffron">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Niels |last2=Ørgaard |first2=Marian |title=Crocus cartwrightianus on the Attica Peninsula |journal=ISHS Acta Horticulturae |date=2004 |volume=650 |issue=6 |pages=65–69 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.6 |url=https://safranerio.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/650_6.pdf |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Cartwright}}</ref> The similar species ''[[Crocus thomasii|C. thomasii]]'' and ''[[Crocus pallasii|C. pallasii]]'' were considered as other possible ancestors.{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=28}} As a genetically monomorphic clone incapable of seed production, it was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]].{{Sfn|Rubio-Moraga|Castillo-López|Gómez-Gómez|Ahrazem|2009}} Before this recent research various origins had been suggested for saffron, including [[Iran]],<ref name="Ghorbani et al.">{{Cite book |first1=R. |last1=Ghorbani |first2=A. |last2=Koocheki |s2cid=28214061 |chapter=Sustainable Cultivation of Saffron in Iran |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdksDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |title=Sustainable Agriculture Reviews |editor-last=Lichtfouse |editor-first=Eric |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-58679-3 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58679-3 |pages=170–171|url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02801642/file/Sustainable%20Agriculture%20Reviews%2014%20-%20Front%20Matter_1.pdf }}</ref> [[Greece]],<ref name="Gresta et al.">{{Cite journal|first1=F. |last1=Gresta |first2=G. M. |last2=Lombardo |first3=L. |last3=Siracusa |first4=G. |last4=Ruberto |s2cid=44054590 |year=2008 |title=Saffron, an alternative crop for sustainable agricultural systems. A review |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00886393/document |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1051/agro:2007030}}</ref> [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> and [[Kashmir]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593 |title=Saffron : science, technology and health |date=2020 |others=A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini |isbn=978-0-12-818740-1 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1140113593 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180710/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1140113593 |url-status=live }}</ref>
It is a sterile [[polyploidy|triploid]] form, which means that three homologous sets of [[chromosome]]s make up each specimen's genetic complement; ''C. sativus'' bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Being sterile, the purple flowers of ''C. sativus'' fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of [[corm]]s, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}} The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} above the plant's neck.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}
The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-[[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] leaves known as [[cataphyll]]s. These membrane-like structures cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are {{Convert|1|–|3|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}}, in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). ''C. sativus'' cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear [[bract]]eoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as [[pedicel (botany)|pedicels]].{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} After [[Aestivation (botany)|aestivating]] in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to {{Convert|40|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=3}} The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are {{Convert|20|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-pronged [[style (botany)|style]] {{Convert|25|–|30|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]], which is the distal end of a [[carpel]].{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}
===Cultivation===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Iran-MA-20221554-1160x1740.jpg|alt=cleaning Saffron |thumb|An Iranian woman is cleaning saffron.]] -->
The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''. It is a [[polyploid|triploid]] that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant [[meiosis]] and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by [[vegetative reproduction|vegetative multiplication]] via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=30–31}}{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}
''Crocus sativus'' thrives in the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]], an ecotype superficially resembling the North American [[chaparral]], and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as {{Convert|−10|C|0}} and short periods of snow cover.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Some reports suggest saffron can tolerate an air temperature range from −22 to 40 °C.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rezvani-Moghaddam |first=Parviz |title=Chapter 8. Ecophysiology of saffron |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128186381000083 |work=Saffron |pages=119–137 |editor-last=Koocheki |editor-first=Alireza |access-date=2023-02-22 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-818638-1 |editor2-last=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor2-first=Mohammad}}</ref> Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages {{Convert|1000|–|1500|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}; saffron-growing regions in Greece ({{Convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}} annually) and Spain ({{Convert|400|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=2}} and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. [[Nematode]]s, leaf [[rust (fungus)|rusts]], and corm rot pose other threats. Yet ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'' inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.{{Sfn|Sharaf-Eldin|Elkholy|Fernández|Junge|2008}}
The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged {{Convert|7|–|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though they form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting {{Convert|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep and in rows {{Convert|2|–|3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} apart; depths of {{Convert|8|–|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.
''C. sativus'' prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-[[calcareous]] soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some {{Convert|20|–|30|t/ha|ST/acre|0|abbr=off}} of manure. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}} After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=3–4}} All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=4}} Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=8}}
===Harvesting===
[[File:Saffron-sargol-zafaranic.jpg|thumb|Sargol saffron, the strongest Iranian grade]]
The high retail value of saffron is maintained on world markets because of labour-intensive harvesting methods, which require some {{convert|200000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|stigmas|hand-picked saffron stigmas }} – equivalently, {{convert|70000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|flowers|crocus flowers }}.<ref name=hooker/><ref name="cnn">{{cite news |last=Monks |first=Keiron |date=3 September 2015 |title=Iran's homegrown treasure: the spice that costs more than gold |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/03/middleeast/iran-saffron-red-gold/ |newspaper=CNN |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=273}}{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=35}} Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lak |first=Daniel |date=11 November 1998 |title=Kashmiris pin hopes on saffron |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm |access-date=11 September 2011}}</ref>
One freshly picked crocus flower yields on average 30 mg of fresh saffron or 7 mg dried; roughly 150 flowers yield {{Convert|1|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of dry saffron threads; to produce {{Convert|12|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} of dried saffron, {{Convert|1|lb|g|order=flip|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of flowers are needed; the yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only {{convert|0.2|oz/lb|g/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}}
==Spice==
===Phytochemistry and sensory properties===
[[File:Picrocrocin.svg|thumb|Structure of [[picrocrocin]]:{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}}
{|
|-
|{{Legend|#AEAEFF|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-glucopyranose derivative}}
|-
|{{Legend|#F5D76C|safranal moiety}}
|}
]]
[[File:Crocetin safranal esterification.png|thumb|[[Esterification]] reaction between [[crocetin]] and [[gentiobiose]]. Components of α–crocin:<ref name=dhar/>
{|
|-
|{{Legend|#A6CAF0|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-gentiobiose}}||{{Legend|#000000|crocetin}}
|}
]]
Saffron contains some 28 [[Volatile organic compound|volatile and aroma-yielding compounds]], dominated by [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s.<ref name="Amanpour">{{cite journal | last1=Amanpour | first1=Asghar | last2=Sonmezdag | first2=A. Salih | last3=Kelebek | first3=Hasim | last4=Selli | first4=Serkan | title=GC–MS–olfactometric characterization of the most aroma-active components in a representative aromatic extract from Iranian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) | journal=Food Chemistry | volume=182 | year=2015 | issn=0308-8146 | doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.005 | pages=251–256|pmid=25842335}}</ref> Its main aroma-active compounds are [[safranal]] – the main compound responsible for saffron aroma – 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone.<ref name="dhar">{{cite journal | last1=Dhar | first1=Manoj K | last2=Sharma | first2=Munish | last3=Bhat | first3=Archana | last4=Chrungoo | first4=Nikhil K | last5=Kaul | first5=Sanjana | title=Functional genomics of apocarotenoids in saffron: insights from chemistry, molecular biology and therapeutic applications (Review)| journal=Briefings in Functional Genomics | volume=16 | issue=6 | date=28 March 2017 | issn=2041-2649 | doi=10.1093/bfgp/elx003 | pages=336–347|pmid=28369196}}</ref><ref name=Amanpour/> Saffron also contains nonvolatile [[phytochemical]]s,{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} including the [[carotenoid]]s [[zeaxanthin]], [[lycopene]], various α- and β-[[carotene]]s, as well as [[crocetin]] and its [[glycoside]] crocein, which are the most biologically active components.<ref name=dhar/><ref name="pmid29134501">{{cite journal | vauthors=Hosseini A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H | title=Pharmacokinetic Properties of Saffron and its Active Components | journal=European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics | volume=43 | issue=4 | pages=383–390 | year=2018 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890623820302926 | doi=10.1007/s13318-017-0449-3 | pmid=29134501| s2cid=23836415 }}</ref> Because crocetin is smaller and more water-soluble than the other carotenoids, it is more rapidly absorbed.<ref name="pmid29134501" />
The yellow-orange colour of saffron is primarily the result of α-crocin.<ref name=dhar/> This [[crocin]] is trans-[[crocetin]] di-(β-D-[[gentiobiose|gentiobiosyl]]) [[ester]]; it bears the [[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic (IUPAC) name]] 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocins themselves are a series of [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] carotenoids that are either [[glycosyl|monoglycosyl]] or diglycosyl [[polyene]] esters of crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocetin is a [[conjugated system|conjugated]] polyene [[carboxylic acid|dicarboxylic acid]] that is [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]], and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is [[esterification|esterified]] with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are [[carbohydrate|sugars]], a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}}
The bitter [[glucoside]] [[picrocrocin]] is responsible for saffron's [[pungency|pungent flavour]].<ref name=dhar/> Picrocrocin ([[chemical formula]]: {{Chem|C|16|H|26|O|7}}; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde) is a union of an [[aldehyde]] sub-molecule known as [[safranal]] (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid [[zeaxanthin]] that is produced via [[redox|oxidative]] cleavage, and is the [[glycoside]] of the [[terpene]] [[aldehyde]] safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}}
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]–[[glucose]] and a free safranal molecule.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}} Safranal, a [[essential oil|volatile]] oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=423}}{{Sfn|Dharmananda|2005}} Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is [[Lanierone|2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one]], which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating [[pH]] levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and [[redox|oxidising]] agents. It must, therefore, be stored in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
===Grades and ISO 3632 categories===
[[File:Iran saffron threads.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Red threads and yellow styles from Iran]]
[[File:Safran-Weinviertel Niederreiter 2 Gramm 8285.jpg|thumb|left|upright|High quality red threads from Austrian saffron]]
[[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 08.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Kashmir]]i saffron package]]
Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron from [[Iran]], [[Spain]], and [[Kashmir]] is classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are: ''sargol'' ({{langx|fa|سرگل}}, red stigma tips only, strongest grade), ''pushal'' or ''pushali'' (red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) and ''konge'' (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron are ''coupé'' (the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol), ''mancha'' (like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strength ''rio'', ''standard'' and ''sierra'' saffron. The word ''mancha'' in the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron has [[Geographical indications and traditional specialities in the European Union#Protected designation of origin (PDO)|PDO]] protected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand. {{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Similar was the case in Kashmir where imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Sustainable Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Production: Technological and Policy Interventions for Kashmir |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Azra N. Kamili |author3=M. H. Wani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=G. N. Bhat |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad M. |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |location=UK |page=118}}</ref> In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories called ''mongra'' (stigma alone) and ''lachha'' (stigmas attached with parts of the style).<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Cultivation in Kashmir: Practices and Problems |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Badrul Hassan |author3=Muzaffar Y. Ghani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=Nayar A. Kirmani |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |location=UK |page=110}}</ref> Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron.
In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.{{Sfn|Verma|Middha|2010|p=1–2}} However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in the UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.
Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("[[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]]") are also key. Grading standards are set by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric [[absorbance]]. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.
These data are measured through [[spectrophotometry]] reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and Mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.
However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced [[wine]] tasters.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=274}}
===Adulteration===
Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron [[adulteration]], particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the ''Safranschou'' code.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=102–104}} Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like [[beetroot]], [[pomegranate]] fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like [[honey]] or vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with [[turmeric]], [[paprika]], and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/long-reads/kashmirs-saffron-harvest-sees-sharp-decline-4216123.html|title=Kashmir's saffron harvest sees sharp decline |website=Firstpost|date=18 November 2017 |access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rashid|first=Afshan|date=22 September 2018|title=From 35kgs earlier to 1kg yield now, 'successful' Saffron Mission paves way for apples in Pampore|url=https://freepresskashmir.news/2018/09/22/from-35kgs-earlier-to-1kg-yield-now-successful-saffron-mission-paves-way-for-apples-in-pampore/|access-date=1 January 2019|website=Free Press Kashmir|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 November 2003 |title=Kashmiri Saffron Producers See Red over Iranian Imports |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|Australian Broadcasting Corp.]] |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/1504154 |access-date=29 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hussain |first=A. |date=28 January 2005 |title=Saffron Industry in Deep Distress |work=BBC News |location=London |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4216493.stm |access-date=15 September 2011}}</ref> [[Safflower]] is a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited with [[horse hair]], [[corn silk]], or shredded paper. [[Tartrazine]] or [[sunset yellow]] have been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.<ref name=hooker/>
In recent years, saffron adulterated with the colouring extract of [[gardenia]] fruits has been detected in the European market. This form of fraud is difficult to detect due to the presence of [[flavonoids]] and [[crocin]]es in the gardenia-extracts similar to those naturally occurring in saffron. Detection methods have been developed by using [[HPLC]] and [[mass spectrometry]] to determine the presence of [[geniposide]], a compound present in the fruits of gardenia, but not in saffron.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guijarro-Díez |first1=Miguel |last2=Castro-Puyana |first2=María |last3=Crego |first3=Antonio Luis |last4=Marina |first4=María Luisa |title=Detection of saffron adulteration with gardenia extracts through the determination of geniposide by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |date=1 January 2017 |volume=55 |pages=30–37 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2016.11.004 }}</ref>
===Types===
The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. Greek saffron produced in the town of [[Krokos]] is [[Protected designation of origin|PDO]] protected due to its particularly high-quality colour and strong flavour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis|title=Krokos Kozanis PDO |last=Bishop |first=Stephen|date=26 April 2018|website=European Commission|access-date=16 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181117024010/https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis |archive-date= Nov 17, 2018 }}</ref> Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=201}}
Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or ''zafferano dell'Aquila'', is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's [[Abruzzo]] region, near [[L'Aquila]]. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican friar from inquisition-era Spain.{{when|date=October 2016}} But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in [[San Gavino Monreale]], Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content.
Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (''Crocus sativus'' 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vlahova |first1=Veselka |title=Saffron (''Crocus Sativus'') as an Alternative Crop in Sustainable Agricultural Systems. a Review |journal=Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development |date=2022 |volume=22 |issue=2 |page=778 |url=https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |access-date=22 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922221935/https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2022 }}</ref> Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue, making it among the world's darkest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hassan |first=Firdous |date=2020-02-19 |title=Farmers Pitch For GI Tag For Kashmiri Saffron, World's Most Expensive Spice |url=https://www.indiaspend.com/farmers-pitch-for-gi-tag-for-kashmiri-saffron-worlds-most-expensive-spice/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=IndiaSpend |language=en}}</ref> In 2020, [[Kashmir Valley]] saffron was certified with a [[geographical indication]] from the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 July 2020|title=Kashmir's saffron gets GI tag|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kashmir-s-saffron-gets-gi-tag/story-N7VfEu6mG5vlti0lHr6MpN.html|access-date=27 July 2020|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>
==World production==
[[File:SaffMHD.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron market in [[Mashad]], [[Iran]]]]
Almost all saffron grows in a belt from [[Spain]] in the west to India in the east. [[Iran]] is responsible for around 88% of global production.<ref name=menia/> In 2018, Iran cultivated an area of {{cvt|43408|ha}} producing 174 [[tonne]]s from a productivity of 4 kg/ha.<ref name=menia/> [[Afghanistan]] comes second, which produced over 67 tons in 2023.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://tolonews.com/business-188451 |title=Afghanistan Exports 67 Tons of Saffron, Worth $49M: Ministry |publisher=TOLOnews |date=4 April 2024 |access-date=2024-04-23}}</ref>
Spain is the third largest producer, while the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Greece]], the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Morocco]] are among minor producers.<ref name=menia/><ref>{{cite news |title=Moroccan saffron farmers battle knockoff spices |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1421946/offbeat |date=December 17, 2018 |publisher=Arab News |location=Saudi Arabia}}</ref>
According to the statistics for saffron trade in 2019, Iran was ranked as the world's largest producer of saffron, supplying 430 tons of the total 450 tons of saffron produced worldwide and is expected to reach 500 tons in 2020. India, producing only 22 tons of saffron annually, ranked second. Other countries reported based on their share in global saffron production included [[Kozani|Greece]] (7.2 tons), Afghanistan (6 tons), Morocco (2.6 tons), Spain (2.3 tons), Italy (1 ton), China (1 ton), and Azerbaijan (0.23 ton).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-16 |title=Global Saffron Market |url=https://behinexir.com/global-saffron-market/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=behinexir company |language=en-US |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030174015/https://behinexir.com/global-saffron-market/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1602281/world |title=Afghanistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best |publisher=Arab News |date=December 22, 2019 |location=Saudi Arabia}}</ref>
===Trade===
{{Main|Saffron trade}}
Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from {{cvt|500-5000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}. In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was {{cvt|1000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}} In February 2013, a retail bottle containing {{cvt|1.7|g|oz|frac=64|abbr=on}} could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of {{cvt|4336|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, or as little as about {{cvt|2000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} in larger quantities. There are between {{cvt|70000|and|200,000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|threads|threads }}. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.
==Uses==
{{Main|Use of saffron}}
{{Infobox nutritional value
| name = Dried saffron
| serving_size = 1 tbsp (2.1 g)
| kJ = 27
| carbs = 1.37 g
| fibre = 0.10 g
| fat = 0.12 g
| satfat = 0.03 g
| transfat = 0.00 g
| monofat = 0.01 g
| polyfat = 0.04 g
| protein = 0.24 g
| water = 0.25 g
| vitA_iu = 11
| thiamin_mg = 0
| riboflavin_mg = 0.01
| niacin_mg = 0.03
| vitB6_mg = 0.02
| folate_ug = 2
| vitB12_ug = 0
| vitC_mg = 1.7
| vitD_ug = 0
| vitD_iu = 0
| calcium_mg = 2
| copper_mg = 0.01
| iron_mg = 0.23
| magnesium_mg = 6
| manganese_mg = 0.6
| phosphorus_mg = 5
| potassium_mg = 36
| selenium_ug = 0.1
| sodium_mg = 3
| zinc_mg = 0.02
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170934/nutrients Full Link to USDA database entry]
| source_usda = 1
}}
Saffron has a long history of use in [[traditional medicine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Z. |last2=Bathaie |first2=S. Z. |title=Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research |journal=Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=27–66 |year=2011 |url=http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/pdf_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.html |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055609/http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/pdf_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Basker |first1=D |last2=Negbi |first2=M |s2cid=40880131 |title=Uses of saffron |journal=Journal of Economic Botany |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |year=1983 |doi=10.1007/BF02858789 |jstor=4254486 }}</ref> Saffron has also been used as a fabric [[dye]], particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=138}} It is used for religious purposes in India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mousavi|first1=Z.M.|last2=Bathaie, S.|date=Autumn 2011|title=Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research|url=http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/article_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.pdf|journal=Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine|volume=1|pages=63}}</ref>
<span class="anchor" id="E164"></span>In the European [[E number]] categorisation for food elements and additives, Saffron is coded as '''E164'''.
{{clear left}}
===Consumption===
[[File:Saffron soak.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron threads soaked in hot water prior to use in food preparation]]
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian,<ref>{{cite book|last=Simmons|first=Shirin|title=A Treasury of Persian Cuisine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87KOW40HThAC&pg=PT37|date=October 2007|publisher=Stamford House Publishing|isbn=978-1-904985-56-3|pages=37–38}}</ref> Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice and ''[[khoresh]]'' of Iran,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepersianfusion.com/persian-jewelled-rice-with-lamb-gheymeh-nesar/ |date=11 July 2017 |title=Persian Jewelled Rice with Lamb (Gheymeh Nesar)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepersianfusion.com/chicken-aubergine-stew-bademjan-ghooreh-mosama/ |date=20 August 2017 |title=Persian Chicken & Aubergine Stew (Bademjan-Ghooreh Mosama)}}</ref> the Milanese ''[[risotto]]'' of Italy, the ''[[paella]]'' of Spain, the ''[[bouillabaisse]]'' of France, to the ''[[biryani]]'' with various meat accompaniments in South Asia. Saffron is also used in the preparation of the ''Golden Ham'', a precious dry-cured [[ham]] made with saffron from [[San Gimignano]].{{cn|date=January 2024}} Common saffron substitutes include [[safflower]] (''Carthamus tinctorius'', which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"), [[annatto]], and [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa'').<!-- Saffron is identified as "E164" under the European Union [[E number]] food additive code system. --> In [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]], turmeric was also known as "Indian saffron" because of its yellow-orange colour.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pickersgill |first1=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=170 |isbn=0-415-92746-3}}</ref>{{clear left}}
===Nutrition===
Dried saffron is 65% [[carbohydrates]], 6% fat, 11% [[protein]] (table) and 12% water. In one [[tablespoon]] (2 grams; a quantity much larger than is likely to be ingested in normal use) [[manganese]] is present as 29% of the [[Daily Value]], while other [[micronutrient]]s have negligible content (table).{{clear left}}
===Toxicity===
Ingesting less than {{convert|1.5|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of saffron is not toxic for humans, but doses greater than {{convert|5|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} can become increasingly toxic.<ref name="pmid24848002">{{cite journal | vauthors=Moshiri M, Vahabzadeh M, Hosseinzadeh H | title=Clinical Applications of Saffron (Crocus sativus) and its Constituents: A Review | journal=[[Drug Research (journal)|Drug Research]] | volume=56 | issue=6 | pages=287–295 | year=2015 | doi=10.1055/s-0034-1375681 | pmid=24848002| doi-access=free }}</ref> Mild toxicity includes dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, whereas at higher doses there can be reduced [[platelet]] count and spontaneous bleeding.<ref name="pmid24848002" />
===Storage===
Saffron will not spoil, but will lose flavour within six months if not stored in an airtight, cool and dark place.<ref name="WikiHow">{{cite web | last =authors | first = Wiki- | title = How to Use Saffron | work = FOOD AND ENTERTAINING – HERBS AND SPICES | publisher = [[wikiHow]] | date = 4 October 2020 | url = https://www.wikihow.com/Use-Saffron | access-date = 9 March 2021 }}</ref> Freezer storage can maintain flavour for up to two years.<ref name="WikiHow" />
===Research===
As of 2020, saffron constituents, such as [[crocin]], [[crocetin]], and [[safranal]], were under preliminary research for their potential to affect [[mental depression]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marx|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Lane|first2=Melissa|last3=Rocks|first3=Tetyana|last4=Ruusunen|first4=Anu|last5=Loughman|first5=Amy|last6=Lopresti|first6=Adrian|last7=Marshall|first7=Skye|last8=Berk|first8=Michael|last9=Jacka|first9=Felice|last10=Dean|first10=Olivia M|date=1 August 2019|title=Effect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis|url=https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/77/8/557/5499264|journal=Nutrition Reviews|language=en|volume=77|issue=8|pages=557–571|doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuz023|pmid=31135916|issn=0029-6643}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dai|first1=Lili|last2=Chen|first2=Lingyan|last3=Wang|first3=Wenjing|date=2020|title=Safety and Efficacy of Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) for Treating Mild to Moderate Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FNMD.0000000000001118|journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease|language=en|volume=208|issue=4|pages=269–276|doi=10.1097/NMD.0000000000001118|pmid=32221179|s2cid=210119504}}</ref> Saffron has also been studied for its possible effect on cardiovascular [[Risk factor (epidemiology)|risk factor]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pourmasoumi |first1=Makan |last2=Hadi |first2=Amir |last3=Najafgholizadeh |first3=Ameneh |last4=Kafeshani |first4=Marzieh |last5=Sahebkar |first5=Amirhossein |title=Clinical evidence on the effects of saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) on cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review meta-analysis |journal=Pharmacological Research |date=1 January 2019 |volume=139 |pages=348–359 |doi=10.1016/j.phrs.2018.11.038|pmid=30502528 |s2cid=54482370 }}</ref> and in [[erectile dysfunction]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borrelli |first1=Francesca |last2=Colalto |first2=Cristiano |last3=Delfino |first3=Domenico V. |last4=Iriti |first4=Marcello |last5=Izzo |first5=Angelo A. |title=Herbal Dietary Supplements for Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Drugs |date=April 2018 |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=643–673 |doi=10.1007/s40265-018-0897-3 |pmid=29633089|s2cid=4759438 }}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of saffron}}
[[File:Cueilleuse de safran, fresque, Akrotiri, Grèce.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement of [[Akrotiri (prehistoric city)|Akrotiri]], on the Aegean island of Santorini.]]
Previously, it was theorised that saffron originated in Iran,<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> Greece,<ref name="Gresta et al." /> Mesopotamia, <ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> or Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593 |title=Saffron : science, technology and health |date=2020 |others=A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini |isbn=978-0-12-818740-1 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1140113593 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180710/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1140113593 |url-status=live }}</ref> Harold McGee<ref>Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking, 2004 edition, pg 422. Scribner, New York, NY,</ref> states that it was domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age. ''C. sativus'' is probably a [[triploid]] form of ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'',{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}<ref name="Schmidt et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Thomas|last2=Heitkam|first2=Tony|last3=Liedtke|first3=Susan|last4=Schubert|first4=Veit|last5=Menzel|first5=Gerhard|title=Adding color to a century-old enigma: multi-color chromosome identification unravels the autotriploid nature of saffron (''Crocus sativus'') as a hybrid of wild ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' cytotypes|journal=New Phytologist|volume=222|issue=4|pages=1965–1980|doi=10.1111/nph.15715|issn=1469-8137|pmid=30690735|year=2019|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Harpke et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Harpke|first1=Dörte|last2=Meng|first2=Shuchun|last3=Rutten|first3=Twan|last4=Kerndorff|first4=Helmut|last5=Blattner|first5=Frank R.|date=1 March 2013|title=Phylogeny of ''Crocus'' (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=66|issue=3|pages=617–627|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007|pmid=23123733|bibcode=2013MolPE..66..617H |issn=1055-7903}}</ref><ref name="Attica saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Nemati |first1=Zahra |last2=Harpke |first2=Dörte |last3=Gemicioglu |first3=Almila |last4=Kerndorff |first4=Helmut |last5=Blattner |first5=Frank R. |title=Saffron (Crocus sativus) is an autotriploid that evolved in Attica (Greece) from wild Crocus cartwrightianus |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2019 |volume=136 |pages=14–20 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2019.03.022 |pmid=30946897 |bibcode=2019MolPE.136...14N |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790319300879 |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Atticsaff|doi-access=free }}</ref> which is also known as "wild saffron".{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} Saffron crocus was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]] and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Several wild species of ''Crocus'' similar to the commercial plant are known to have been harvested in recent times for use as saffron. ''[[Crocus ancyrensis]]'' was used to make saffron in Sivas in Central Turkey, the corms were also eaten. ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' was harvested on Andros in the islands of the Cyclades, for medicinal purposes and the stigmas for making a pigment called Zafran. ''[[Crocus longiflorus]]'' stigmas were used for saffron in Sicily. ''Crocus thomasii'' stigmas were used to flavour dishes around Taranto, South Italy. In Syria the stigmas of an unknown wild species were collected by women and children, sun-dried and pressed into small tablets which were sold in the Bazaars.<ref name="Maw Saffron">{{cite book |last1=Maw |first1=George |title=A Monograph of the Genus Crocus |date=1886 |publisher=Dulau and Co. |location=Soho Square, London |pages=87, 164, 207, 250 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52656#page/101/mode/1up |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Maw Saffron}}</ref> Not all ancient depictions or descriptions of saffron spice or flowers are certain to be the same species as the modern commercial species used for spice.<ref name="Ancient Saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Kazemi-Shahandashti |first1=Seyyedeh-Sanam |last2=Mann |first2=Ludwig |last3=El-nagish |first3=Abdullah |last4=Harpke |first4=Dörte |last5=Nemati |first5=Zahra |last6=Usadel |first6=Björn |last7=Heitkam |first7=Tony |title=Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2022 |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.834416 |doi-access=free |pmid=35283878 |ref=Ancient Saffron|pmc=8913524 }}</ref>
===West Asia===
Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under [[Ashurbanipal]].{{Sfn|Russo|Dreher|Mathre|2003|p=6}} Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.<ref name=Honan2004>{{cite news |last=Honan |first=W. H. |date=2 March 2004 |title=Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/02/science/02MEDI.html?ex=1393563600 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}}{{Sfn|Humphries|1998|p=20}} The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=12}} Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the [[Minoan palace]] culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' var. ''haussknechtii'' now called ''[[Crocus haussknechtii]]'' by botanists) in [[Derbent]], [[Isfahan]], and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=17–18}} Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}} During his Asian campaigns, [[Alexander the Great]] used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=54–55}}
=== South Asia ===
[[File:Maitreya Bodhisattva and Monks Singapore.jpeg|thumb|right|Buddhist adepts wearing saffron-coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, [[Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum]], Singapore.]]
Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 and 900 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lak |first=D. |date=23 November 1998 |title=Gathering Kashmir's Saffron |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/213043.stm |access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Fotedar |first=S. |date=1999 |title=Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution |periodical=Vitasta |publisher=Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata |volume=32 |issue=1 |page=128 |url=http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929225731/http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |archive-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}} Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}} attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.{{Sfn|Dalby|2003|p=256}} Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but [[turmeric]], a less expensive dye, or [[jackfruit]].{{Sfn|Finlay|2003|p=224}} Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. [[Gamboge]] is also used to dye the robes.{{Sfn|Hanelt|2001|p=1352}}{{clear left}}
=== East Asia ===
Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.{{Sfn|Fletcher|2005|p=11}} Yet it is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume ''[[Shennong Bencaojing]]'', a pharmacopoeia written around 300–200 BC. Traditionally credited to the legendary [[Yan Emperor]] and the deity [[Shennong]], it discusses 252 plant-based medical treatments for various disorders.{{Sfn|Hayes|2001|p=6}} Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to it as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to the herbalist Wan Zhen, "the habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}}
===South East Mediterranean===
Minoan depictions of saffron are now considered to be ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''.<ref name="Ancient Saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Kazemi-Shahandashti |first1=Seyyedeh-Sanam |last2=Mann |first2=Ludwig |last3=El-nagish |first3=Abdullah |last4=Harpke |first4=Dörte |last5=Nemati |first5=Zahra |last6=Usadel |first6=Björn |last7=Heitkam |first7=Tony |title=Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2022 |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.834416 |doi-access=free |pmid=35283878 |ref=Ancient Saffron|pmc=8913524 }}</ref> The [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.<ref name=Honan2004/>{{Sfn|Ferrence|Bendersky|2004|p=1}} Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to [[Cilicia]], where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in [[Gaza City|Gaza]], townspeople in [[Rhodes]],{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=58}} and the Greek ''[[hetaerae]]'' courtesans used saffron in their [[scented water]]s, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}}
In late [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=55}} Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=34–35}} Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such [[Levant]]ine cities as [[Sidon]] and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] in Lebanon.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=59}} [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the [[mithridatium]].{{Sfn|Celsus|1989}}
===Western Europe===
[[File:Crocus sativus 003.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Preserved "Safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany]]
Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such as [[jusselle]] and [[conditum]].<ref name="Way 1843 p. 268">{{cite book | last=Way | first=A. | title=Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way | series=Camden soc | issue=v. 1 | year=1843 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0UAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA268 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=268}}</ref><ref name="Pratt 1855 p. 180">{{cite book | last=Pratt | first=A. | title=The Flowering Plants of Great Britain | publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge | issue=v. 3 | year=1855 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA180 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=180}}</ref><ref name="Napier 1882 p. 104">{{cite book | editor-last=Napier | editor-first=R. | title=A Noble Boke Off Cookry Ffor a Prynce Houssolde Or Eny Other Estately Houssholde | publisher=Elliot Stock | year=1882 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPspAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104 | access-date=18 May 2016 | pages=104–105}} (Reprinted verbatim from a rare manuscript in the Holkham Collection.)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |title=Conditum Paradoxum – Würzwein |translator-first=R. |translator-last=Maier |year=1991 |language=de |trans-title=Conditum Paradoxum – Spiced Wine |access-date=3 February 2012 |archive-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308040216/http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern [[Gaul]], where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the [[Avignon]] papacy in the 14th century AD.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=63}} Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=70}}
The 14th-century [[Black Death]] caused demand for saffron-based [[medicament]]s to peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-long [[Saffron War]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=99}} The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in [[Basel]]; it thereby grew prosperous.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=101}} The crop then spread to [[Nuremberg]], where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the ''Safranschou'' code—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=103–104}} Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=133}}
Direct archaeological evidence of mediaeval saffron consumption in Scandinavia comes from the wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship, [[Gribshunden]]. The ship sank in 1495 while on a diplomatic mission to Sweden. Excavations in 2021 revealed concentrations of saffron threads and small "pucks" of compressed saffron powder, along with fresh ginger, cloves, and pepper. Surprisingly, the saffron retained its distinctive odour even after more than 500 years of submersion in the Baltic Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larsson |first1=Mikael |last2=Foley |first2=Brendan |date=2023-01-26 |title=The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=e0281010 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281010 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9879437 |pmid=36701280|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1881010L }}</ref>
The [[Essex]] town of [[Saffron Walden]], named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).<ref name=BBCessex2014>{{cite news|last1=Granleese|first1=Bob|title=Interview: Meet the saffron producer: 'It seemed ridiculous that the UK didn't grow it' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/nov/16/meet-the-saffron-producer-uk |work=The Guardian|date=16 November 2013}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|title=Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-essex-29943720 |work=BBC News|date=7 November 2014}}</ref>
===The Americas===
Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the [[Schwenkfelder Church]] left Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}} By 1730, the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] cultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=138}} Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=138–139}} Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=142–146}} American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}
{{Clear}}
== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center">
File:Saffronfarm-860808.jpg|Saffron farm
File:860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG 7674-2.jpg|Saffron farm
File:Saffron-IMG 6603-3-2.jpg|Saffron
File: Packaged Saffron.jpg|Example of saffron packaging
</gallery>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
== Bibliography ==
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* {{citation | vauthors = Sharaf-Eldin M, Elkholy S, Fernández JA, Junge H, Cheetham R, Guardiola J, Weathers P | title = Bacillus subtilis FZB24 affects flower quantity and quality of saffron (Crocus sativus) | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 74 | issue = 10 | pages = 1316–20 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18622904 | pmc = 3947403 | doi = 10.1055/s-2008-1081293 }}
* {{citation |last1=Verma |first1=Ranjit Singh |last2=Middha |first2=Deepak |date=2010 |title=Analysis of Saffron (Crocus sativus L. Stigma) Components by LC–MS–MS |journal=Chromatographia |volume=71 |issue=1–2 |pages=117–123 |doi=10.1365/S10337-009-1398-Z|s2cid=97327822 }}
* {{Citation|last=Willard|first=P.|year=2002|title=Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-5009-5<!--0807050083-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WsUaFT7l3QsC}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
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{{Americana Poster}}
* {{Citation|title=Saffron|work=Darling Biomedical Library|publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]|url=http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=22}}
* {{Citation|title=''Crocus sativus''|work=Germplasm Resources Information Network|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]]|url=http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041110054340/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318|archive-date=10 November 2004}}
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[[Category:Saffron| ]]
[[Category:Crocus|Saffron]]
[[Category:Food colorings]]
[[Category:Incense material]]
[[Category:Arab spices]]
[[Category:Greek cuisine]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
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New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Spice made from crocus flowers}}
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{{other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2015}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Saffron8.jpg|thumb|Saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', with its vivid crimson stigmas and styles]]
[[File:PISTILLI DI ZAFFERANO.jpg|thumb|Saffron "threads", plucked from crocus flowers and dried]]
'''Saffron''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|f|r|ə|n|,_|-|r|ɒ|n}})<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|saffron|access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref> is a spice derived from the flower of ''[[Crocus sativus]]'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]] and [[style (botany)|styles]], called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a [[seasoning]] and [[Food coloring|colouring agent]] in food. The saffron crocus was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Saffron's taste and [[iodoform]]-like or [[hay]]-like fragrance result from the [[phytochemical]]s [[picrocrocin]] and [[safranal]].{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=423}}<ref name="Katzer2010">{{cite web |last=Katzer |first=G. |date=2010 |title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) |work=Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages |url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com//engl/Croc_sat.html |access-date=1 December 2012}}</ref> It also contains a [[carotenoid]] pigment, [[crocin]], which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. [[History of saffron|Its recorded history]] is attested in a 7th-century BC [[Assyria]]n botanical treatise,{{Sfn|Russo|Dreher|Mathre|2003|p=6}} and it has been [[Trade and use of saffron|traded and used]] for thousands of years. As of 2024, [[Iran]] produced some 90% of the world total for saffron.<ref name="menia">{{cite journal |vauthors=Menia M, Iqbal S, Zahida R, Tahir S, Kanth RH, Saad AA, Hussian A |title=Production technology of saffron for enhancing productivity (see PDF)|journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry |date=2018 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1033–1039 |url=https://www.phytojournal.com/archives?year=2018&vol=7&issue=1&ArticleId=2634 |language=en |issn=2349-8234}}</ref><ref name="hooker">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-41110151|title=The problem for the world's most expensive spice|last=Hooker|first=Lucy|date=13 September 2017|access-date=12 January 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> At US$5,000 per kg or higher, saffron has long been the world's costliest spice by weight.{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=53}}{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-pics-world-s-costliest-spice-blooms-in-kashmir/20121109.htm|title=World's COSTLIEST spice blooms in Kashmir|publisher=[[Rediff]]|access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref>
==Etymology==
{{Further|History of saffron}}
A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word "saffron". It might stem from the 12th-century [[Old French]] term ''safran'', which comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|safranum}}, from the Persian ({{lang|Fa|زعفران}}, ''za'farān''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=saffron|title=Saffron|date=2016|publisher=etymonline.com ([[Online Etymology Dictionary]]), Douglas Harper|access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> from the Persian word ''zarparān'' ({{lang|fa|زرپران}}) meaning "gold strung" (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it creates when used as flavour).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen|first=Asya|last=Asbaghi|date=1988|publisher=O. Harrasowitz|isbn=978-3-447-02757-1|location=Wiesbaden|oclc=19588893}}</ref>
suck my dik 🍆🌬\
==Spice==
===Phytochemistry and sensory properties===
[[File:Picrocrocin.svg|thumb|Structure of [[picrocrocin]]:{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}}
{|
|-
|{{Legend|#AEAEFF|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-glucopyranose derivative}}
|-
|{{Legend|#F5D76C|safranal moiety}}
|}
]]
[[File:Crocetin safranal esterification.png|thumb|[[Esterification]] reaction between [[crocetin]] and [[gentiobiose]]. Components of α–crocin:<ref name=dhar/>
{|
|-
|{{Legend|#A6CAF0|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-gentiobiose}}||{{Legend|#000000|crocetin}}
|}
]]
Saffron contains some 28 [[Volatile organic compound|volatile and aroma-yielding compounds]], dominated by [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s.<ref name="Amanpour">{{cite journal | last1=Amanpour | first1=Asghar | last2=Sonmezdag | first2=A. Salih | last3=Kelebek | first3=Hasim | last4=Selli | first4=Serkan | title=GC–MS–olfactometric characterization of the most aroma-active components in a representative aromatic extract from Iranian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) | journal=Food Chemistry | volume=182 | year=2015 | issn=0308-8146 | doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.005 | pages=251–256|pmid=25842335}}</ref> Its main aroma-active compounds are [[safranal]] – the main compound responsible for saffron aroma – 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone.<ref name="dhar">{{cite journal | last1=Dhar | first1=Manoj K | last2=Sharma | first2=Munish | last3=Bhat | first3=Archana | last4=Chrungoo | first4=Nikhil K | last5=Kaul | first5=Sanjana | title=Functional genomics of apocarotenoids in saffron: insights from chemistry, molecular biology and therapeutic applications (Review)| journal=Briefings in Functional Genomics | volume=16 | issue=6 | date=28 March 2017 | issn=2041-2649 | doi=10.1093/bfgp/elx003 | pages=336–347|pmid=28369196}}</ref><ref name=Amanpour/> Saffron also contains nonvolatile [[phytochemical]]s,{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} including the [[carotenoid]]s [[zeaxanthin]], [[lycopene]], various α- and β-[[carotene]]s, as well as [[crocetin]] and its [[glycoside]] crocein, which are the most biologically active components.<ref name=dhar/><ref name="pmid29134501">{{cite journal | vauthors=Hosseini A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H | title=Pharmacokinetic Properties of Saffron and its Active Components | journal=European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics | volume=43 | issue=4 | pages=383–390 | year=2018 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890623820302926 | doi=10.1007/s13318-017-0449-3 | pmid=29134501| s2cid=23836415 }}</ref> Because crocetin is smaller and more water-soluble than the other carotenoids, it is more rapidly absorbed.<ref name="pmid29134501" />
The yellow-orange colour of saffron is primarily the result of α-crocin.<ref name=dhar/> This [[crocin]] is trans-[[crocetin]] di-(β-D-[[gentiobiose|gentiobiosyl]]) [[ester]]; it bears the [[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic (IUPAC) name]] 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocins themselves are a series of [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] carotenoids that are either [[glycosyl|monoglycosyl]] or diglycosyl [[polyene]] esters of crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocetin is a [[conjugated system|conjugated]] polyene [[carboxylic acid|dicarboxylic acid]] that is [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]], and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is [[esterification|esterified]] with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are [[carbohydrate|sugars]], a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}}
The bitter [[glucoside]] [[picrocrocin]] is responsible for saffron's [[pungency|pungent flavour]].<ref name=dhar/> Picrocrocin ([[chemical formula]]: {{Chem|C|16|H|26|O|7}}; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde) is a union of an [[aldehyde]] sub-molecule known as [[safranal]] (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid [[zeaxanthin]] that is produced via [[redox|oxidative]] cleavage, and is the [[glycoside]] of the [[terpene]] [[aldehyde]] safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}}
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]–[[glucose]] and a free safranal molecule.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}} Safranal, a [[essential oil|volatile]] oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=423}}{{Sfn|Dharmananda|2005}} Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is [[Lanierone|2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one]], which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating [[pH]] levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and [[redox|oxidising]] agents. It must, therefore, be stored in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
===Grades and ISO 3632 categories===
[[File:Iran saffron threads.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Red threads and yellow styles from Iran]]
[[File:Safran-Weinviertel Niederreiter 2 Gramm 8285.jpg|thumb|left|upright|High quality red threads from Austrian saffron]]
[[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 08.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Kashmir]]i saffron package]]
Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron from [[Iran]], [[Spain]], and [[Kashmir]] is classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are: ''sargol'' ({{langx|fa|سرگل}}, red stigma tips only, strongest grade), ''pushal'' or ''pushali'' (red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) and ''konge'' (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron are ''coupé'' (the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol), ''mancha'' (like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strength ''rio'', ''standard'' and ''sierra'' saffron. The word ''mancha'' in the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron has [[Geographical indications and traditional specialities in the European Union#Protected designation of origin (PDO)|PDO]] protected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand. {{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Similar was the case in Kashmir where imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Sustainable Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Production: Technological and Policy Interventions for Kashmir |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Azra N. Kamili |author3=M. H. Wani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=G. N. Bhat |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad M. |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |location=UK |page=118}}</ref> In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories called ''mongra'' (stigma alone) and ''lachha'' (stigmas attached with parts of the style).<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Cultivation in Kashmir: Practices and Problems |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Badrul Hassan |author3=Muzaffar Y. Ghani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=Nayar A. Kirmani |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |location=UK |page=110}}</ref> Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron.
In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.{{Sfn|Verma|Middha|2010|p=1–2}} However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in the UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.
Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("[[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]]") are also key. Grading standards are set by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric [[absorbance]]. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.
These data are measured through [[spectrophotometry]] reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and Mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.
However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced [[wine]] tasters.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=274}}
===Adulteration===
Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron [[adulteration]], particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the ''Safranschou'' code.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=102–104}} Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like [[beetroot]], [[pomegranate]] fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like [[honey]] or vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with [[turmeric]], [[paprika]], and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/long-reads/kashmirs-saffron-harvest-sees-sharp-decline-4216123.html|title=Kashmir's saffron harvest sees sharp decline |website=Firstpost|date=18 November 2017 |access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rashid|first=Afshan|date=22 September 2018|title=From 35kgs earlier to 1kg yield now, 'successful' Saffron Mission paves way for apples in Pampore|url=https://freepresskashmir.news/2018/09/22/from-35kgs-earlier-to-1kg-yield-now-successful-saffron-mission-paves-way-for-apples-in-pampore/|access-date=1 January 2019|website=Free Press Kashmir|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 November 2003 |title=Kashmiri Saffron Producers See Red over Iranian Imports |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|Australian Broadcasting Corp.]] |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/1504154 |access-date=29 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hussain |first=A. |date=28 January 2005 |title=Saffron Industry in Deep Distress |work=BBC News |location=London |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4216493.stm |access-date=15 September 2011}}</ref> [[Safflower]] is a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited with [[horse hair]], [[corn silk]], or shredded paper. [[Tartrazine]] or [[sunset yellow]] have been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.<ref name=hooker/>
In recent years, saffron adulterated with the colouring extract of [[gardenia]] fruits has been detected in the European market. This form of fraud is difficult to detect due to the presence of [[flavonoids]] and [[crocin]]es in the gardenia-extracts similar to those naturally occurring in saffron. Detection methods have been developed by using [[HPLC]] and [[mass spectrometry]] to determine the presence of [[geniposide]], a compound present in the fruits of gardenia, but not in saffron.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guijarro-Díez |first1=Miguel |last2=Castro-Puyana |first2=María |last3=Crego |first3=Antonio Luis |last4=Marina |first4=María Luisa |title=Detection of saffron adulteration with gardenia extracts through the determination of geniposide by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |date=1 January 2017 |volume=55 |pages=30–37 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2016.11.004 }}</ref>
===Types===
The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. Greek saffron produced in the town of [[Krokos]] is [[Protected designation of origin|PDO]] protected due to its particularly high-quality colour and strong flavour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis|title=Krokos Kozanis PDO |last=Bishop |first=Stephen|date=26 April 2018|website=European Commission|access-date=16 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181117024010/https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis |archive-date= Nov 17, 2018 }}</ref> Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=201}}
Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or ''zafferano dell'Aquila'', is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's [[Abruzzo]] region, near [[L'Aquila]]. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican friar from inquisition-era Spain.{{when|date=October 2016}} But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in [[San Gavino Monreale]], Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content.
Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (''Crocus sativus'' 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vlahova |first1=Veselka |title=Saffron (''Crocus Sativus'') as an Alternative Crop in Sustainable Agricultural Systems. a Review |journal=Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development |date=2022 |volume=22 |issue=2 |page=778 |url=https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |access-date=22 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922221935/https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2022 }}</ref> Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue, making it among the world's darkest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hassan |first=Firdous |date=2020-02-19 |title=Farmers Pitch For GI Tag For Kashmiri Saffron, World's Most Expensive Spice |url=https://www.indiaspend.com/farmers-pitch-for-gi-tag-for-kashmiri-saffron-worlds-most-expensive-spice/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=IndiaSpend |language=en}}</ref> In 2020, [[Kashmir Valley]] saffron was certified with a [[geographical indication]] from the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 July 2020|title=Kashmir's saffron gets GI tag|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kashmir-s-saffron-gets-gi-tag/story-N7VfEu6mG5vlti0lHr6MpN.html|access-date=27 July 2020|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>
==World production==
[[File:SaffMHD.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron market in [[Mashad]], [[Iran]]]]
Almost all saffron grows in a belt from [[Spain]] in the west to India in the east. [[Iran]] is responsible for around 88% of global production.<ref name=menia/> In 2018, Iran cultivated an area of {{cvt|43408|ha}} producing 174 [[tonne]]s from a productivity of 4 kg/ha.<ref name=menia/> [[Afghanistan]] comes second, which produced over 67 tons in 2023.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://tolonews.com/business-188451 |title=Afghanistan Exports 67 Tons of Saffron, Worth $49M: Ministry |publisher=TOLOnews |date=4 April 2024 |access-date=2024-04-23}}</ref>
Spain is the third largest producer, while the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Greece]], the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Morocco]] are among minor producers.<ref name=menia/><ref>{{cite news |title=Moroccan saffron farmers battle knockoff spices |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1421946/offbeat |date=December 17, 2018 |publisher=Arab News |location=Saudi Arabia}}</ref>
According to the statistics for saffron trade in 2019, Iran was ranked as the world's largest producer of saffron, supplying 430 tons of the total 450 tons of saffron produced worldwide and is expected to reach 500 tons in 2020. India, producing only 22 tons of saffron annually, ranked second. Other countries reported based on their share in global saffron production included [[Kozani|Greece]] (7.2 tons), Afghanistan (6 tons), Morocco (2.6 tons), Spain (2.3 tons), Italy (1 ton), China (1 ton), and Azerbaijan (0.23 ton).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-16 |title=Global Saffron Market |url=https://behinexir.com/global-saffron-market/ |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=behinexir company |language=en-US |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030174015/https://behinexir.com/global-saffron-market/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1602281/world |title=Afghanistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best |publisher=Arab News |date=December 22, 2019 |location=Saudi Arabia}}</ref>
===Trade===
{{Main|Saffron trade}}
Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from {{cvt|500-5000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}. In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was {{cvt|1000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}} In February 2013, a retail bottle containing {{cvt|1.7|g|oz|frac=64|abbr=on}} could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of {{cvt|4336|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, or as little as about {{cvt|2000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} in larger quantities. There are between {{cvt|70000|and|200,000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|threads|threads }}. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.
==Uses==
{{Main|Use of saffron}}
{{Infobox nutritional value
| name = Dried saffron
| serving_size = 1 tbsp (2.1 g)
| kJ = 27
| carbs = 1.37 g
| fibre = 0.10 g
| fat = 0.12 g
| satfat = 0.03 g
| transfat = 0.00 g
| monofat = 0.01 g
| polyfat = 0.04 g
| protein = 0.24 g
| water = 0.25 g
| vitA_iu = 11
| thiamin_mg = 0
| riboflavin_mg = 0.01
| niacin_mg = 0.03
| vitB6_mg = 0.02
| folate_ug = 2
| vitB12_ug = 0
| vitC_mg = 1.7
| vitD_ug = 0
| vitD_iu = 0
| calcium_mg = 2
| copper_mg = 0.01
| iron_mg = 0.23
| magnesium_mg = 6
| manganese_mg = 0.6
| phosphorus_mg = 5
| potassium_mg = 36
| selenium_ug = 0.1
| sodium_mg = 3
| zinc_mg = 0.02
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170934/nutrients Full Link to USDA database entry]
| source_usda = 1
}}
Saffron has a long history of use in [[traditional medicine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Z. |last2=Bathaie |first2=S. Z. |title=Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research |journal=Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=27–66 |year=2011 |url=http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/pdf_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.html |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055609/http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/pdf_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Basker |first1=D |last2=Negbi |first2=M |s2cid=40880131 |title=Uses of saffron |journal=Journal of Economic Botany |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |year=1983 |doi=10.1007/BF02858789 |jstor=4254486 }}</ref> Saffron has also been used as a fabric [[dye]], particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=138}} It is used for religious purposes in India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mousavi|first1=Z.M.|last2=Bathaie, S.|date=Autumn 2011|title=Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research|url=http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/article_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.pdf|journal=Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine|volume=1|pages=63}}</ref>
<span class="anchor" id="E164"></span>In the European [[E number]] categorisation for food elements and additives, Saffron is coded as '''E164'''.
{{clear left}}
===Consumption===
[[File:Saffron soak.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron threads soaked in hot water prior to use in food preparation]]
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian,<ref>{{cite book|last=Simmons|first=Shirin|title=A Treasury of Persian Cuisine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87KOW40HThAC&pg=PT37|date=October 2007|publisher=Stamford House Publishing|isbn=978-1-904985-56-3|pages=37–38}}</ref> Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice and ''[[khoresh]]'' of Iran,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepersianfusion.com/persian-jewelled-rice-with-lamb-gheymeh-nesar/ |date=11 July 2017 |title=Persian Jewelled Rice with Lamb (Gheymeh Nesar)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepersianfusion.com/chicken-aubergine-stew-bademjan-ghooreh-mosama/ |date=20 August 2017 |title=Persian Chicken & Aubergine Stew (Bademjan-Ghooreh Mosama)}}</ref> the Milanese ''[[risotto]]'' of Italy, the ''[[paella]]'' of Spain, the ''[[bouillabaisse]]'' of France, to the ''[[biryani]]'' with various meat accompaniments in South Asia. Saffron is also used in the preparation of the ''Golden Ham'', a precious dry-cured [[ham]] made with saffron from [[San Gimignano]].{{cn|date=January 2024}} Common saffron substitutes include [[safflower]] (''Carthamus tinctorius'', which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"), [[annatto]], and [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa'').<!-- Saffron is identified as "E164" under the European Union [[E number]] food additive code system. --> In [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]], turmeric was also known as "Indian saffron" because of its yellow-orange colour.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pickersgill |first1=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=170 |isbn=0-415-92746-3}}</ref>{{clear left}}
===Nutrition===
Dried saffron is 65% [[carbohydrates]], 6% fat, 11% [[protein]] (table) and 12% water. In one [[tablespoon]] (2 grams; a quantity much larger than is likely to be ingested in normal use) [[manganese]] is present as 29% of the [[Daily Value]], while other [[micronutrient]]s have negligible content (table).{{clear left}}
===Toxicity===
Ingesting less than {{convert|1.5|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of saffron is not toxic for humans, but doses greater than {{convert|5|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} can become increasingly toxic.<ref name="pmid24848002">{{cite journal | vauthors=Moshiri M, Vahabzadeh M, Hosseinzadeh H | title=Clinical Applications of Saffron (Crocus sativus) and its Constituents: A Review | journal=[[Drug Research (journal)|Drug Research]] | volume=56 | issue=6 | pages=287–295 | year=2015 | doi=10.1055/s-0034-1375681 | pmid=24848002| doi-access=free }}</ref> Mild toxicity includes dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, whereas at higher doses there can be reduced [[platelet]] count and spontaneous bleeding.<ref name="pmid24848002" />
===Storage===
Saffron will not spoil, but will lose flavour within six months if not stored in an airtight, cool and dark place.<ref name="WikiHow">{{cite web | last =authors | first = Wiki- | title = How to Use Saffron | work = FOOD AND ENTERTAINING – HERBS AND SPICES | publisher = [[wikiHow]] | date = 4 October 2020 | url = https://www.wikihow.com/Use-Saffron | access-date = 9 March 2021 }}</ref> Freezer storage can maintain flavour for up to two years.<ref name="WikiHow" />
===Research===
As of 2020, saffron constituents, such as [[crocin]], [[crocetin]], and [[safranal]], were under preliminary research for their potential to affect [[mental depression]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marx|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Lane|first2=Melissa|last3=Rocks|first3=Tetyana|last4=Ruusunen|first4=Anu|last5=Loughman|first5=Amy|last6=Lopresti|first6=Adrian|last7=Marshall|first7=Skye|last8=Berk|first8=Michael|last9=Jacka|first9=Felice|last10=Dean|first10=Olivia M|date=1 August 2019|title=Effect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis|url=https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/77/8/557/5499264|journal=Nutrition Reviews|language=en|volume=77|issue=8|pages=557–571|doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuz023|pmid=31135916|issn=0029-6643}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dai|first1=Lili|last2=Chen|first2=Lingyan|last3=Wang|first3=Wenjing|date=2020|title=Safety and Efficacy of Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) for Treating Mild to Moderate Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FNMD.0000000000001118|journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease|language=en|volume=208|issue=4|pages=269–276|doi=10.1097/NMD.0000000000001118|pmid=32221179|s2cid=210119504}}</ref> Saffron has also been studied for its possible effect on cardiovascular [[Risk factor (epidemiology)|risk factor]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pourmasoumi |first1=Makan |last2=Hadi |first2=Amir |last3=Najafgholizadeh |first3=Ameneh |last4=Kafeshani |first4=Marzieh |last5=Sahebkar |first5=Amirhossein |title=Clinical evidence on the effects of saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) on cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review meta-analysis |journal=Pharmacological Research |date=1 January 2019 |volume=139 |pages=348–359 |doi=10.1016/j.phrs.2018.11.038|pmid=30502528 |s2cid=54482370 }}</ref> and in [[erectile dysfunction]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borrelli |first1=Francesca |last2=Colalto |first2=Cristiano |last3=Delfino |first3=Domenico V. |last4=Iriti |first4=Marcello |last5=Izzo |first5=Angelo A. |title=Herbal Dietary Supplements for Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Drugs |date=April 2018 |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=643–673 |doi=10.1007/s40265-018-0897-3 |pmid=29633089|s2cid=4759438 }}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of saffron}}
[[File:Cueilleuse de safran, fresque, Akrotiri, Grèce.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement of [[Akrotiri (prehistoric city)|Akrotiri]], on the Aegean island of Santorini.]]
Previously, it was theorised that saffron originated in Iran,<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> Greece,<ref name="Gresta et al." /> Mesopotamia, <ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> or Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593 |title=Saffron : science, technology and health |date=2020 |others=A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini |isbn=978-0-12-818740-1 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1140113593 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180710/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1140113593 |url-status=live }}</ref> Harold McGee<ref>Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking, 2004 edition, pg 422. Scribner, New York, NY,</ref> states that it was domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age. ''C. sativus'' is probably a [[triploid]] form of ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'',{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}<ref name="Schmidt et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Thomas|last2=Heitkam|first2=Tony|last3=Liedtke|first3=Susan|last4=Schubert|first4=Veit|last5=Menzel|first5=Gerhard|title=Adding color to a century-old enigma: multi-color chromosome identification unravels the autotriploid nature of saffron (''Crocus sativus'') as a hybrid of wild ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' cytotypes|journal=New Phytologist|volume=222|issue=4|pages=1965–1980|doi=10.1111/nph.15715|issn=1469-8137|pmid=30690735|year=2019|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Harpke et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Harpke|first1=Dörte|last2=Meng|first2=Shuchun|last3=Rutten|first3=Twan|last4=Kerndorff|first4=Helmut|last5=Blattner|first5=Frank R.|date=1 March 2013|title=Phylogeny of ''Crocus'' (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=66|issue=3|pages=617–627|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007|pmid=23123733|bibcode=2013MolPE..66..617H |issn=1055-7903}}</ref><ref name="Attica saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Nemati |first1=Zahra |last2=Harpke |first2=Dörte |last3=Gemicioglu |first3=Almila |last4=Kerndorff |first4=Helmut |last5=Blattner |first5=Frank R. |title=Saffron (Crocus sativus) is an autotriploid that evolved in Attica (Greece) from wild Crocus cartwrightianus |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2019 |volume=136 |pages=14–20 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2019.03.022 |pmid=30946897 |bibcode=2019MolPE.136...14N |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790319300879 |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Atticsaff|doi-access=free }}</ref> which is also known as "wild saffron".{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} Saffron crocus was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]] and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Several wild species of ''Crocus'' similar to the commercial plant are known to have been harvested in recent times for use as saffron. ''[[Crocus ancyrensis]]'' was used to make saffron in Sivas in Central Turkey, the corms were also eaten. ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' was harvested on Andros in the islands of the Cyclades, for medicinal purposes and the stigmas for making a pigment called Zafran. ''[[Crocus longiflorus]]'' stigmas were used for saffron in Sicily. ''Crocus thomasii'' stigmas were used to flavour dishes around Taranto, South Italy. In Syria the stigmas of an unknown wild species were collected by women and children, sun-dried and pressed into small tablets which were sold in the Bazaars.<ref name="Maw Saffron">{{cite book |last1=Maw |first1=George |title=A Monograph of the Genus Crocus |date=1886 |publisher=Dulau and Co. |location=Soho Square, London |pages=87, 164, 207, 250 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52656#page/101/mode/1up |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Maw Saffron}}</ref> Not all ancient depictions or descriptions of saffron spice or flowers are certain to be the same species as the modern commercial species used for spice.<ref name="Ancient Saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Kazemi-Shahandashti |first1=Seyyedeh-Sanam |last2=Mann |first2=Ludwig |last3=El-nagish |first3=Abdullah |last4=Harpke |first4=Dörte |last5=Nemati |first5=Zahra |last6=Usadel |first6=Björn |last7=Heitkam |first7=Tony |title=Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2022 |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.834416 |doi-access=free |pmid=35283878 |ref=Ancient Saffron|pmc=8913524 }}</ref>
===West Asia===
Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under [[Ashurbanipal]].{{Sfn|Russo|Dreher|Mathre|2003|p=6}} Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.<ref name=Honan2004>{{cite news |last=Honan |first=W. H. |date=2 March 2004 |title=Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/02/science/02MEDI.html?ex=1393563600 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}}{{Sfn|Humphries|1998|p=20}} The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=12}} Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the [[Minoan palace]] culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' var. ''haussknechtii'' now called ''[[Crocus haussknechtii]]'' by botanists) in [[Derbent]], [[Isfahan]], and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=17–18}} Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}} During his Asian campaigns, [[Alexander the Great]] used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=54–55}}
=== South Asia ===
[[File:Maitreya Bodhisattva and Monks Singapore.jpeg|thumb|right|Buddhist adepts wearing saffron-coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, [[Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum]], Singapore.]]
Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 and 900 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lak |first=D. |date=23 November 1998 |title=Gathering Kashmir's Saffron |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/213043.stm |access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Fotedar |first=S. |date=1999 |title=Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution |periodical=Vitasta |publisher=Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata |volume=32 |issue=1 |page=128 |url=http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929225731/http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |archive-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}} Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}} attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.{{Sfn|Dalby|2003|p=256}} Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but [[turmeric]], a less expensive dye, or [[jackfruit]].{{Sfn|Finlay|2003|p=224}} Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. [[Gamboge]] is also used to dye the robes.{{Sfn|Hanelt|2001|p=1352}}{{clear left}}
=== East Asia ===
Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.{{Sfn|Fletcher|2005|p=11}} Yet it is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume ''[[Shennong Bencaojing]]'', a pharmacopoeia written around 300–200 BC. Traditionally credited to the legendary [[Yan Emperor]] and the deity [[Shennong]], it discusses 252 plant-based medical treatments for various disorders.{{Sfn|Hayes|2001|p=6}} Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to it as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to the herbalist Wan Zhen, "the habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}}
===South East Mediterranean===
Minoan depictions of saffron are now considered to be ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''.<ref name="Ancient Saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Kazemi-Shahandashti |first1=Seyyedeh-Sanam |last2=Mann |first2=Ludwig |last3=El-nagish |first3=Abdullah |last4=Harpke |first4=Dörte |last5=Nemati |first5=Zahra |last6=Usadel |first6=Björn |last7=Heitkam |first7=Tony |title=Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2022 |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.834416 |doi-access=free |pmid=35283878 |ref=Ancient Saffron|pmc=8913524 }}</ref> The [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.<ref name=Honan2004/>{{Sfn|Ferrence|Bendersky|2004|p=1}} Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to [[Cilicia]], where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in [[Gaza City|Gaza]], townspeople in [[Rhodes]],{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=58}} and the Greek ''[[hetaerae]]'' courtesans used saffron in their [[scented water]]s, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}}
In late [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=55}} Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=34–35}} Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such [[Levant]]ine cities as [[Sidon]] and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] in Lebanon.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=59}} [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the [[mithridatium]].{{Sfn|Celsus|1989}}
===Western Europe===
[[File:Crocus sativus 003.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Preserved "Safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany]]
Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such as [[jusselle]] and [[conditum]].<ref name="Way 1843 p. 268">{{cite book | last=Way | first=A. | title=Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way | series=Camden soc | issue=v. 1 | year=1843 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0UAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA268 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=268}}</ref><ref name="Pratt 1855 p. 180">{{cite book | last=Pratt | first=A. | title=The Flowering Plants of Great Britain | publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge | issue=v. 3 | year=1855 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA180 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=180}}</ref><ref name="Napier 1882 p. 104">{{cite book | editor-last=Napier | editor-first=R. | title=A Noble Boke Off Cookry Ffor a Prynce Houssolde Or Eny Other Estately Houssholde | publisher=Elliot Stock | year=1882 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPspAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104 | access-date=18 May 2016 | pages=104–105}} (Reprinted verbatim from a rare manuscript in the Holkham Collection.)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |title=Conditum Paradoxum – Würzwein |translator-first=R. |translator-last=Maier |year=1991 |language=de |trans-title=Conditum Paradoxum – Spiced Wine |access-date=3 February 2012 |archive-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308040216/http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern [[Gaul]], where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the [[Avignon]] papacy in the 14th century AD.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=63}} Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=70}}
The 14th-century [[Black Death]] caused demand for saffron-based [[medicament]]s to peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-long [[Saffron War]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=99}} The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in [[Basel]]; it thereby grew prosperous.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=101}} The crop then spread to [[Nuremberg]], where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the ''Safranschou'' code—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=103–104}} Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=133}}
Direct archaeological evidence of mediaeval saffron consumption in Scandinavia comes from the wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship, [[Gribshunden]]. The ship sank in 1495 while on a diplomatic mission to Sweden. Excavations in 2021 revealed concentrations of saffron threads and small "pucks" of compressed saffron powder, along with fresh ginger, cloves, and pepper. Surprisingly, the saffron retained its distinctive odour even after more than 500 years of submersion in the Baltic Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larsson |first1=Mikael |last2=Foley |first2=Brendan |date=2023-01-26 |title=The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=e0281010 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281010 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9879437 |pmid=36701280|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1881010L }}</ref>
The [[Essex]] town of [[Saffron Walden]], named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).<ref name=BBCessex2014>{{cite news|last1=Granleese|first1=Bob|title=Interview: Meet the saffron producer: 'It seemed ridiculous that the UK didn't grow it' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/nov/16/meet-the-saffron-producer-uk |work=The Guardian|date=16 November 2013}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|title=Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-essex-29943720 |work=BBC News|date=7 November 2014}}</ref>
===The Americas===
Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the [[Schwenkfelder Church]] left Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}} By 1730, the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] cultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=138}} Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=138–139}} Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=142–146}} American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}
{{Clear}}
== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center">
File:Saffronfarm-860808.jpg|Saffron farm
File:860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG 7674-2.jpg|Saffron farm
File:Saffron-IMG 6603-3-2.jpg|Saffron
File: Packaged Saffron.jpg|Example of saffron packaging
</gallery>
==References==
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{{Refend}}
==External links==
<!--BLOGS AND COMMERCIAL SITES WILL BE REMOVED. SEE [[WP:EL]].-->
{{Americana Poster}}
* {{Citation|title=Saffron|work=Darling Biomedical Library|publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]|url=http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=22}}
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[[Category:Saffron| ]]
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Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -15,33 +15,5 @@
A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word "saffron". It might stem from the 12th-century [[Old French]] term ''safran'', which comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|safranum}}, from the Persian ({{lang|Fa|زعفران}}, ''za'farān''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=saffron|title=Saffron|date=2016|publisher=etymonline.com ([[Online Etymology Dictionary]]), Douglas Harper|access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> from the Persian word ''zarparān'' ({{lang|fa|زرپران}}) meaning "gold strung" (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it creates when used as flavour).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen|first=Asya|last=Asbaghi|date=1988|publisher=O. Harrasowitz|isbn=978-3-447-02757-1|location=Wiesbaden|oclc=19588893}}</ref>
-==Species==
-{{Main|Crocus sativus}}
-
-===Description===
-[[File:860808-Saffronfarm-01-IMG 7707-2.jpg|alt=Saffron Flowers|thumb|Crocus flowers which yield red saffron stigmas]]
-[[File:Saffron onions-IMG 7549-2.jpg|alt=Saffron onions|thumb|Corms]]
-<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Saffron-62-1160x773.jpg|alt=Saffron harvest|thumb|Several women in traditional clothes are collecting saffron in one of the farms of [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Torbat Heydarieh]] city of Khorasan Razavi]] -->
-
-The domesticated saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', is an autumn-[[flowering plant|flowering]] [[perennial plant]] unknown in the wild. It probably descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'' which is also known as "wild saffron"{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} and is native to [[mainland Greece]], [[Euboea]], [[Crete]], [[Skyros]] and some islands of the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="Atticasaffron">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Niels |last2=Ørgaard |first2=Marian |title=Crocus cartwrightianus on the Attica Peninsula |journal=ISHS Acta Horticulturae |date=2004 |volume=650 |issue=6 |pages=65–69 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.6 |url=https://safranerio.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/650_6.pdf |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Cartwright}}</ref> The similar species ''[[Crocus thomasii|C. thomasii]]'' and ''[[Crocus pallasii|C. pallasii]]'' were considered as other possible ancestors.{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=28}} As a genetically monomorphic clone incapable of seed production, it was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]].{{Sfn|Rubio-Moraga|Castillo-López|Gómez-Gómez|Ahrazem|2009}} Before this recent research various origins had been suggested for saffron, including [[Iran]],<ref name="Ghorbani et al.">{{Cite book |first1=R. |last1=Ghorbani |first2=A. |last2=Koocheki |s2cid=28214061 |chapter=Sustainable Cultivation of Saffron in Iran |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdksDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |title=Sustainable Agriculture Reviews |editor-last=Lichtfouse |editor-first=Eric |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-58679-3 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58679-3 |pages=170–171|url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02801642/file/Sustainable%20Agriculture%20Reviews%2014%20-%20Front%20Matter_1.pdf }}</ref> [[Greece]],<ref name="Gresta et al.">{{Cite journal|first1=F. |last1=Gresta |first2=G. M. |last2=Lombardo |first3=L. |last3=Siracusa |first4=G. |last4=Ruberto |s2cid=44054590 |year=2008 |title=Saffron, an alternative crop for sustainable agricultural systems. A review |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00886393/document |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1051/agro:2007030}}</ref> [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> and [[Kashmir]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593 |title=Saffron : science, technology and health |date=2020 |others=A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini |isbn=978-0-12-818740-1 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1140113593 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180710/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1140113593 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-
-It is a sterile [[polyploidy|triploid]] form, which means that three homologous sets of [[chromosome]]s make up each specimen's genetic complement; ''C. sativus'' bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Being sterile, the purple flowers of ''C. sativus'' fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of [[corm]]s, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}} The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} above the plant's neck.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}
-
-The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-[[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] leaves known as [[cataphyll]]s. These membrane-like structures cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are {{Convert|1|–|3|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}}, in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). ''C. sativus'' cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear [[bract]]eoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as [[pedicel (botany)|pedicels]].{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} After [[Aestivation (botany)|aestivating]] in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to {{Convert|40|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=3}} The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are {{Convert|20|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-pronged [[style (botany)|style]] {{Convert|25|–|30|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]], which is the distal end of a [[carpel]].{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}
-
-===Cultivation===
-<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Iran-MA-20221554-1160x1740.jpg|alt=cleaning Saffron |thumb|An Iranian woman is cleaning saffron.]] -->
-The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''. It is a [[polyploid|triploid]] that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant [[meiosis]] and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by [[vegetative reproduction|vegetative multiplication]] via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=30–31}}{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}
-
-''Crocus sativus'' thrives in the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]], an ecotype superficially resembling the North American [[chaparral]], and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as {{Convert|−10|C|0}} and short periods of snow cover.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Some reports suggest saffron can tolerate an air temperature range from −22 to 40 °C.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rezvani-Moghaddam |first=Parviz |title=Chapter 8. Ecophysiology of saffron |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128186381000083 |work=Saffron |pages=119–137 |editor-last=Koocheki |editor-first=Alireza |access-date=2023-02-22 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-818638-1 |editor2-last=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor2-first=Mohammad}}</ref> Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages {{Convert|1000|–|1500|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}; saffron-growing regions in Greece ({{Convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}} annually) and Spain ({{Convert|400|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=2}} and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. [[Nematode]]s, leaf [[rust (fungus)|rusts]], and corm rot pose other threats. Yet ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'' inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.{{Sfn|Sharaf-Eldin|Elkholy|Fernández|Junge|2008}}
-
-The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged {{Convert|7|–|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though they form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting {{Convert|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep and in rows {{Convert|2|–|3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} apart; depths of {{Convert|8|–|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.
-
-''C. sativus'' prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-[[calcareous]] soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some {{Convert|20|–|30|t/ha|ST/acre|0|abbr=off}} of manure. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}} After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=3–4}} All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=4}} Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=8}}
-
-===Harvesting===
-[[File:Saffron-sargol-zafaranic.jpg|thumb|Sargol saffron, the strongest Iranian grade]]
-The high retail value of saffron is maintained on world markets because of labour-intensive harvesting methods, which require some {{convert|200000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|stigmas|hand-picked saffron stigmas }} – equivalently, {{convert|70000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|flowers|crocus flowers }}.<ref name=hooker/><ref name="cnn">{{cite news |last=Monks |first=Keiron |date=3 September 2015 |title=Iran's homegrown treasure: the spice that costs more than gold |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/03/middleeast/iran-saffron-red-gold/ |newspaper=CNN |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=273}}{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=35}} Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lak |first=Daniel |date=11 November 1998 |title=Kashmiris pin hopes on saffron |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm |access-date=11 September 2011}}</ref>
-
-One freshly picked crocus flower yields on average 30 mg of fresh saffron or 7 mg dried; roughly 150 flowers yield {{Convert|1|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of dry saffron threads; to produce {{Convert|12|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} of dried saffron, {{Convert|1|lb|g|order=flip|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of flowers are needed; the yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only {{convert|0.2|oz/lb|g/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}}
+suck my dik 🍆🌬\
==Spice==
' |
New page size (new_size) | 60097 |
Old page size (old_size) | 71945 |
Size change in edit (edit_delta) | -11848 |
Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => 'suck my dik 🍆🌬\'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '==Species==',
1 => '{{Main|Crocus sativus}}',
2 => '',
3 => '===Description===',
4 => '[[File:860808-Saffronfarm-01-IMG 7707-2.jpg|alt=Saffron Flowers|thumb|Crocus flowers which yield red saffron stigmas]]',
5 => '[[File:Saffron onions-IMG 7549-2.jpg|alt=Saffron onions|thumb|Corms]]',
6 => '<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Saffron-62-1160x773.jpg|alt=Saffron harvest|thumb|Several women in traditional clothes are collecting saffron in one of the farms of [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Torbat Heydarieh]] city of Khorasan Razavi]] -->',
7 => '',
8 => 'The domesticated saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', is an autumn-[[flowering plant|flowering]] [[perennial plant]] unknown in the wild. It probably descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'' which is also known as "wild saffron"{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} and is native to [[mainland Greece]], [[Euboea]], [[Crete]], [[Skyros]] and some islands of the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="Atticasaffron">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Niels |last2=Ørgaard |first2=Marian |title=Crocus cartwrightianus on the Attica Peninsula |journal=ISHS Acta Horticulturae |date=2004 |volume=650 |issue=6 |pages=65–69 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.6 |url=https://safranerio.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/650_6.pdf |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Cartwright}}</ref> The similar species ''[[Crocus thomasii|C. thomasii]]'' and ''[[Crocus pallasii|C. pallasii]]'' were considered as other possible ancestors.{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=28}} As a genetically monomorphic clone incapable of seed production, it was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]].{{Sfn|Rubio-Moraga|Castillo-López|Gómez-Gómez|Ahrazem|2009}} Before this recent research various origins had been suggested for saffron, including [[Iran]],<ref name="Ghorbani et al.">{{Cite book |first1=R. |last1=Ghorbani |first2=A. |last2=Koocheki |s2cid=28214061 |chapter=Sustainable Cultivation of Saffron in Iran |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdksDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |title=Sustainable Agriculture Reviews |editor-last=Lichtfouse |editor-first=Eric |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-58679-3 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58679-3 |pages=170–171|url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02801642/file/Sustainable%20Agriculture%20Reviews%2014%20-%20Front%20Matter_1.pdf }}</ref> [[Greece]],<ref name="Gresta et al.">{{Cite journal|first1=F. |last1=Gresta |first2=G. M. |last2=Lombardo |first3=L. |last3=Siracusa |first4=G. |last4=Ruberto |s2cid=44054590 |year=2008 |title=Saffron, an alternative crop for sustainable agricultural systems. A review |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00886393/document |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1051/agro:2007030}}</ref> [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> and [[Kashmir]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593 |title=Saffron : science, technology and health |date=2020 |others=A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini |isbn=978-0-12-818740-1 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1140113593 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180710/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1140113593 |url-status=live }}</ref>',
9 => '',
10 => 'It is a sterile [[polyploidy|triploid]] form, which means that three homologous sets of [[chromosome]]s make up each specimen's genetic complement; ''C. sativus'' bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Being sterile, the purple flowers of ''C. sativus'' fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of [[corm]]s, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}} The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} above the plant's neck.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}',
11 => '',
12 => 'The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-[[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] leaves known as [[cataphyll]]s. These membrane-like structures cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are {{Convert|1|–|3|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}}, in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). ''C. sativus'' cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear [[bract]]eoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as [[pedicel (botany)|pedicels]].{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} After [[Aestivation (botany)|aestivating]] in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to {{Convert|40|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=3}} The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are {{Convert|20|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-pronged [[style (botany)|style]] {{Convert|25|–|30|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]], which is the distal end of a [[carpel]].{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}',
13 => '',
14 => '===Cultivation===',
15 => '<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Iran-MA-20221554-1160x1740.jpg|alt=cleaning Saffron |thumb|An Iranian woman is cleaning saffron.]] -->',
16 => 'The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''. It is a [[polyploid|triploid]] that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant [[meiosis]] and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by [[vegetative reproduction|vegetative multiplication]] via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=30–31}}{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}',
17 => '',
18 => '''Crocus sativus'' thrives in the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]], an ecotype superficially resembling the North American [[chaparral]], and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as {{Convert|−10|C|0}} and short periods of snow cover.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Some reports suggest saffron can tolerate an air temperature range from −22 to 40 °C.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rezvani-Moghaddam |first=Parviz |title=Chapter 8. Ecophysiology of saffron |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128186381000083 |work=Saffron |pages=119–137 |editor-last=Koocheki |editor-first=Alireza |access-date=2023-02-22 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-818638-1 |editor2-last=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor2-first=Mohammad}}</ref> Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages {{Convert|1000|–|1500|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}; saffron-growing regions in Greece ({{Convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}} annually) and Spain ({{Convert|400|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=2}} and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. [[Nematode]]s, leaf [[rust (fungus)|rusts]], and corm rot pose other threats. Yet ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'' inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.{{Sfn|Sharaf-Eldin|Elkholy|Fernández|Junge|2008}}',
19 => '',
20 => 'The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged {{Convert|7|–|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though they form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting {{Convert|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep and in rows {{Convert|2|–|3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} apart; depths of {{Convert|8|–|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.',
21 => '',
22 => '''C. sativus'' prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-[[calcareous]] soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some {{Convert|20|–|30|t/ha|ST/acre|0|abbr=off}} of manure. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}} After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=3–4}} All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=4}} Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=8}}',
23 => '',
24 => '===Harvesting===',
25 => '[[File:Saffron-sargol-zafaranic.jpg|thumb|Sargol saffron, the strongest Iranian grade]]',
26 => 'The high retail value of saffron is maintained on world markets because of labour-intensive harvesting methods, which require some {{convert|200000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|stigmas|hand-picked saffron stigmas }} – equivalently, {{convert|70000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|flowers|crocus flowers }}.<ref name=hooker/><ref name="cnn">{{cite news |last=Monks |first=Keiron |date=3 September 2015 |title=Iran's homegrown treasure: the spice that costs more than gold |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/03/middleeast/iran-saffron-red-gold/ |newspaper=CNN |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=273}}{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=35}} Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lak |first=Daniel |date=11 November 1998 |title=Kashmiris pin hopes on saffron |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm |access-date=11 September 2011}}</ref>',
27 => '',
28 => 'One freshly picked crocus flower yields on average 30 mg of fresh saffron or 7 mg dried; roughly 150 flowers yield {{Convert|1|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of dry saffron threads; to produce {{Convert|12|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} of dried saffron, {{Convert|1|lb|g|order=flip|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of flowers are needed; the yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only {{convert|0.2|oz/lb|g/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}}'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [] |
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links) | [
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Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Spice made from crocus flowers</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffron_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Saffron (disambiguation)">Saffron (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saffron8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Saffron8.jpg/220px-Saffron8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Saffron8.jpg/330px-Saffron8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Saffron8.jpg/440px-Saffron8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Saffron crocus, <i>Crocus sativus</i>, with its vivid crimson stigmas and styles</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PISTILLI_DI_ZAFFERANO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/PISTILLI_DI_ZAFFERANO.jpg/220px-PISTILLI_DI_ZAFFERANO.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/PISTILLI_DI_ZAFFERANO.jpg/330px-PISTILLI_DI_ZAFFERANO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/PISTILLI_DI_ZAFFERANO.jpg/440px-PISTILLI_DI_ZAFFERANO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2746" data-file-height="3661" /></a><figcaption>Saffron "threads", plucked from crocus flowers and dried</figcaption></figure>
<p><b>Saffron</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a spice derived from the flower of <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_sativus" title="Crocus sativus">Crocus sativus</a></i>, commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">stigma</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">styles</a>, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasoning" title="Seasoning">seasoning</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_coloring" title="Food coloring">colouring agent</a> in food. The saffron crocus was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
</p><p>Saffron's taste and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodoform" title="Iodoform">iodoform</a>-like or <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay" title="Hay">hay</a>-like fragrance result from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">phytochemicals</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picrocrocin" title="Picrocrocin">picrocrocin</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safranal" title="Safranal">safranal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004423_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004423-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Katzer2010_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katzer2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also contains a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoid</a> pigment, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocin" title="Crocin">crocin</a>, which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_saffron" title="History of saffron">Its recorded history</a> is attested in a 7th-century BC <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> botanical treatise,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussoDreherMathre20036_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussoDreherMathre20036-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it has been <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_and_use_of_saffron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade and use of saffron">traded and used</a> for thousands of years. As of 2024, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> produced some 90% of the world total for saffron.<sup id="cite_ref-menia_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-menia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hooker_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hooker-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At US$5,000 per kg or higher, saffron has long been the world's costliest spice by weight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERau196953_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERau196953-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004272_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004272-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Spice"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Spice</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Phytochemistry_and_sensory_properties"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Phytochemistry and sensory properties</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Grades_and_ISO_3632_categories"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Grades and ISO 3632 categories</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Adulteration"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Adulteration</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Types"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#World_production"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">World production</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Trade"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Trade</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Uses"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Uses</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Consumption"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Consumption</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Nutrition"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Nutrition</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Toxicity"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Toxicity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Storage"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Storage</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Research"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Research</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#West_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">West Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#South_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">South Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#East_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">East Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#South_East_Mediterranean"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">South East Mediterranean</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Western_Europe"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Western Europe</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#The_Americas"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">The Americas</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Gallery"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Gallery</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_saffron" title="History of saffron">History of saffron</a></div>
<p>A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word "saffron". It might stem from the 12th-century <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> term <i>safran</i>, which comes from the Latin word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">safranum</i></span>, from the Persian (<span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">زعفران</span></span>, <i>za'farān</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the Persian word <i>zarparān</i> (<span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">زرپران</span></span>) meaning "gold strung" (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it creates when used as flavour).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>suck my dik 🍆🌬\
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spice">Spice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Spice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phytochemistry_and_sensory_properties">Phytochemistry and sensory properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phytochemistry and sensory properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picrocrocin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Picrocrocin.svg/220px-Picrocrocin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Picrocrocin.svg/330px-Picrocrocin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Picrocrocin.svg/440px-Picrocrocin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="93" /></a><figcaption>Structure of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picrocrocin" title="Picrocrocin">picrocrocin</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeo20034_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeo20034-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <table> <tbody><tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#AEAEFF; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomer" title="Anomer">β</a>–<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharide#Isomerism" title="Monosaccharide">D</a>-glucopyranose derivative</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#F5D76C; color:black;"> </span> safranal moiety</div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crocetin_safranal_esterification.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Crocetin_safranal_esterification.png/220px-Crocetin_safranal_esterification.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Crocetin_safranal_esterification.png/330px-Crocetin_safranal_esterification.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Crocetin_safranal_esterification.png/440px-Crocetin_safranal_esterification.png 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esterification" class="mw-redirect" title="Esterification">Esterification</a> reaction between <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocetin" title="Crocetin">crocetin</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentiobiose" title="Gentiobiose">gentiobiose</a>. Components of α–crocin:<sup id="cite_ref-dhar_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhar-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <table> <tbody><tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#A6CAF0; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomer" title="Anomer">β</a>–<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharide#Isomerism" title="Monosaccharide">D</a>-gentiobiose</div></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#000000; color:white;"> </span> crocetin</div> </td></tr></tbody></table> </figcaption></figure>
<p>Saffron contains some 28 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile and aroma-yielding compounds</a>, dominated by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketones</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Amanpour_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amanpour-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its main aroma-active compounds are <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safranal" title="Safranal">safranal</a> – the main compound responsible for saffron aroma – 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone.<sup id="cite_ref-dhar_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhar-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Amanpour_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amanpour-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron also contains nonvolatile <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">phytochemicals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeaxanthin" title="Zeaxanthin">zeaxanthin</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycopene" title="Lycopene">lycopene</a>, various α- and β-<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene">carotenes</a>, as well as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocetin" title="Crocetin">crocetin</a> and its <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoside" title="Glycoside">glycoside</a> crocein, which are the most biologically active components.<sup id="cite_ref-dhar_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhar-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid29134501_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29134501-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because crocetin is smaller and more water-soluble than the other carotenoids, it is more rapidly absorbed.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29134501_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29134501-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The yellow-orange colour of saffron is primarily the result of α-crocin.<sup id="cite_ref-dhar_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhar-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocin" title="Crocin">crocin</a> is trans-<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocetin" title="Crocetin">crocetin</a> di-(β-D-<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentiobiose" title="Gentiobiose">gentiobiosyl</a>) <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">ester</a>; it bears the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC nomenclature">systematic (IUPAC) name</a> 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crocins themselves are a series of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophile" title="Hydrophile">hydrophilic</a> carotenoids that are either <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosyl" title="Glycosyl">monoglycosyl</a> or diglycosyl <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyene" title="Polyene">polyene</a> esters of crocetin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crocetin is a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">conjugated</a> polyene <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">dicarboxylic acid</a> that is <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">hydrophobic</a>, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esterification" class="mw-redirect" title="Esterification">esterified</a> with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">sugars</a>, a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004422_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004422-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The bitter <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucoside" title="Glucoside">glucoside</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picrocrocin" title="Picrocrocin">picrocrocin</a> is responsible for saffron's <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pungency" title="Pungency">pungent flavour</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dhar_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhar-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Picrocrocin (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">chemical formula</a>: <span class="chemf nowrap">C<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">16</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">26</sub></span></span>O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">7</sub></span></span></span>; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde) is a union of an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> sub-molecule known as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safranal" title="Safranal">safranal</a> (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeaxanthin" title="Zeaxanthin">zeaxanthin</a> that is produced via <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidative</a> cleavage, and is the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycoside" title="Glycoside">glycoside</a> of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpene" title="Terpene">terpene</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> safranal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeffingwell-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharide#Isomerism" title="Monosaccharide">D</a>–<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and a free safranal molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeo20034_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeo20034-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Safranal, a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_oil" title="Essential oil">volatile</a> oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004423_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004423-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDharmananda2005_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDharmananda2005-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeffingwell-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanierone" title="Lanierone">2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one</a>, which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeffingwell-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeffingwell-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidising</a> agents. It must, therefore, be stored in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grades_and_ISO_3632_categories">Grades and ISO 3632 categories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Grades and ISO 3632 categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iran_saffron_threads.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Iran_saffron_threads.jpg/170px-Iran_saffron_threads.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Iran_saffron_threads.jpg/255px-Iran_saffron_threads.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Iran_saffron_threads.jpg/340px-Iran_saffron_threads.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1613" data-file-height="1545" /></a><figcaption>Red threads and yellow styles from Iran</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Safran-Weinviertel_Niederreiter_2_Gramm_8285.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Safran-Weinviertel_Niederreiter_2_Gramm_8285.jpg/170px-Safran-Weinviertel_Niederreiter_2_Gramm_8285.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Safran-Weinviertel_Niederreiter_2_Gramm_8285.jpg/255px-Safran-Weinviertel_Niederreiter_2_Gramm_8285.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Safran-Weinviertel_Niederreiter_2_Gramm_8285.jpg/340px-Safran-Weinviertel_Niederreiter_2_Gramm_8285.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3520" data-file-height="2356" /></a><figcaption>High quality red threads from Austrian saffron</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pure_Kashmiri_saffron_pack_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Pure_Kashmiri_saffron_pack_08.jpg/170px-Pure_Kashmiri_saffron_pack_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Pure_Kashmiri_saffron_pack_08.jpg/255px-Pure_Kashmiri_saffron_pack_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Pure_Kashmiri_saffron_pack_08.jpg/340px-Pure_Kashmiri_saffron_pack_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmiri</a> saffron package</figcaption></figure>
<p>Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> is classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are: <i>sargol</i> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">سرگل</span>, red stigma tips only, strongest grade), <i>pushal</i> or <i>pushali</i> (red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) and <i>konge</i> (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron are <i>coupé</i> (the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol), <i>mancha</i> (like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strength <i>rio</i>, <i>standard</i> and <i>sierra</i> saffron. The word <i>mancha</i> in the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron has <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_indications_and_traditional_specialities_in_the_European_Union#Protected_designation_of_origin_(PDO)" title="Geographical indications and traditional specialities in the European Union">PDO</a> protected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Similar was the case in Kashmir where imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories called <i>mongra</i> (stigma alone) and <i>lachha</i> (stigmas attached with parts of the style).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron.
</p><p>In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVermaMiddha20101–2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVermaMiddha20101–2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in the UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.
</p><p>Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash_(analytical_chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash (analytical chemistry)">ash</a>") are also key. Grading standards are set by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a>, a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorbance" title="Absorbance">absorbance</a>. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.
</p><p>These data are measured through <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometry</a> reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and Mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.
</p><p>However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> tasters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004274_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004274-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adulteration">Adulteration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Adulteration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adulteration" class="mw-redirect" title="Adulteration">adulteration</a>, particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the <i>Safranschou</i> code.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002102–104_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002102–104-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetroot" title="Beetroot">beetroot</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">pomegranate</a> fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a> or vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paprika" title="Paprika">paprika</a>, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safflower" title="Safflower">Safflower</a> is a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse hair">horse hair</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_silk" title="Corn silk">corn silk</a>, or shredded paper. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartrazine" title="Tartrazine">Tartrazine</a> or <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_yellow" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunset yellow">sunset yellow</a> have been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.<sup id="cite_ref-hooker_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hooker-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In recent years, saffron adulterated with the colouring extract of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardenia" title="Gardenia">gardenia</a> fruits has been detected in the European market. This form of fraud is difficult to detect due to the presence of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavonoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavonoids">flavonoids</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocin" title="Crocin">crocines</a> in the gardenia-extracts similar to those naturally occurring in saffron. Detection methods have been developed by using <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPLC" class="mw-redirect" title="HPLC">HPLC</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> to determine the presence of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geniposide" title="Geniposide">geniposide</a>, a compound present in the fruits of gardenia, but not in saffron.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. Greek saffron produced in the town of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krokos" title="Krokos">Krokos</a> is <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_designation_of_origin" title="Protected designation of origin">PDO</a> protected due to its particularly high-quality colour and strong flavour.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002201_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002201-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or <i>zafferano dell'Aquila</i>, is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo" title="Abruzzo">Abruzzo</a> region, near <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Aquila" title="L'Aquila">L'Aquila</a>. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican friar from inquisition-era Spain.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (October 2016)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Gavino_Monreale" title="San Gavino Monreale">San Gavino Monreale</a>, Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content.
</p><p>Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (<i>Crocus sativus</i> 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue, making it among the world's darkest.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Valley" title="Kashmir Valley">Kashmir Valley</a> saffron was certified with a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_indication" title="Geographical indication">geographical indication</a> from the Government of India.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_production">World production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: World production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SaffMHD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/SaffMHD.jpg/220px-SaffMHD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/SaffMHD.jpg/330px-SaffMHD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/SaffMHD.jpg/440px-SaffMHD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Saffron market in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashad" class="mw-redirect" title="Mashad">Mashad</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Almost all saffron grows in a belt from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> in the west to India in the east. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> is responsible for around 88% of global production.<sup id="cite_ref-menia_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-menia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, Iran cultivated an area of 43,408 ha (107,260 acres) producing 174 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> from a productivity of 4 kg/ha.<sup id="cite_ref-menia_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-menia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> comes second, which produced over 67 tons in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Spain is the third largest producer, while the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> are among minor producers.<sup id="cite_ref-menia_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-menia-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>According to the statistics for saffron trade in 2019, Iran was ranked as the world's largest producer of saffron, supplying 430 tons of the total 450 tons of saffron produced worldwide and is expected to reach 500 tons in 2020. India, producing only 22 tons of saffron annually, ranked second. Other countries reported based on their share in global saffron production included <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozani" title="Kozani">Greece</a> (7.2 tons), Afghanistan (6 tons), Morocco (2.6 tons), Spain (2.3 tons), Italy (1 ton), China (1 ton), and Azerbaijan (0.23 ton).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffron_trade" title="Saffron trade">Saffron trade</a></div>
<p>Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from $1,100–$11,000/kg ($500–$5,000/lb). In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was $2,200/kg ($1,000/lb).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004272_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004272-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2013, a retail bottle containing <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1.7 g (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> oz) could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of $9,560/kg ($4,336/lb), or as little as about $4,400/kg ($2,000/lb) in larger quantities. There are between 150,000 and 440,000 threads /kg (70,000 and 200,000 threads/lb). Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_of_saffron" title="Use of saffron">Use of saffron</a></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox nowrap"><caption class="infobox-title" style="white-space:normal; padding-bottom:0.15em;">Dried saffron</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Nutritional value per 1 tbsp (2.1 g)</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energy" title="Food energy">Energy</a></th><td class="infobox-data">27 kJ (6.5 kcal)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;"><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></b></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;">1.37 g</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">Dietary fibre</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">0.10 g</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;"><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a></b></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;">0.12 g</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">Saturated</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">0.03 g</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans_fat" title="Trans fat">Trans</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">0.00 g</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monounsaturated_fat" title="Monounsaturated fat">Monounsaturated</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">0.01 g</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyunsaturated_fat" title="Polyunsaturated fat">Polyunsaturated</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">0.04 g</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;"><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_(nutrient)" title="Protein (nutrient)">Protein</a></b></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="position:relative;left:-0.65em;">0.24 g</div></td></tr>
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<th colspan="2" style="line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; ;"><div style="text-align: center; padding: 0 0.4em; margin: 0 3.3em">Vitamins and minerals</div></th>
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</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><b style="margin-left:-0.65em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamins</a></b></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><b>Quantity</b> <div style="float: right;"><abbr title="Percentage of Daily Value"><b>%DV</b></abbr><sup>†</sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">Vitamin A</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">11 IU</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">Thiamine (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">1</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 0 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">2</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">1%</div> 0.01 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (nutrient)">Niacin (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">3</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 0.03 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6" title="Vitamin B6">Vitamin B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.3em;">6</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">1%</div> 0.02 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">Folate (B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.35em;">9</span>)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">1%</div> 2 μg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">Vitamin B<span style="position: relative; top: 0.3em;">12</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 0 μg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">2%</div> 1.7 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 0 μg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 0 IU</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><b style="margin-left:-0.65em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">Minerals</a></b></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><b>Quantity</b> <div style="float: right;"><abbr title="Percentage of Daily Value"><b>%DV</b></abbr><sup>†</sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_in_biology#Humans" title="Calcium in biology">Calcium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 2 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper in health">Copper</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">1%</div> 0.01 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_iron_metabolism" title="Human iron metabolism">Iron</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">1%</div> 0.23 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_in_biology" title="Magnesium in biology">Magnesium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">1%</div> 6 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese#Human_health_and_nutrition" title="Manganese">Manganese</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">26%</div> 0.6 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus#Biological_role" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 5 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_in_biology" title="Potassium in biology">Potassium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">1%</div> 36 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_in_biology" title="Selenium in biology">Selenium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 0.1 μg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_in_biology" title="Sodium in biology">Sodium</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 3 mg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc#Biological_role" title="Zinc">Zinc</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><div style="float: right;">0%</div> 0.02 mg</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">
</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;"><b style="margin-left:-0.65em">Other constituents</b></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;"><b>Quantity</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;font-weight:normal;padding-right:0.25em;">Water</th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.65em;line-height:1.1em;">0.25 g</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">
</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><hr /><div class="wrap" style="padding:0.3em;line-height:1.2em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170934/nutrients">Full Link to USDA database entry</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below wrap" style="background:#e0e0e0;padding:0.3em;line-height:1.5em;font-weight:normal;font-size:0.9em"><sup>†</sup>Percentages estimated using <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intake#Daily_Values" title="Reference Daily Intake">US recommendations</a> for adults,<sup id="cite_ref-FDADailyValues_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FDADailyValues-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">the National Academies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NationalAcademiesPotassium_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalAcademiesPotassium-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Saffron has a long history of use in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron has also been used as a fabric <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dye</a>, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby2002138_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby2002138-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is used for religious purposes in India.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><span class="anchor" id="E164"></span>In the European <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number" title="E number">E number</a> categorisation for food elements and additives, Saffron is coded as <b>E164</b>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consumption">Consumption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Consumption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saffron_soak.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Saffron_soak.jpg/220px-Saffron_soak.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Saffron_soak.jpg/330px-Saffron_soak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Saffron_soak.jpg/440px-Saffron_soak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2125" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption>Saffron threads soaked in hot water prior to use in food preparation</figcaption></figure><p>
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice and <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoresh" title="Khoresh">khoresh</a></i> of Iran,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Milanese <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risotto" title="Risotto">risotto</a></i> of Italy, the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paella" title="Paella">paella</a></i> of Spain, the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouillabaisse" title="Bouillabaisse">bouillabaisse</a></i> of France, to the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biryani" title="Biryani">biryani</a></i> with various meat accompaniments in South Asia. Saffron is also used in the preparation of the <i>Golden Ham</i>, a precious dry-cured <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham" title="Ham">ham</a> made with saffron from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Gimignano" title="San Gimignano">San Gimignano</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Common saffron substitutes include <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safflower" title="Safflower">safflower</a> (<i>Carthamus tinctorius</i>, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annatto" title="Annatto">annatto</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a> (<i>Curcuma longa</i>). In <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval Europe</a>, turmeric was also known as "Indian saffron" because of its yellow-orange colour.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p>
Dried saffron is 65% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a>, 6% fat, 11% <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> (table) and 12% water. In one <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablespoon" title="Tablespoon">tablespoon</a> (2 grams; a quantity much larger than is likely to be ingested in normal use) <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> is present as 29% of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Value" class="mw-redirect" title="Daily Value">Daily Value</a>, while other <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">micronutrients</a> have negligible content (table).</p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxicity">Toxicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Toxicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Ingesting less than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.5 g (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> oz) of saffron is not toxic for humans, but doses greater than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">5 g (<span class="frac"><span class="num">3</span>⁄<span class="den">16</span></span> oz) can become increasingly toxic.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24848002_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24848002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mild toxicity includes dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, whereas at higher doses there can be reduced <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelet</a> count and spontaneous bleeding.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24848002_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24848002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storage">Storage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Storage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Saffron will not spoil, but will lose flavour within six months if not stored in an airtight, cool and dark place.<sup id="cite_ref-WikiHow_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WikiHow-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Freezer storage can maintain flavour for up to two years.<sup id="cite_ref-WikiHow_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WikiHow-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>As of 2020, saffron constituents, such as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocin" title="Crocin">crocin</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocetin" title="Crocetin">crocetin</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safranal" title="Safranal">safranal</a>, were under preliminary research for their potential to affect <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental depression">mental depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron has also been studied for its possible effect on cardiovascular <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_factor_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk factor (epidemiology)">risk factors</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction" title="Erectile dysfunction">erectile dysfunction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_saffron" title="History of saffron">History of saffron</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cueilleuse_de_safran,_fresque,_Akrotiri,_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Cueilleuse_de_safran%2C_fresque%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg/240px-Cueilleuse_de_safran%2C_fresque%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Cueilleuse_de_safran%2C_fresque%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg/360px-Cueilleuse_de_safran%2C_fresque%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Cueilleuse_de_safran%2C_fresque%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg/480px-Cueilleuse_de_safran%2C_fresque%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1992" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrotiri_(prehistoric_city)" title="Akrotiri (prehistoric city)">Akrotiri</a>, on the Aegean island of Santorini.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Previously, it was theorised that saffron originated in Iran,<sup id="cite_ref-Ghorbani_et_al._56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghorbani_et_al.-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greece,<sup id="cite_ref-Gresta_et_al._57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gresta_et_al.-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mesopotamia, <sup id="cite_ref-Ghorbani_et_al._56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghorbani_et_al.-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Kashmir.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harold McGee<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states that it was domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age. <i>C. sativus</i> is probably a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploid">triploid</a> form of <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_cartwrightianus" title="Crocus cartwrightianus">Crocus cartwrightianus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrilli_Caiola20031_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrilli_Caiola20031-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt_et_al._61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt_et_al.-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harpke_et_al._62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harpke_et_al.-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Attica_saffron_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Attica_saffron-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is also known as "wild saffron".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKafi_et_al.200624_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKafi_et_al.200624-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron crocus was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
</p><p>Several wild species of <i>Crocus</i> similar to the commercial plant are known to have been harvested in recent times for use as saffron. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_ancyrensis" title="Crocus ancyrensis">Crocus ancyrensis</a></i> was used to make saffron in Sivas in Central Turkey, the corms were also eaten. <i>Crocus cartwrightianus</i> was harvested on Andros in the islands of the Cyclades, for medicinal purposes and the stigmas for making a pigment called Zafran. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_longiflorus" title="Crocus longiflorus">Crocus longiflorus</a></i> stigmas were used for saffron in Sicily. <i>Crocus thomasii</i> stigmas were used to flavour dishes around Taranto, South Italy. In Syria the stigmas of an unknown wild species were collected by women and children, sun-dried and pressed into small tablets which were sold in the Bazaars.<sup id="cite_ref-Maw_Saffron_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maw_Saffron-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all ancient depictions or descriptions of saffron spice or flowers are certain to be the same species as the modern commercial species used for spice.<sup id="cite_ref-Ancient_Saffron_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancient_Saffron-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Asia">West Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: West Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussoDreherMathre20036_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussoDreherMathre20036-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.<sup id="cite_ref-Honan2004_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honan2004-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard20022-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphries199820_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphries199820-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200212_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200212-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan palace">Minoan palace</a> culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> var. <i>haussknechtii</i> now called <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_haussknechtii" title="Crocus haussknechtii">Crocus haussknechtii</a></i> by botanists) in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard20022-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200217–18_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200217–18-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200241_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200241-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his Asian campaigns, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200254–55_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200254–55-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: South Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maitreya_Bodhisattva_and_Monks_Singapore.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Maitreya_Bodhisattva_and_Monks_Singapore.jpeg/220px-Maitreya_Bodhisattva_and_Monks_Singapore.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Maitreya_Bodhisattva_and_Monks_Singapore.jpeg/330px-Maitreya_Bodhisattva_and_Monks_Singapore.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Maitreya_Bodhisattva_and_Monks_Singapore.jpeg/440px-Maitreya_Bodhisattva_and_Monks_Singapore.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption>Buddhist adepts wearing saffron-coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha_Tooth_Relic_Temple_and_Museum" title="Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum">Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum</a>, Singapore.</figcaption></figure><p>
Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 and 900 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby200295_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby200295-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004422_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004422-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby2003256_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby2003256-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a>, a less expensive dye, or <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackfruit" title="Jackfruit">jackfruit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinlay2003224_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinlay2003224-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamboge" title="Gamboge">Gamboge</a> is also used to dye the robes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanelt20011352_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanelt20011352-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:left;" class=""></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFletcher200511_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFletcher200511-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet it is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shennong_Bencaojing" title="Shennong Bencaojing">Shennong Bencaojing</a></i>, a pharmacopoeia written around 300–200 BC. Traditionally credited to the legendary <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_Emperor" title="Yan Emperor">Yan Emperor</a> and the deity <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shennong" title="Shennong">Shennong</a>, it discusses 252 plant-based medical treatments for various disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes20016_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes20016-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to it as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to the herbalist Wan Zhen, "the habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby200295_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby200295-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_East_Mediterranean">South East Mediterranean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: South East Mediterranean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Minoan depictions of saffron are now considered to be <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_cartwrightianus" title="Crocus cartwrightianus">Crocus cartwrightianus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ancient_Saffron_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancient_Saffron-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoans</a> portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.<sup id="cite_ref-Honan2004_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honan2004-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrenceBendersky20041_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrenceBendersky20041-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>, where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022–3_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard20022–3-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard20022-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>, townspeople in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200258_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200258-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Greek <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetaerae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetaerae">hetaerae</a></i> courtesans used saffron in their <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scented_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Scented water">scented waters</a>, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200241_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200241-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In late <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_VII_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII of Egypt">Cleopatra</a> used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200255_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200255-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200234–35_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200234–35-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> cities as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre_(Lebanon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyre (Lebanon)">Tyre</a> in Lebanon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200259_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200259-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus" title="Aulus Cornelius Celsus">Aulus Cornelius Celsus</a> prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridatium" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridatium">mithridatium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECelsus1989_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECelsus1989-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Western Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crocus_sativus_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Crocus_sativus_003.jpg/170px-Crocus_sativus_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Crocus_sativus_003.jpg/255px-Crocus_sativus_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Crocus_sativus_003.jpg/340px-Crocus_sativus_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1658" data-file-height="2210" /></a><figcaption>Preserved "Safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany</figcaption></figure>
<p>Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jusselle" title="Jusselle">jusselle</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditum" title="Conditum">conditum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Way_1843_p._268_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Way_1843_p._268-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_1855_p._180_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt_1855_p._180-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Napier_1882_p._104_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Napier_1882_p._104-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a> papacy in the 14th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200263_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200263-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200270_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200270-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The 14th-century <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> caused demand for saffron-based <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicament" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicament">medicaments</a> to peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-long <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffron_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffron War">Saffron War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200299_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200299-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>; it thereby grew prosperous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002101_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002101-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crop then spread to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the <i>Safranschou</i> code—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002103–104_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002103–104-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002133_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002133-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Direct archaeological evidence of mediaeval saffron consumption in Scandinavia comes from the wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gribshunden" title="Gribshunden">Gribshunden</a>. The ship sank in 1495 while on a diplomatic mission to Sweden. Excavations in 2021 revealed concentrations of saffron threads and small "pucks" of compressed saffron powder, along with fresh ginger, cloves, and pepper. Surprisingly, the saffron retained its distinctive odour even after more than 500 years of submersion in the Baltic Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex" title="Essex">Essex</a> town of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffron_Walden" title="Saffron Walden">Saffron Walden</a>, named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).<sup id="cite_ref-BBCessex2014_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBCessex2014-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Americas">The Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a> left Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1730, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch" title="Pennsylvania Dutch">Pennsylvania Dutch</a> cultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138–139_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138–139-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002142–146_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002142–146-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Lancaster County, Pennsylvania">Lancaster County, Pennsylvania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saffronfarm-860808.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saffron farm"><img alt="Saffron farm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Saffronfarm-860808.jpg/120px-Saffronfarm-860808.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Saffronfarm-860808.jpg/180px-Saffronfarm-860808.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Saffronfarm-860808.jpg/240px-Saffronfarm-860808.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Saffron farm</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG_7674-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saffron farm"><img alt="Saffron farm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG_7674-2.jpg/120px-860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG_7674-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG_7674-2.jpg/180px-860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG_7674-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG_7674-2.jpg/240px-860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG_7674-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Saffron farm</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saffron-IMG_6603-3-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saffron"><img alt="Saffron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Saffron-IMG_6603-3-2.jpg/120px-Saffron-IMG_6603-3-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Saffron-IMG_6603-3-2.jpg/180px-Saffron-IMG_6603-3-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Saffron-IMG_6603-3-2.jpg/240px-Saffron-IMG_6603-3-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Saffron</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Packaged_Saffron.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Example of saffron packaging"><img alt="Example of saffron packaging" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Packaged_Saffron.jpg/120px-Packaged_Saffron.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Packaged_Saffron.jpg/180px-Packaged_Saffron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Packaged_Saffron.jpg/240px-Packaged_Saffron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Example of saffron packaging</div>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/saffron">"saffron"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=saffron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fsaffron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004423-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004423_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004423_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGee2004">McGee 2004</a>, p. 423.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Katzer2010-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katzer2010_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatzer2010" class="citation web cs1">Katzer G (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com//engl/Croc_sat.html">"Saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> L.)"</a>. <i>Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gernot+Katzer%27s+Spice+Pages&rft.atitle=Saffron+%28Crocus+sativus+L.%29&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Katzer&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fgernot-katzers-spice-pages.com%2F%2Fengl%2FCroc_sat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussoDreherMathre20036-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussoDreherMathre20036_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussoDreherMathre20036_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussoDreherMathre2003">Russo, Dreher & Mathre 2003</a>, p. 6.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-menia-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-menia_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-menia_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-menia_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-menia_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeniaIqbalZahidaTahir2018" class="citation journal cs1">Menia M, Iqbal S, Zahida R, Tahir S, Kanth RH, Saad AA, Hussian A (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.phytojournal.com/archives?year=2018&vol=7&issue=1&ArticleId=2634">"Production technology of saffron for enhancing productivity (see PDF)"</a>. <i>Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry</i>. <b>7</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1033–</span>1039. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2349-8234">2349-8234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pharmacognosy+and+Phytochemistry&rft.atitle=Production+technology+of+saffron+for+enhancing+productivity+%28see+PDF%29&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1033-%3C%2Fspan%3E1039&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=2349-8234&rft.aulast=Menia&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Iqbal%2C+S&rft.au=Zahida%2C+R&rft.au=Tahir%2C+S&rft.au=Kanth%2C+RH&rft.au=Saad%2C+AA&rft.au=Hussian%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.phytojournal.com%2Farchives%3Fyear%3D2018%26vol%3D7%26issue%3D1%26ArticleId%3D2634&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-hooker-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hooker_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hooker_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooker2017" class="citation news cs1">Hooker L (13 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-41110151">"The problem for the world's most expensive spice"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+problem+for+the+world%27s+most+expensive+spice&rft.date=2017-09-13&rft.aulast=Hooker&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fbusiness-41110151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERau196953-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERau196953_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRau1969">Rau 1969</a>, p. 53.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004272-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004272_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004272_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2004">Hill 2004</a>, p. 272.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-pics-world-s-costliest-spice-blooms-in-kashmir/20121109.htm">"World's COSTLIEST spice blooms in Kashmir"</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rediff" class="mw-redirect" title="Rediff">Rediff</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+COSTLIEST+spice+blooms+in+Kashmir&rft.pub=Rediff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.rediff.com%2Fnews%2Fslide-show%2Fslide-show-1-pics-world-s-costliest-spice-blooms-in-kashmir%2F20121109.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=saffron">"Saffron"</a>. etymonline.com (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>), Douglas Harper. 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Saffron&rft.pub=etymonline.com+%28Online+Etymology+Dictionary%29%2C+Douglas+Harper&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Dsaffron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsbaghi1988" class="citation book cs1">Asbaghi A (1988). <i>Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen</i>. Wiesbaden: O. Harrasowitz. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02757-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02757-1"><bdi>978-3-447-02757-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19588893">19588893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persische+Lehnw%C3%B6rter+im+Arabischen&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=O.+Harrasowitz&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F19588893&rft.isbn=978-3-447-02757-1&rft.aulast=Asbaghi&rft.aufirst=Asya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeo20034-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeo20034_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeo20034_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeo2003">Deo 2003</a>, p. 4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-dhar-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dhar_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhar_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhar_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhar_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhar_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDharSharmaBhatChrungoo2017" class="citation journal cs1">Dhar MK, Sharma M, Bhat A, Chrungoo NK, Kaul S (28 March 2017). "Functional genomics of apocarotenoids in saffron: insights from chemistry, molecular biology and therapeutic applications (Review)". <i>Briefings in Functional Genomics</i>. <b>16</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">336–</span>347. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbfgp%2Felx003">10.1093/bfgp/elx003</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-2649">2041-2649</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28369196">28369196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Briefings+in+Functional+Genomics&rft.atitle=Functional+genomics+of+apocarotenoids+in+saffron%3A+insights+from+chemistry%2C+molecular+biology+and+therapeutic+applications+%28Review%29&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E336-%3C%2Fspan%3E347&rft.date=2017-03-28&rft.issn=2041-2649&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28369196&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbfgp%2Felx003&rft.aulast=Dhar&rft.aufirst=Manoj+K&rft.au=Sharma%2C+Munish&rft.au=Bhat%2C+Archana&rft.au=Chrungoo%2C+Nikhil+K&rft.au=Kaul%2C+Sanjana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Amanpour-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Amanpour_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amanpour_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmanpourSonmezdagKelebekSelli2015" class="citation journal cs1">Amanpour A, Sonmezdag AS, Kelebek H, Selli S (2015). "GC–MS–olfactometric characterization of the most aroma-active components in a representative aromatic extract from Iranian saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> L.)". <i>Food Chemistry</i>. <b>182</b>: <span class="nowrap">251–</span>256. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2015.03.005">10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.005</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0308-8146">0308-8146</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25842335">25842335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Chemistry&rft.atitle=GC%E2%80%93MS%E2%80%93olfactometric+characterization+of+the+most+aroma-active+components+in+a+representative+aromatic+extract+from+Iranian+saffron+%28Crocus+sativus+L.%29&rft.volume=182&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E256&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=0308-8146&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25842335&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.foodchem.2015.03.005&rft.aulast=Amanpour&rft.aufirst=Asghar&rft.au=Sonmezdag%2C+A.+Salih&rft.au=Kelebek%2C+Hasim&rft.au=Selli%2C+Serkan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdullaev20021_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbdullaev2002">Abdullaev 2002</a>, p. 1.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-pmid29134501-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid29134501_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid29134501_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosseiniRazaviHosseinzadeh2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hosseini A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890623820302926">"Pharmacokinetic Properties of Saffron and its Active Components"</a>. <i>European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics</i>. <b>43</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">383–</span>390. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13318-017-0449-3">10.1007/s13318-017-0449-3</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29134501">29134501</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23836415">23836415</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Drug+Metabolism+and+Pharmacokinetics&rft.atitle=Pharmacokinetic+Properties+of+Saffron+and+its+Active+Components&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E383-%3C%2Fspan%3E390&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23836415%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29134501&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13318-017-0449-3&rft.aulast=Hosseini&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Razavi%2C+BM&rft.au=Hosseinzadeh%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0890623820302926&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004422-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004422_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGee2004422_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGee2004">McGee 2004</a>, p. 422.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeffingwell-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeffingwell_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeffingwell">Leffingwell</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDharmananda2005-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDharmananda2005_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDharmananda2005">Dharmananda 2005</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmjad_Masood_HusainiBadrul_HassanMuzaffar_Y._GhaniJaime_A._Teixeira_da_Silva2010" class="citation cs2">Amjad Masood Husaini, Badrul Hassan, Muzaffar Y. Ghani, Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva, Nayar A. Kirmani (2010), Husaini A (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/30720498">"Saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> Kashmirianus) Cultivation in Kashmir: Practices and Problems"</a>, <i>Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology</i>, <b>4</b> (2), UK: Global Science Books: 110, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-903313-67-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-903313-67-2"><bdi>978-4-903313-67-2</bdi></a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-0472">1749-0472</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functional+Plant+Science+%26+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Saffron+%28Crocus+sativus+Kashmirianus%29+Cultivation+in+Kashmir%3A+Practices+and+Problems&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=110&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=1749-0472&rft.isbn=978-4-903313-67-2&rft.au=Amjad+Masood+Husaini&rft.au=Badrul+Hassan&rft.au=Muzaffar+Y.+Ghani&rft.au=Jaime+A.+Teixeira+da+Silva&rft.au=Nayar+A.+Kirmani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F30720498&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002143_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 143.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arabnews.com/node/1602281/world">"Afghanistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best"</a>. Saudi Arabia: Arab News. 22 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Afghanistan%27s+red+gold+%27saffron%27+termed+world%27s+best&rft.date=2019-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.arabnews.com%2Fnode%2F1602281%2Fworld&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FDADailyValues-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FDADailyValues_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Food_and_Drug_Administration2024" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">United States Food and Drug Administration</a> (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels">"Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels"</a>. <i>FDA</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240327175201/https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FDA&rft.atitle=Daily+Value+on+the+Nutrition+and+Supplement+Facts+Labels&rft.date=2024&rft.au=United+States+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Ffood%2Fnutrition-facts-label%2Fdaily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NationalAcademiesPotassium-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NationalAcademiesPotassium_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_MedicineHealth_and_Medicine_DivisionFood_and_Nutrition_BoardCommittee_to_Review_the_Dietary_Reference_Intakes_for_Sodium_and_Potassium2019" class="citation book cs1">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Food and Nutrition Board, Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/25353/chapter/8#120">"Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy"</a>. In Oria M, Harrison M, Stallings VA (eds.). <i>Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium</i>. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. <span class="nowrap">120–</span>121. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F25353">10.17226/25353</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48834-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48834-1"><bdi>978-0-309-48834-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844154">30844154</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Potassium%3A+Dietary+Reference+Intakes+for+Adequacy&rft.btitle=Dietary+Reference+Intakes+for+Sodium+and+Potassium&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=The+National+Academies+Collection%3A+Reports+funded+by+National+Institutes+of+Health&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E120-%3C%2Fspan%3E121&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30844154&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F25353&rft.isbn=978-0-309-48834-1&rft.au=National+Academies+of+Sciences%2C+Engineering%2C+and+Medicine&rft.au=Health+and+Medicine+Division&rft.au=Food+and+Nutrition+Board&rft.au=Committee+to+Review+the+Dietary+Reference+Intakes+for+Sodium+and+Potassium&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fnap.nationalacademies.org%2Fread%2F25353%2Fchapter%2F8%23120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby2002138-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby2002138_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDalby2002">Dalby 2002</a>, p. 138.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMousaviBathaie,_S.2011" class="citation journal cs1">Mousavi Z, Bathaie, S. (Autumn 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/article_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.pdf">"Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine</i>. <b>1</b>: 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Avicenna+Journal+of+Phytomedicine&rft.atitle=Historical+uses+of+saffron%3A+Identifying+potential+new+avenues+for+modern+research&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=63&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Mousavi&rft.aufirst=Z.M.&rft.au=Bathaie%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fajp.mums.ac.ir%2Farticle_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons2007" class="citation book cs1">Simmons S (October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=87KOW40HThAC&pg=PT37"><i>A Treasury of Persian Cuisine</i></a>. Stamford House Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>38. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904985-56-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904985-56-3"><bdi>978-1-904985-56-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treasury+of+Persian+Cuisine&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.pub=Stamford+House+Publishing&rft.date=2007-10&rft.isbn=978-1-904985-56-3&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=Shirin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D87KOW40HThAC%26pg%3DPT37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepersianfusion.com/persian-jewelled-rice-with-lamb-gheymeh-nesar/">"Persian Jewelled Rice with Lamb (Gheymeh Nesar)"</a>. 11 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Persian+Jewelled+Rice+with+Lamb+%28Gheymeh+Nesar%29&rft.date=2017-07-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.thepersianfusion.com%2Fpersian-jewelled-rice-with-lamb-gheymeh-nesar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepersianfusion.com/chicken-aubergine-stew-bademjan-ghooreh-mosama/">"Persian Chicken & Aubergine Stew (Bademjan-Ghooreh Mosama)"</a>. 20 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Persian+Chicken+%26+Aubergine+Stew+%28Bademjan-Ghooreh+Mosama%29&rft.date=2017-08-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.thepersianfusion.com%2Fchicken-aubergine-stew-bademjan-ghooreh-mosama%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarxLaneRocksRuusunen2019" class="citation journal cs1">Marx W, Lane M, Rocks T, Ruusunen A, Loughman A, Lopresti A, Marshall S, Berk M, Jacka F, Dean OM (1 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/77/8/557/5499264">"Effect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis"</a>. <i>Nutrition Reviews</i>. <b>77</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">557–</span>571. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnutrit%2Fnuz023">10.1093/nutrit/nuz023</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-6643">0029-6643</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31135916">31135916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nutrition+Reviews&rft.atitle=Effect+of+saffron+supplementation+on+symptoms+of+depression+and+anxiety%3A+a+systematic+review+and+meta-analysis&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E557-%3C%2Fspan%3E571&rft.date=2019-08-01&rft.issn=0029-6643&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31135916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fnutrit%2Fnuz023&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft.au=Lane%2C+Melissa&rft.au=Rocks%2C+Tetyana&rft.au=Ruusunen%2C+Anu&rft.au=Loughman%2C+Amy&rft.au=Lopresti%2C+Adrian&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Skye&rft.au=Berk%2C+Michael&rft.au=Jacka%2C+Felice&rft.au=Dean%2C+Olivia+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fnutritionreviews%2Farticle%2F77%2F8%2F557%2F5499264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaiChenWang2020" class="citation journal cs1">Dai L, Chen L, Wang W (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FNMD.0000000000001118">"Safety and Efficacy of Saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> L.) for Treating Mild to Moderate Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis"</a>. <i>The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease</i>. <b>208</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">269–</span>276. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FNMD.0000000000001118">10.1097/NMD.0000000000001118</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32221179">32221179</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210119504">210119504</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Nervous+and+Mental+Disease&rft.atitle=Safety+and+Efficacy+of+Saffron+%28Crocus+sativus+L.%29+for+Treating+Mild+to+Moderate+Depression%3A+A+Systematic+Review+and+Meta-analysis&rft.volume=208&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E269-%3C%2Fspan%3E276&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A210119504%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32221179&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FNMD.0000000000001118&rft.aulast=Dai&rft.aufirst=Lili&rft.au=Chen%2C+Lingyan&rft.au=Wang%2C+Wenjing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1097%252FNMD.0000000000001118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPourmasoumiHadiNajafgholizadehKafeshani2019" class="citation journal cs1">Pourmasoumi M, Hadi A, Najafgholizadeh A, Kafeshani M, Sahebkar A (1 January 2019). "Clinical evidence on the effects of saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> L.) on cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review meta-analysis". <i>Pharmacological Research</i>. <b>139</b>: <span class="nowrap">348–</span>359. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.phrs.2018.11.038">10.1016/j.phrs.2018.11.038</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30502528">30502528</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54482370">54482370</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pharmacological+Research&rft.atitle=Clinical+evidence+on+the+effects+of+saffron+%28Crocus+sativus+L.%29+on+cardiovascular+risk+factors%3A+A+systematic+review+meta-analysis&rft.volume=139&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E348-%3C%2Fspan%3E359&rft.date=2019-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54482370%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30502528&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.phrs.2018.11.038&rft.aulast=Pourmasoumi&rft.aufirst=Makan&rft.au=Hadi%2C+Amir&rft.au=Najafgholizadeh%2C+Ameneh&rft.au=Kafeshani%2C+Marzieh&rft.au=Sahebkar%2C+Amirhossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorrelliColaltoDelfinoIriti2018" class="citation journal cs1">Borrelli F, Colalto C, Delfino DV, Iriti M, Izzo AA (April 2018). "Herbal Dietary Supplements for Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". <i>Drugs</i>. <b>78</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">643–</span>673. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40265-018-0897-3">10.1007/s40265-018-0897-3</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29633089">29633089</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4759438">4759438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Drugs&rft.atitle=Herbal+Dietary+Supplements+for+Erectile+Dysfunction%3A+A+Systematic+Review+and+Meta-Analysis&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E643-%3C%2Fspan%3E673&rft.date=2018-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4759438%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29633089&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs40265-018-0897-3&rft.aulast=Borrelli&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft.au=Colalto%2C+Cristiano&rft.au=Delfino%2C+Domenico+V.&rft.au=Iriti%2C+Marcello&rft.au=Izzo%2C+Angelo+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Ghorbani_et_al.-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ghorbani_et_al._56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ghorbani_et_al._56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Ghorbani et al.</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Gresta_et_al.-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gresta_et_al._57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Gresta et al.</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593"><i>Saffron : science, technology and health</i></a>. A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini. Duxford, United Kingdom. 2020. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-818740-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-818740-1"><bdi>978-0-12-818740-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593">1140113593</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180710/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1140113593">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saffron+%3A+science%2C+technology+and+health&rft.place=Duxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1140113593&rft.isbn=978-0-12-818740-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1140113593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking, 2004 edition, pg 422. Scribner, New York, NY,</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrilli_Caiola20031-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrilli_Caiola20031_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrilli_Caiola2003">Grilli Caiola 2003</a>, p. 1.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Harpke_et_al.-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harpke_et_al._62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarpkeMengRuttenKerndorff2013" class="citation journal cs1">Harpke D, Meng S, Rutten T, Kerndorff H, Blattner FR (1 March 2013). "Phylogeny of <i>Crocus</i> (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution". <i>Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</i>. <b>66</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">617–</span>627. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013MolPE..66..617H">2013MolPE..66..617H</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2012.10.007">10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1055-7903">1055-7903</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23123733">23123733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Phylogeny+of+Crocus+%28Iridaceae%29+based+on+one+chloroplast+and+two+nuclear+loci%3A+Ancient+hybridization+and+chromosome+number+evolution&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E617-%3C%2Fspan%3E627&rft.date=2013-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2012.10.007&rft.issn=1055-7903&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23123733&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013MolPE..66..617H&rft.aulast=Harpke&rft.aufirst=D%C3%B6rte&rft.au=Meng%2C+Shuchun&rft.au=Rutten%2C+Twan&rft.au=Kerndorff%2C+Helmut&rft.au=Blattner%2C+Frank+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Attica_saffron-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Attica_saffron_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Atticsaff" class="citation journal cs1">Nemati Z, Harpke D, Gemicioglu A, Kerndorff H, Blattner FR (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790319300879">"Saffron (Crocus sativus) is an autotriploid that evolved in Attica (Greece) from wild Crocus cartwrightianus"</a>. <i>Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</i>. <b>136</b>: <span class="nowrap">14–</span>20. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019MolPE.136...14N">2019MolPE.136...14N</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2019.03.022">10.1016/j.ympev.2019.03.022</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30946897">30946897</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Saffron+%28Crocus+sativus%29+is+an+autotriploid+that+evolved+in+Attica+%28Greece%29+from+wild+Crocus+cartwrightianus&rft.volume=136&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30946897&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2019.03.022&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019MolPE.136...14N&rft.aulast=Nemati&rft.aufirst=Zahra&rft.au=Harpke%2C+D%C3%B6rte&rft.au=Gemicioglu%2C+Almila&rft.au=Kerndorff%2C+Helmut&rft.au=Blattner%2C+Frank+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1055790319300879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKafi_et_al.200624-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKafi_et_al.200624_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKafi_et_al.2006">Kafi et al. 2006</a>, p. 24.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Maw_Saffron-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maw_Saffron_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Maw_Saffron" class="citation book cs1">Maw G (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52656#page/101/mode/1up"><i>A Monograph of the Genus Crocus</i></a>. Soho Square, London: Dulau and Co. pp. 87, 164, 207, 250<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Monograph+of+the+Genus+Crocus&rft.place=Soho+Square%2C+London&rft.pages=87%2C+164%2C+207%2C+250&rft.pub=Dulau+and+Co.&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Maw&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F52656%23page%2F101%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Ancient_Saffron-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ancient_Saffron_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ancient_Saffron_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ancient_Saffron" class="citation journal cs1">Kazemi-Shahandashti SS, Mann L, El-nagish A, Harpke D, Nemati Z, Usadel B, Heitkam T (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8913524">"Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Plant Science</i>. <b>13</b>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpls.2022.834416">10.3389/fpls.2022.834416</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8913524">8913524</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35283878">35283878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Plant+Science&rft.atitle=Ancient+Artworks+and+Crocus+Genetics+Both+Support+Saffron%27s+Origin+in+Early+Greece&rft.volume=13&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8913524%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35283878&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpls.2022.834416&rft.aulast=Kazemi-Shahandashti&rft.aufirst=Seyyedeh-Sanam&rft.au=Mann%2C+Ludwig&rft.au=El-nagish%2C+Abdullah&rft.au=Harpke%2C+D%C3%B6rte&rft.au=Nemati%2C+Zahra&rft.au=Usadel%2C+Bj%C3%B6rn&rft.au=Heitkam%2C+Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8913524&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Honan2004-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Honan2004_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Honan2004_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonan2004" class="citation news cs1">Honan WH (2 March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/02/science/02MEDI.html?ex=1393563600">"Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Researchers+Rewrite+First+Chapter+for+the+History+of+Medicine&rft.date=2004-03-02&rft.aulast=Honan&rft.aufirst=W.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F03%2F02%2Fscience%2F02MEDI.html%3Fex%3D1393563600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard20022-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphries199820-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHumphries199820_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHumphries1998">Humphries 1998</a>, p. 20.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200212-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200212_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 12.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200217–18-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200217–18_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, pp. 17–18.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200241-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200241_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200241_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 41.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200254–55-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200254–55_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, pp. 54–55.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLak1998" class="citation news cs1">Lak D (23 November 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/213043.stm">"Gathering Kashmir's Saffron"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Gathering+Kashmir%27s+Saffron&rft.date=1998-11-23&rft.aulast=Lak&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fprogrammes%2Ffrom_our_own_correspondent%2F213043.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFotedar1999" class="citation journal cs1">Fotedar S (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110929225731/http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html">"Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution"</a>. <i>Vitasta</i>. <b>32</b> (1). Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata: 128. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html">the original</a> on 29 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vitasta&rft.atitle=Cultural+Heritage+of+India%3A+The+Kashmiri+Pandit+Contribution&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=128&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Fotedar&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fvitasta.org%2F1999%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby200295-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby200295_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby200295_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDalby2002">Dalby 2002</a>, p. 95.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalby2003256-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalby2003256_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDalby2003">Dalby 2003</a>, p. 256.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinlay2003224-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinlay2003224_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFinlay2003">Finlay 2003</a>, p. 224.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanelt20011352-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanelt20011352_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanelt2001">Hanelt 2001</a>, p. 1352.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFletcher200511-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFletcher200511_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFletcher2005">Fletcher 2005</a>, p. 11.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes20016-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes20016_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHayes2001">Hayes 2001</a>, p. 6.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrenceBendersky20041-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrenceBendersky20041_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFerrenceBendersky2004">Ferrence & Bendersky 2004</a>, p. 1.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard20022–3-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard20022–3_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, pp. 2–3.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200258-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200258_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 58.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200255-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200255_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 55.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200234–35-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200234–35_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, pp. 34–35.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200259-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200259_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 59.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Way_1843_p._268-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Way_1843_p._268_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWay1843" class="citation book cs1">Way A (1843). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0UAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA268"><i>Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way</i></a>. Camden soc. p. 268<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Promptorium+parvulorum+sive+clericorum%2C+lexicon+Anglo-Latinum+princeps%2C+recens.+A.+Way&rft.series=Camden+soc&rft.pages=268&rft.date=1843&rft.aulast=Way&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG_0UAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA268&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Pratt_1855_p._180-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pratt_1855_p._180_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt1855" class="citation book cs1">Pratt A (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA180"><i>The Flowering Plants of Great Britain</i></a>. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 180<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Flowering+Plants+of+Great+Britain&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJi8OAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Napier_1882_p._104-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Napier_1882_p._104_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNapier1882" class="citation book cs1">Napier R, ed. (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XPspAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104"><i>A Noble Boke Off Cookry Ffor a Prynce Houssolde Or Eny Other Estately Houssholde</i></a>. Elliot Stock. pp. <span class="nowrap">104–</span>105<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Noble+Boke+Off+Cookry+Ffor+a+Prynce+Houssolde+Or+Eny+Other+Estately+Houssholde&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E104-%3C%2Fspan%3E105&rft.pub=Elliot+Stock&rft.date=1882&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXPspAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span> (Reprinted verbatim from a rare manuscript in the Holkham Collection.)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180308040216/http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html">"Conditum Paradoxum – Würzwein"</a> [Conditum Paradoxum – Spiced Wine] (in German). Translated by Maier R. 1991. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html">the original</a> on 8 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conditum+Paradoxum+%E2%80%93+W%C3%BCrzwein&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de%2Frealia%2Fessen%2Frezepte%2Fconditum.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200263-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200263_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 63.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200270-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200270_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 70.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard200299-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard200299_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 99.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002101-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002101_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 101.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002103–104-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002103–104_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, pp. 103–104.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002133-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002133_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 133.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarssonFoley2023" class="citation journal cs1">Larsson M, Foley B (26 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9879437">"The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>18</b> (1): e0281010. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023PLoSO..1881010L">2023PLoSO..1881010L</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0281010">10.1371/journal.pone.0281010</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9879437">9879437</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36701280">36701280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=The+king%27s+spice+cabinet%E2%80%93Plant+remains+from+Gribshunden%2C+a+15th+century+royal+shipwreck+in+the+Baltic+Sea&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e0281010&rft.date=2023-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9879437%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023PLoSO..1881010L&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36701280&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0281010&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=Larsson&rft.aufirst=Mikael&rft.au=Foley%2C+Brendan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9879437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BBCessex2014-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBCessex2014_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGranleese2013" class="citation news cs1">Granleese B (16 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/nov/16/meet-the-saffron-producer-uk">"Interview: Meet the saffron producer: 'It seemed ridiculous that the UK didn't grow it'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Interview%3A+Meet+the+saffron+producer%3A+%27It+seemed+ridiculous+that+the+UK+didn%27t+grow+it%27&rft.date=2013-11-16&rft.aulast=Granleese&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Flifeandstyle%2F2013%2Fnov%2F16%2Fmeet-the-saffron-producer-uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-essex-29943720">"Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 7 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Saffron+spice+returns+to+Essex+after+200+years&rft.date=2014-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-essex-29943720&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, p. 138.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138–139-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002138–139_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, pp. 138–139.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillard2002142–146-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWillard2002142–146_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWillard2002">Willard 2002</a>, pp. 142–146.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullaev2002" class="citation cs2">Abdullaev FI (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/227/1/20">"Cancer Chemopreventive and Tumoricidal Properties of Saffron (<i>Crocus sativus</i> L.)"</a>, <i>Experimental Biology and Medicine</i>, vol. 227, no. 1, pp. <span class="nowrap">20–</span>5, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F153537020222700104">10.1177/153537020222700104</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11788779">11788779</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40798771">40798771</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203181241/http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/227/1/20">archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 September</span> 2011</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Biology+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Cancer+Chemopreventive+and+Tumoricidal+Properties+of+Saffron+%28Crocus+sativus+L.%29&rft.volume=227&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40798771%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11788779&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F153537020222700104&rft.aulast=Abdullaev&rft.aufirst=F.+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.ebmonline.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F227%2F1%2F20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCelsus1989" class="citation cs2">Celsus AC (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/home.html"><i>De Medicina</i></a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>, vol. L292, translated by Spencer WG, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99322-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99322-8"><bdi>978-0-674-99322-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2011</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Medicina&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99322-8&rft.aulast=Celsus&rft.aufirst=Aulus+Cornelius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FCelsus%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalby2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Dalby" title="Andrew Dalby">Dalby A</a> (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7IHcZ21dyjwC"><i>Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices</i></a> (1st ed.), University of California Press, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23674-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23674-5"><bdi>978-0-520-23674-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dangerous+Tastes%3A+The+Story+of+Spices&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23674-5&rft.aulast=Dalby&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7IHcZ21dyjwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalby2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Dalby" title="Andrew Dalby">Dalby A</a> (2003), <i>Food in the Ancient World from A to Z</i>, Routledge, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23259-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23259-3"><bdi>978-0-415-23259-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+in+the+Ancient+World+from+A+to+Z&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-23259-3&rft.aulast=Dalby&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDharmananda2005" class="citation cs2">Dharmananda S (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060926130959/http://www.itmonline.org/arts/saffron.htm">"Saffron: An Anti-Depressant Herb"</a>, <i>Institute for Traditional Medicine</i>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itmonline.org/arts/saffron.htm">the original</a> on 26 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2006</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Institute+for+Traditional+Medicine&rft.atitle=Saffron%3A+An+Anti-Depressant+Herb&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Dharmananda&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.itmonline.org%2Farts%2Fsaffron.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeo2003" class="citation cs2">Deo B (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051227004245/http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/020Saffron.pdf">"Growing Saffron—The World's Most Expensive Spice"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Crop and Food Research</i>, no. 20, New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crop.cri.nz/home/products-services/publications/broadsheets/020Saffron.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 December 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2006</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crop+and+Food+Research&rft.atitle=Growing+Saffron%E2%80%94The+World%27s+Most+Expensive+Spice&rft.issue=20&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Deo&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.crop.cri.nz%2Fhome%2Fproducts-services%2Fpublications%2Fbroadsheets%2F020Saffron.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrenceBendersky2004" class="citation cs2">Ferrence SC, Bendersky G (2004), "Therapy with Saffron and the Goddess at Thera", <i>Perspectives in Biology and Medicine</i>, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. <span class="nowrap">199–</span>226, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpbm.2004.0026">10.1353/pbm.2004.0026</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15259204">15259204</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32711986">32711986</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+in+Biology+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Therapy+with+Saffron+and+the+Goddess+at+Thera&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E226&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32711986%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15259204&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fpbm.2004.0026&rft.aulast=Ferrence&rft.aufirst=S.+C.&rft.au=Bendersky%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinlay2003" class="citation cs2">Finlay V (2003), <i>Colour: A Natural History of the Palette</i>, Random House, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7142-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7142-2"><bdi>978-0-8129-7142-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colour%3A+A+Natural+History+of+the+Palette&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-7142-2&rft.aulast=Finlay&rft.aufirst=V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher2005" class="citation cs2">Fletcher N (2005), <i>Charlemagne's Tablecloth: A Piquant History of Feasting</i> (1st ed.), Saint Martin's Press, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-34068-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-34068-1"><bdi>978-0-312-34068-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charlemagne%27s+Tablecloth%3A+A+Piquant+History+of+Feasting&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Saint+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-312-34068-1&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis2011" class="citation cs2">Francis S (2011), <i>Saffron: The Story of England's Red Gold, With Delicious Saffron Recipes that Family and Friends will Love</i>, Norfolk Saffron, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9550466-7-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9550466-7-4"><bdi>978-0-9550466-7-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saffron%3A+The+Story+of+England%27s+Red+Gold%2C+With+Delicious+Saffron+Recipes+that+Family+and+Friends+will+Love&rft.pub=Norfolk+Saffron&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-9550466-7-4&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrigg1974" class="citation cs2">Grigg DB (1974), <i>The Agricultural Systems of the World</i> (1st ed.), Cambridge University Press, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09843-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09843-4"><bdi>978-0-521-09843-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Agricultural+Systems+of+the+World&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09843-4&rft.aulast=Grigg&rft.aufirst=D.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrilli_Caiola2003" class="citation cs2">Grilli Caiola M (2003), "Saffron Reproductive Biology", <i>Acta Horticulturae</i>, <b>650</b> (650), ISHS: <span class="nowrap">25–</span>37, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17660%2FActaHortic.2004.650.1">10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.1</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:89990377">89990377</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Horticulturae&rft.atitle=Saffron+Reproductive+Biology&rft.volume=650&rft.issue=650&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17660%2FActaHortic.2004.650.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A89990377%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Grilli+Caiola&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanelt2001" class="citation cs2">Hanelt P, ed. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=10IMFSavIMsC"><i>Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops</i></a> (1st ed.), Springer, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-41017-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-41017-1"><bdi>978-3-540-41017-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mansfeld%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Agricultural+and+Horticultural+Crops&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3-540-41017-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D10IMFSavIMsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes2001" class="citation cs2">Hayes AW (2001), <i>Principles and Methods of Toxicology</i> (4th ed.), Taylor and Francis, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56032-814-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56032-814-8"><bdi>978-1-56032-814-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+and+Methods+of+Toxicology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-56032-814-8&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=A.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2004" class="citation cs2">Hill T (2004), <i>The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen</i> (1st ed.), Wiley, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-21423-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-21423-6"><bdi>978-0-471-21423-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Contemporary+Encyclopedia+of+Herbs+and+Spices%3A+Seasonings+for+the+Global+Kitchen&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-471-21423-6&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRau1969" class="citation cs2">Rau SR (1969), <i>The Cooking of India</i>, Foods of the World, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-Life">Time-Life</a> Books, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8094-0069-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8094-0069-0"><bdi>978-0-8094-0069-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cooking+of+India&rft.series=Foods+of+the+World&rft.pub=Time-Life+Books&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-8094-0069-0&rft.aulast=Rau&rft.aufirst=S.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubio-MoragaCastillo-LópezGómez-GómezAhrazem2009" class="citation cs2">Rubio-Moraga A, Castillo-López R, Gómez-Gómez L, Ahrazem O (2009), "Saffron Is a Monomorphic Species as Revealed by RAPD, ISSR, and Microsatellite Analyses", <i>BMC Research Notes</i>, vol. 2, p. 189, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1756-0500-2-189">10.1186/1756-0500-2-189</a></span>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2758891">2758891</a></span>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19772674">19772674</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Research+Notes&rft.atitle=Saffron+Is+a+Monomorphic+Species+as+Revealed+by+RAPD%2C+ISSR%2C+and+Microsatellite+Analyses&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=189&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2758891%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19772674&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1756-0500-2-189&rft.aulast=Rubio-Moraga&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Castillo-L%C3%B3pez%2C+R.&rft.au=G%C3%B3mez-G%C3%B3mez%2C+L.&rft.au=Ahrazem%2C+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussoDreherMathre2003" class="citation cs2">Russo E, Dreher MC, Mathre ML (2003), <i>Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology</i> (1st ed.), Psychology Press, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7890-2101-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7890-2101-4"><bdi>978-0-7890-2101-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Cannabis%3A+Medicine%2C+Science%2C+and+Sociology&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7890-2101-4&rft.aulast=Russo&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Dreher%2C+M.+C.&rft.au=Mathre%2C+M.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharaf-EldinElkholyFernándezJunge2008" class="citation cs2">Sharaf-Eldin M, Elkholy S, Fernández JA, Junge H, Cheetham R, Guardiola J, Weathers P (August 2008), "Bacillus subtilis FZB24 affects flower quantity and quality of saffron (Crocus sativus)", <i>Planta Medica</i>, <b>74</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1316–</span>20, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-2008-1081293">10.1055/s-2008-1081293</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3947403">3947403</a></span>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18622904">18622904</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Planta+Medica&rft.atitle=Bacillus+subtilis+FZB24+affects+flower+quantity+and+quality+of+saffron+%28Crocus+sativus%29&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1316-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2008-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3947403%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18622904&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1055%2Fs-2008-1081293&rft.aulast=Sharaf-Eldin&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Elkholy%2C+S&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez%2C+JA&rft.au=Junge%2C+H&rft.au=Cheetham%2C+R&rft.au=Guardiola%2C+J&rft.au=Weathers%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermaMiddha2010" class="citation cs2">Verma RS, Middha D (2010), "Analysis of Saffron (Crocus sativus L. Stigma) Components by LC–MS–MS", <i>Chromatographia</i>, <b>71</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">117–</span>123, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1365%2FS10337-009-1398-Z">10.1365/S10337-009-1398-Z</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97327822">97327822</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chromatographia&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+Saffron+%28Crocus+sativus+L.+Stigma%29+Components+by+LC%E2%80%93MS%E2%80%93MS&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E117-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1365%2FS10337-009-1398-Z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A97327822%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Verma&rft.aufirst=Ranjit+Singh&rft.au=Middha%2C+Deepak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillard2002" class="citation cs2">Willard P (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WsUaFT7l3QsC"><i>Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice</i></a>, Beacon Press, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5009-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5009-5"><bdi>978-0-8070-5009-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secrets+of+Saffron%3A+The+Vagabond+Life+of+the+World%27s+Most+Seductive+Spice&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-5009-5&rft.aulast=Willard&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWsUaFT7l3QsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1920 <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i> article <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Saffron" class="extiw" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Saffron">Saffron</a></b></i>.</div></div>
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<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=22">"Saffron"</a>, <i>Darling Biomedical Library</i>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">UCLA</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Darling+Biomedical+Library&rft.atitle=Saffron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Funitproj.library.ucla.edu%2Fbiomed%2Fspice%2Findex.cfm%3FdisplayID%3D22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041110054340/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318">"<i>Crocus sativus</i>"</a>, <i>Germplasm Resources Information Network</i>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">USDA</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318">the original</a> on 10 November 2004</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Germplasm+Resources+Information+Network&rft.atitle=Crocus+sativus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fsun.ars-grin.gov%3A8080%2Fnpgspub%2Fxsql%2Fduke%2Fplantdisp.xsql%3Ftaxon%3D318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaffron" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dyeing" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Dyeing" title="Template:Dyeing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Dyeing" title="Template talk:Dyeing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dyeing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dyeing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dyeing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batik" title="Batik">Batik</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing" title="Dyeing">Dyeing</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikat" title="Ikat">Ikat</a>
<ul><li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasuri" title="Kasuri">Kasuri</a></i></span></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamkari" title="Kalamkari">Kalamkari</a></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katazome" title="Katazome">Katazome</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leheria" class="mw-redirect" title="Leheria">Leheria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordant" title="Mordant">Mordant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_dye_printing" title="Reactive dye printing">Reactive dye printing</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resist_dyeing" title="Resist dyeing">Resist</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_dyeing" title="Ring dyeing">Ring dyeing</a></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%8Dketsuzome" title="Rōketsuzome">Rōketsuzome</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibori" title="Shibori">Shibori</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie-dye" title="Tie-dye">Tie-dye</a></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsutsugaki" title="Tsutsugaki">Tsutsugaki</a></i></span></li>
<li><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%ABzen" title="Yūzen">Yūzen</a></i></span></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg/100px-Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg/150px-Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg/200px-Teinture_naturelle_Millepertuis_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of dyes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">Dyes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_dye" title="Natural dye">Natural</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_dye" title="Acid dye">Acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_dye" title="Reactive dye">Reactive</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent_dye" title="Solvent dye">Solvent</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantive_dye" title="Substantive dye">Substantive</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dye" title="Sulfur dye">Sulfur</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vat_dye" title="Vat dye">Vat</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disperse_dye" title="Disperse dye">Disperse</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_printing" title="Discharge printing">Discharge</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Traditional textile dyes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_cochineal" title="Armenian cochineal">Armenian cochineal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juglans_nigra" title="Juglans nigra">Black walnut</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanguinaria" title="Sanguinaria">Bloodroot</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilin" title="Brazilin">Brazilin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochineal#Dye" title="Cochineal">Cochineal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orcein" title="Orcein">Cudbear</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechu" title="Catechu">Cutch</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyewoods" title="Dyewoods">Dyewoods</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclura_tinctoria" title="Maclura tinctoria">Fustic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamboge" title="Gamboge">Gamboge</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genista_tinctoria" title="Genista tinctoria">Dyer's broom</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henna" title="Henna">Henna</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">Indigo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermes_(dye)" title="Kermes (dye)">Kermes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haematoxylum_campechianum" title="Haematoxylum campechianum">Logwood</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubia" title="Rubia">Madder</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_cochineal" title="Polish cochineal">Polish cochineal</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric#Dye" title="Turmeric">Turmeric</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">Tyrian purple</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reseda_(plant)" title="Reseda (plant)">Weld</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria" title="Isatis tinctoria">Woad</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_and_use_of_saffron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade and use of saffron">Use of saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_dyes_of_the_Scottish_Highlands" title="Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands">Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Craft dyes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dylon" title="Dylon">Dylon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumi_(company)" title="Lumi (company)">Inkodye</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procion" title="Procion">Procion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rit_(dye)" title="Rit (dye)">Rit</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_dyeing_terms" title="Glossary of dyeing terms">Glossary of dyeing terms</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes" title="List of dyes">List of dyes</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Culinary_herbs_and_spices" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Culinary_herbs_and_spices" title="Template:Culinary herbs and spices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Culinary_herbs_and_spices" title="Template talk:Culinary herbs and spices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culinary_herbs_and_spices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culinary herbs and spices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Culinary_herbs_and_spices" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culinary herbs and spices</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">Herbs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelica_archangelica" title="Angelica archangelica">Angelica</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil" title="Basil">Basil</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocimum_tenuiflorum" title="Ocimum tenuiflorum">Holy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_basil" title="Thai basil">Thai</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon_basil" title="Lemon basil">Lemon</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_leaf" title="Bay leaf">Bay leaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_tamala" title="Cinnamomum tamala">Indian bay leaf (<i>tejpat</i>)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boldo" title="Boldo">Boldo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borage" title="Borage">Borage</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chervil" title="Chervil">Chervil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chives" title="Chives">Chives</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allium_tuberosum" title="Allium tuberosum">garlic / Chinese</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicely" title="Cicely">Cicely</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">Coriander leaf / Cilantro</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porophyllum_ruderale" title="Porophyllum ruderale">Bolivian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persicaria_odorata" title="Persicaria odorata">Vietnamese (<i>rau răm</i>)</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryngium_foetidum" title="Eryngium foetidum">Culantro</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_cress" title="Garden cress">Cress</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry_tree" title="Curry tree">Curry leaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dill" title="Dill">Dill</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphania_ambrosioides" title="Dysphania ambrosioides">Epazote</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">Hemp</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_auritum" title="Piper auritum">Hoja santa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houttuynia_cordata" title="Houttuynia cordata"><i>Houttuynia cordata</i> (<i>giấp cá</i>)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyssopus_officinalis" title="Hyssopus officinalis">Hyssop</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimbu" title="Jimbu">Jimbu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsholtzia_ciliata" title="Elsholtzia ciliata">Kinh gioi (Vietnamese balm)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perilla_frutescens" title="Perilla frutescens">Kkaennip</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavandula_angustifolia" title="Lavandula angustifolia">Lavender</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon_balm" title="Lemon balm">Lemon balm</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbopogon" title="Cymbopogon">Lemon grass</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backhousia_citriodora" title="Backhousia citriodora">Lemon myrtle</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloysia_citrodora" title="Aloysia citrodora">Lemon verbena</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limnophila_aromatica" title="Limnophila aromatica"><i>Limnophila aromatica</i> (rice-paddy herb)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovage" title="Lovage">Lovage</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjoram" title="Marjoram">Marjoram</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentha" title="Mentha">Mint</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugwort" title="Mugwort">Mugwort</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptotaenia_japonica" title="Cryptotaenia japonica">Mitsuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregano" title="Oregano">Oregano</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsley" title="Parsley">Parsley</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perilla" title="Perilla">Perilla</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary" title="Rosemary">Rosemary</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruta_graveolens" title="Ruta graveolens">Rue</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_officinalis" title="Salvia officinalis">Sage</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satureja" title="Satureja">Savory</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanthoxylum_piperitum" title="Zanthoxylum piperitum">Sanshō leaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiso" title="Shiso">Shiso</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorrel" title="Sorrel">Sorrel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarragon" title="Tarragon">Tarragon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyme" title="Thyme">Thyme</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galium_odoratum" title="Galium odoratum">Woodruff</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">Spices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_laver" title="Green laver">Aonori</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajwain" title="Ajwain">Ajwain</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alligator_pepper" title="Alligator pepper">Alligator pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allspice" title="Allspice">Allspice</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amchoor" title="Amchoor">Amchoor</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anise" title="Anise">Anise</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asafoetida" title="Asafoetida">Asafoetida</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">Black pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schinus_terebinthifolia" title="Schinus terebinthifolia">Brazilian pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_camphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinnamomum camphora">Camphor</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caraway" title="Caraway">Caraway</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardamom" title="Cardamom">Cardamom</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_cardamom" title="Black cardamom">black</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_cassia" title="Cinnamomum cassia">Cassia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celery_powder" title="Celery powder">Celery powder</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celery" title="Celery">Celery seed</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchanania_cochinchinensis" title="Buchanania cochinchinensis">Charoli</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenpi" title="Chenpi">Chenpi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">Chili</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chili_powder" title="Chili powder">Chili powder</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayenne_pepper" title="Cayenne pepper">Cayenne</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipotle" title="Chipotle">Chipotle</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crushed_red_pepper" title="Crushed red pepper">Crushed red pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalape%C3%B1o" title="Jalapeño">Jalapeño</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_chile" title="New Mexico chile">New Mexico</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabasco_pepper" title="Tabasco pepper">Tabasco</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Capsicum_cultivars" title="List of Capsicum cultivars">Cultivars</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">Cinnamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">Clove</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">Coriander seed</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_cubeba" title="Piper cubeba">Cubeb</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin" title="Cumin">Cumin</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigella_sativa" title="Nigella sativa">Nigella sativa</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunium_persicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bunium persicum">Bunium persicum</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perilla_frutescens" title="Perilla frutescens">Deulkkae</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dill" title="Dill">Dill / Dill seed</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fennel" title="Fennel">Fennel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenugreek" title="Fenugreek">Fenugreek</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonella_caerulea" title="Trigonella caerulea">blue</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boesenbergia_rotunda" title="Boesenbergia rotunda">Fingerroot</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galangal" title="Galangal">Galangal</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinia_galanga" title="Alpinia galanga">greater</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinia_officinarum" title="Alpinia officinarum">lesser</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">Garlic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginger" title="Ginger">Ginger</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaempferia_galanga" title="Kaempferia galanga">Aromatic ginger</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleum_persicum" title="Heracleum persicum">Golpar</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grains_of_paradise" title="Grains of paradise">Grains of paradise</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grains_of_Selim" title="Grains of Selim">Grains of Selim</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseradish" title="Horseradish">Horseradish</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanthoxylum_piperitum" title="Zanthoxylum piperitum">Japanese pricklyash</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniper_berry" title="Juniper berry">Juniper berry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garcinia_indica" title="Garcinia indica">Kokum</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aframomum_corrorima" title="Aframomum corrorima">Korarima</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dried_lime" title="Dried lime">Dried lime</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquorice" title="Liquorice">Liquorice</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litsea_cubeba" title="Litsea cubeba">Litsea cubeba</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_pepper" title="Long pepper">Long pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curcuma_amada" title="Curcuma amada">Mango-ginger</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastic_(plant_resin)" title="Mastic (plant resin)">Mastic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahleb" title="Mahleb">Mahleb</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">Mustard</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhamphospermum_nigrum" title="Rhamphospermum nigrum">black</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassica_juncea" title="Brassica juncea">brown</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_mustard" title="White mustard">white</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigella_sativa" title="Nigella sativa">Nigella</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricinodendron" title="Ricinodendron">Njangsa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">Nutmeg</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onion_powder" title="Onion powder">Onion powder</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paprika" title="Paprika">Paprika</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schinus_molle" title="Schinus molle">Peruvian pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">Pomegranate seed</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppy_seed" title="Poppy seed">Poppy seed</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psammogeton_involucratus" title="Psammogeton involucratus">Radhuni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosa_%C3%97_damascena" title="Rosa × damascena">Rose</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smilax_ornata" title="Smilax ornata">Sarsaparilla</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassafras" title="Sassafras">Sassafras</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame" title="Sesame">Sesame</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiso" title="Shiso">Shiso</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuan_pepper" title="Sichuan pepper">Sichuan pepper (<i>huājiāo</i>)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_anise" class="mw-redirect" title="Star anise">Star anise</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumac" title="Sumac">Sumac</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamarind" title="Tamarind">Tamarind</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmannia_lanceolata" title="Tasmannia lanceolata">Tasmanian pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipteryx_odorata" title="Dipteryx odorata">Tonka bean</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">Turmeric</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzazi" title="Uzazi">Uzazi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">Vanilla</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_borbonense" title="Piper borbonense">Voatsiperifery</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasabi" title="Wasabi">Wasabi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzu" title="Yuzu">Yuzu zest</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curcuma_zedoaria" title="Curcuma zedoaria">Zedoary</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berberis_vulgaris" title="Berberis vulgaris">Zereshk</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zest_(ingredient)" title="Zest (ingredient)">Zest</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_mix" title="Spice mix">Blends</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajika" title="Ajika">Adjika</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advieh" title="Advieh">Advieh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baharat" title="Baharat">Baharat</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beau_Monde_seasoning" title="Beau Monde seasoning">Beau monde seasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbere" title="Berbere">Berbere</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouquet_garni" title="Bouquet garni">Bouquet garni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buknu" title="Buknu">Buknu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaat_masala" title="Chaat masala">Chaat masala</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(spices)" title="Tempering (spices)">Chaunk</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon_sugar" title="Cinnamon sugar">Cinnamon sugar</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab_boil" title="Crab boil">Crab boil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry_powder" title="Curry powder">Curry powder</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubanjiang" title="Doubanjiang">Doubanjiang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douchi" title="Douchi">Douchi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duqqa" title="Duqqa">Duqqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fines_herbes" title="Fines herbes">Fines herbes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-spice_powder" title="Five-spice powder">Five-spice powder</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garam_masala" title="Garam masala">Garam masala</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic_powder" title="Garlic powder">Garlic powder</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic_salt" title="Garlic salt">Garlic salt</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gochujang" title="Gochujang">Gochujang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harissa" title="Harissa">Harissa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaij" title="Hawaij">Hawaij</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbes_de_Provence" title="Herbes de Provence">Herbes de Provence</a></li>
<li><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BAng_l%C3%ACu" title="Húng lìu">Húng lìu</a></i></span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idli_podi" title="Idli podi">Idli podi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_seasoning" title="Italian seasoning">Italian seasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(cooking)" title="Jerk (cooking)">Jamaican jerk spice</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmeli_suneli" title="Khmeli suneli">Khmeli suneli</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon_pepper" title="Lemon pepper">Lemon pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitmita" title="Mitmita">Mitmita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_spice" title="Mixed spice">Mixed spice</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_steak_seasoning" title="Montreal steak seasoning">Montreal steak seasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulling_spices" title="Mulling spices">Mulling spices</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Bay_Seasoning" title="Old Bay Seasoning">Old Bay Seasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panch_phoron" title="Panch phoron">Panch phoron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persillade" title="Persillade">Persillade</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder-douce" title="Powder-douce">Powder-douce</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumpkin_pie_spice" title="Pumpkin pie spice">Pumpkin pie spice</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C3%A2lat_daqqa" title="Qâlat daqqa">Qâlat daqqa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quatre_%C3%A9pices" title="Quatre épices">Quatre épices</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_el_hanout" title="Ras el hanout">Ras el hanout</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recado_rojo" title="Recado rojo">Recado rojo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharena_sol" title="Sharena sol">Sharena sol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shichimi" title="Shichimi">Shichimi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabil" title="Tabil">Tabil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj%C3%ADn_seasoning" title="Tajín seasoning">Tajin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandoori_masala" title="Tandoori masala">Tandoori masala</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuna_paha" title="Thuna paha">Thuna paha</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadouvan" title="Vadouvan">Vadouvan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzu_kosh%C5%8D" title="Yuzu koshō">Yuzu koshō</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Za%27atar" title="Za'atar">Za'atar</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_culinary_herbs_and_spices" title="List of culinary herbs and spices">Culinary</a></li>
<li>By region
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Australian_herbs_and_spices" title="List of Australian herbs and spices">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bangladeshi_spices" title="List of Bangladeshi spices">Bangladeshi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_spices" title="List of Indian spices">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_spices" title="List of Pakistani spices">Pakistani</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_herbology" title="Chinese herbology">Chinese herbology</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbal_tea" title="Herbal tea">Herbal tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marination" title="Marination">Marination</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasoning" title="Seasoning">Seasoning</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_rub" title="Spice rub">Spice rub</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pharmacodynamics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;background:#ccccff"><div id="Pharmacodynamics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacodynamics" title="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px">
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor" title="Ionotropic glutamate receptor">Ionotropic glutamate receptor</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic_acid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor"><abbr title="α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor">AMPAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Fluorowillardiine" title="5-Fluorowillardiine">5-Fluorowillardiine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acromelic_acid_A" title="Acromelic acid A">Acromelic acid (acromelate)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%CE%92-N-Oxalylamino-L-Alanine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β-N-Oxalylamino-L-Alanine (page does not exist)">BOAA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willardiine" title="Willardiine">Willardiine</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniracetam" title="Aniracetam">Aniracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclothiazide" title="Cyclothiazide">Cyclothiazide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX-516" title="CX-516">CX-516</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX-546" title="CX-546">CX-546</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX614" title="CX614">CX-614</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farampator" title="Farampator">Farampator (CX-691, ORG-24448)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX717" title="CX717">CX-717</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX-1739" class="mw-redirect" title="CX-1739">CX-1739</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CX-1942&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CX-1942 (page does not exist)">CX-1942</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazoxide" title="Diazoxide">Diazoxide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochlorothiazide" title="Hydrochlorothiazide">Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDRA-21" title="IDRA-21">IDRA-21</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-392098&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-392098 (page does not exist)">LY-392098</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-395153&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-395153 (page does not exist)">LY-395153</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-404187" title="LY-404187">LY-404187</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-451646&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-451646 (page does not exist)">LY-451646</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-503430" title="LY-503430">LY-503430</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mibampator" title="Mibampator">Mibampator (LY-451395)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nooglutyl" title="Nooglutyl">Nooglutyl</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ORG-26576" title="ORG-26576">ORG-26576</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxiracetam" title="Oxiracetam">Oxiracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEPA_(drug)" title="PEPA (drug)">PEPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesampator" title="Pesampator">Pesampator (BIIB-104, PF-04958242)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piracetam" title="Piracetam">Piracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramiracetam" title="Pramiracetam">Pramiracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-18986" title="S-18986">S-18986</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulrampator" title="Tulrampator">Tulrampator (S-47445, CX-1632)</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATPO&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATPO (page does not exist)">ATPO</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becampanel" title="Becampanel">Becampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroverine" title="Caroverine">Caroverine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasolampanel" title="Dasolampanel">Dasolampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanapanel" title="Fanapanel">Fanapanel (MPQX)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic acid (page does not exist)">GAMS</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">Kynurenine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBQX" title="NBQX">NBQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PNQX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PNQX (page does not exist)">PNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selurampanel" title="Selurampanel">Selurampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tezampanel" title="Tezampanel">Tezampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=YM90K&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM90K (page does not exist)">YM90K</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zonampanel" title="Zonampanel">Zonampanel</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">pentobarbital</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">sodium thiopental</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">Cyclopropane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evans_blue_(dye)" title="Evans blue (dye)">Evans blue</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GYKI_52466" title="GYKI 52466">GYKI-52466</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GYKI-53655&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GYKI-53655 (page does not exist)">GYKI-53655</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irampanel" title="Irampanel">Irampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perampanel" title="Perampanel">Perampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talampanel" title="Talampanel">Talampanel</a>; <i>Unknown/unsorted antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">Minocycline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainate_receptor" title="Kainate receptor"><abbr title="Kainate receptor">KAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Kainate receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5-Bromowillardiine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5-Bromowillardiine (page does not exist)">5-Bromowillardiine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Iodowillardiine" title="5-Iodowillardiine">5-Iodowillardiine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acromelic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acromelic acid (page does not exist)">Acromelic acid (acromelate)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATPA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATPA (page does not exist)">ATPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainic_acid" title="Kainic acid">Kainic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-339434&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-339434 (page does not exist)">LY-339434</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYM-2081" title="SYM-2081">SYM-2081</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclothiazide" title="Cyclothiazide">Cyclothiazide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazoxide" title="Diazoxide">Diazoxide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasolampanel" title="Dasolampanel">Dasolampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic acid (page does not exist)">GAMS</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-382884&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-382884 (page does not exist)">LY-382884</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBQX" title="NBQX">NBQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NS102" title="NS102">NS102</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selurampanel" title="Selurampanel">Selurampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tezampanel" title="Tezampanel">Tezampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBP-302" title="UBP-302">UBP-302</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">pentobarbital</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">sodium thiopental</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evans_blue_(dye)" title="Evans blue (dye)">Evans blue</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NS-3763&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NS-3763 (page does not exist)">NS-3763</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Methyl-D-aspartate_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor"><abbr title="N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor">NMDAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2-Amino-2-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)acetic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2-Amino-2-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)acetic acid (page does not exist)">AMAA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">Aspartate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homocysteic_acid" title="Homocysteic acid">Homocysteic acid (<small>L</small>-HCA)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoquinolinic_acid" title="Homoquinolinic acid">Homoquinolinic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Methyl-D-aspartic_acid" title="N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid">NMDA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolinic_acid" title="Quinolinic acid">Quinolinic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrazolylglycine" title="Tetrazolylglycine">Tetrazolylglycine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a>; <i>Glycine site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%CE%92-Fluoro-D-alanine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β-Fluoro-D-alanine (page does not exist)">β-Fluoro-<small>D</small>-alanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACBD_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACBD (drug) (page does not exist)">ACBD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid">ACC (ACPC)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACPD" title="ACPD">ACPD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AK-51_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AK-51 (drug) (page does not exist)">AK-51</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apimostinel" title="Apimostinel">Apimostinel (NRX-1074)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B6B21" class="mw-redirect" title="B6B21">B6B21</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carboxycyclopropylglycine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carboxycyclopropylglycine (page does not exist)">CCG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine"><small>D</small>-Alanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine"><small>D</small>-Cycloserine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine" title="Serine"><small>D</small>-Serine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N-(3,3-Diphenylpropyl)glycinamide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N-(3,3-Diphenylpropyl)glycinamide (page does not exist)">DHPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylglycine" title="Dimethylglycine">Dimethylglycine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HA-966" title="HA-966">HA-966</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L-687414&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L-687414 (page does not exist)">L-687414</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine"><small>L</small>-Alanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine" title="Serine"><small>L</small>-Serine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milacemide" title="Milacemide">Milacemide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neboglamine" title="Neboglamine">Neboglamine (nebostinel)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapastinel" title="Rapastinel">Rapastinel (GLYX-13)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcosine" title="Sarcosine">Sarcosine</a>; <i>Polyamine site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neomycin" title="Neomycin">Neomycin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermidine" title="Spermidine">Spermidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermine" title="Spermine">Spermine</a>; <i>Other positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24S-Hydroxycholesterol" title="24S-Hydroxycholesterol">24<i>S</i>-Hydroxycholesterol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone"><abbr title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Dehydroepiandrosterone</span> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasterone" title="Prasterone">prasterone</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone_sulfate" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate"><abbr title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</abbr> sulfate</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasterone_sulfate" title="Prasterone sulfate">prasterone sulfate</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epipregnanolone_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epipregnanolone sulfate (page does not exist)">Epipregnanolone sulfate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plazinemdor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plazinemdor (page does not exist)">Plazinemdor</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SAGE-201&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-201 (page does not exist)">SAGE-201</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SAGE-301&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-301 (page does not exist)">SAGE-301</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE-718" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE-718">SAGE-718</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <i>Competitive antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP5" title="AP5">AP5 (APV)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP-7_(drug)" title="AP-7 (drug)">AP7</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGP-37849" title="CGP-37849">CGP-37849</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGP-39551" title="CGP-39551">CGP-39551</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CGP-39653&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-39653 (page does not exist)">CGP-39653</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CGP-40116&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-40116 (page does not exist)">CGP-40116</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGS-19755" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS-19755">CGS-19755</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid (page does not exist)">CPP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-233053&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-233053 (page does not exist)">LY-233053</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-235959" title="LY-235959">LY-235959</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-274614&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-274614 (page does not exist)">LY-274614</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MDL-100453&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-100453 (page does not exist)">MDL-100453</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midafotel" title="Midafotel">Midafotel (d-CPPene)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NPC-12626&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPC-12626 (page does not exist)">NPC-12626</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NPC-17742&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPC-17742 (page does not exist)">NPC-17742</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PBPD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PBPD (page does not exist)">PBPD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEAQX" title="PEAQX">PEAQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perzinfotel" title="Perzinfotel">Perzinfotel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cis-1-(phenanthrene-2-carbonyl)piperazine-2,3-dicarboxylic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cis-1-(phenanthrene-2-carbonyl)piperazine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (page does not exist)">PPDA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SDZ-220581&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SDZ-220581 (page does not exist)">SDZ-220581</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfotel" title="Selfotel">Selfotel</a>; <i>Glycine site antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Chlorokynurenine" title="4-Chlorokynurenine">4-Cl-KYN (AV-101)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5,7-Dichlorokynurenic_acid" title="5,7-Dichlorokynurenic acid">5,7-DCKA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-Chlorokynurenic_acid" title="7-Chlorokynurenic acid">7-CKA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic_acid" title="1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid">ACC</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1328&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1328 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1328</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apimostinel" title="Apimostinel">Apimostinel (NRX-1074)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AV-101" class="mw-redirect" title="AV-101">AV-101</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carisoprodol" title="Carisoprodol">Carisoprodol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CGP-39653&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-39653 (page does not exist)">CGP-39653</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine"><small>D</small>-Cycloserine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">Felbamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavestinel" title="Gavestinel">Gavestinel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GV-196771&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GV-196771 (page does not exist)">GV-196771</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harkoseride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harkoseride (page does not exist)">Harkoseride</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">Kynurenine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L-689560&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L-689560 (page does not exist)">L-689560</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-701324" title="L-701324">L-701324</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LU-73068&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LU-73068 (page does not exist)">LU-73068</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MDL-105519&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-105519 (page does not exist)">MDL-105519</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meprobamate" title="Meprobamate">Meprobamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MRZ_2/576&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MRZ 2/576 (page does not exist)">MRZ 2/576</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PNQX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PNQX (page does not exist)">PNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapastinel" title="Rapastinel">Rapastinel (GLYX-13)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZD-9379" title="ZD-9379">ZD-9379</a>; <i>Polyamine site antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arcaine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arcaine (page does not exist)">Arcaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Co_101676&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Co 101676 (page does not exist)">Co 101676</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-Diaminopropane" title="1,3-Diaminopropane">Diaminopropane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethylenetriamine" title="Diethylenetriamine">Diethylenetriamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huperzine_A" title="Huperzine A">Huperzine A</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putrescine" title="Putrescine">Putrescine</a>; <i>Uncompetitive pore blockers (mostly dizocilpine site):</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-MDP" title="2-MDP">2-MDP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-HO-PCP" title="3-HO-PCP">3-HO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCE" title="3-MeO-PCE">3-MeO-PCE</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCMo" title="3-MeO-PCMo">3-MeO-PCMo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCP" title="3-MeO-PCP">3-MeO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-MeO-PCP" title="4-MeO-PCP">4-MeO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8a-Phenyldecahydroquinoline" class="mw-redirect" title="8a-Phenyldecahydroquinoline">8A-PDHQ</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18-Methoxycoronaridine" title="18-Methoxycoronaridine">18-MC</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-Endopsychosin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Endopsychosin">α-Endopsychosin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaproclate" title="Alaproclate">Alaproclate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alazocine" title="Alazocine">Alazocine (SKF-10047)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amantadine" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aptiganel" title="Aptiganel">Aptiganel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argiotoxin-636&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Argiotoxin-636 (page does not exist)">Argiotoxin-636</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arketamine" title="Arketamine">Arketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARL-12495&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ARL-12495 (page does not exist)">ARL-12495</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARL-15896-AR" class="mw-redirect" title="ARL-15896-AR">ARL-15896-AR</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARL-16247" class="mw-redirect" title="ARL-16247">ARL-16247</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budipine" title="Budipine">Budipine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronaridine" title="Coronaridine">Coronaridine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delucemine" title="Delucemine">Delucemine (NPS-1506)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexoxadrol" title="Dexoxadrol">Dexoxadrol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrallorphan" title="Dextrallorphan">Dextrallorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextromethadone" class="mw-redirect" title="Dextromethadone">Dextromethadone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">Dextromethorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrorphan" title="Dextrorphan">Dextrorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieticyclidine" title="Dieticyclidine">Dieticyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphenidine" title="Diphenidine">Diphenidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizocilpine" title="Dizocilpine">Dizocilpine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephenidine" title="Ephenidine">Ephenidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esketamine" title="Esketamine">Esketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etoxadrol" title="Etoxadrol">Etoxadrol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eticyclidine" title="Eticyclidine">Eticyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorolintane" title="Fluorolintane">Fluorolintane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gacyclidine" title="Gacyclidine">Gacyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogamine" title="Ibogamine">Ibogamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indantadol" title="Indantadol">Indantadol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketobemidone" title="Ketobemidone">Ketobemidone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanicemine" title="Lanicemine">Lanicemine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levomethadone" title="Levomethadone">Levomethadone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levomethorphan" title="Levomethorphan">Levomethorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levomilnacipran" title="Levomilnacipran">Levomilnacipran</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levorphanol" title="Levorphanol">Levorphanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loperamide" title="Loperamide">Loperamide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memantine" title="Memantine">Memantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">Methadone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methorphan" title="Methorphan">Methorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxetamine" title="Methoxetamine">Methoxetamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxphenidine" title="Methoxphenidine">Methoxphenidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milnacipran" title="Milnacipran">Milnacipran</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphanol">Morphanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEFA_(drug)" title="NEFA (drug)">NEFA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neramexane" title="Neramexane">Neramexane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitromemantine" title="Nitromemantine">Nitromemantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norketamine" title="Norketamine">Norketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphenadrine" title="Orphenadrine">Orphenadrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCPr" title="PCPr">PCPr</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PD-137889" title="PD-137889">PD-137889</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pethidine" title="Pethidine">Pethidine (meperidine)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Phencyclamine">Phencyclamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">Phencyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propoxyphene" class="mw-redirect" title="Propoxyphene">Propoxyphene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remacemide" title="Remacemide">Remacemide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhynchophylline" title="Rhynchophylline">Rhynchophylline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimantadine" title="Rimantadine">Rimantadine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolicyclidine" title="Rolicyclidine">Rolicyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabeluzole" title="Sabeluzole">Sabeluzole</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernanthine" title="Tabernanthine">Tabernanthine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenocyclidine" title="Tenocyclidine">Tenocyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiletamine" title="Tiletamine">Tiletamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tramadol" title="Tramadol">Tramadol</a>; <i>Ifenprodil (NR2B) site antagonists:</i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besonprodil" title="Besonprodil">Besonprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buphenine" title="Buphenine">Buphenine (nylidrin)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CO-101244&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CO-101244 (page does not exist)">CO-101244 (PD-174494)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliprodil" title="Eliprodil">Eliprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloperidol" title="Haloperidol">Haloperidol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoxsuprine" title="Isoxsuprine">Isoxsuprine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiprodil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiprodil (page does not exist)">Radiprodil (RGH-896)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rislenemdaz" title="Rislenemdaz">Rislenemdaz (CERC-301, MK-0657)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ro_8-4304&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ro 8-4304 (page does not exist)">Ro 8-4304</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ro_25-6981&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ro 25-6981 (page does not exist)">Ro 25-6981</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaprodil" class="mw-redirect" title="Safaprodil">Safaprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traxoprodil" title="Traxoprodil">Traxoprodil (CP-101606)</a>; <i>NR2A-selective antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MPX-004&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MPX-004 (page does not exist)">MPX-004</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MPX-007&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MPX-007 (page does not exist)">MPX-007</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TCN-201&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCN-201 (page does not exist)">TCN-201</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TCN-213&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCN-213 (page does not exist)">TCN-213</a>; <i>Cations:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a>; <i>Alcohols/volatile anesthetics/related:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">Butane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">Chloroform</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">Cyclopropane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desflurane" title="Desflurane">Desflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">Diethyl ether</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexanol" title="Hexanol">Hexanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxyflurane" title="Methoxyflurane">Methoxyflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octanol" title="Octanol">Octanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">Toluene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethane" title="1,1,1-Trichloroethane">Trichloroethane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,2-Trichloroethanol" title="2,2,2-Trichloroethanol">Trichloroethanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">Trichloroethylene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_carbamate" title="Ethyl carbamate">Urethane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">Xylene</a>; <i>Unknown/unsorted antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARR-15896&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ARR-15896 (page does not exist)">ARR-15896</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumetanide" title="Bumetanide">Bumetanide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroverine" title="Caroverine">Caroverine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conantokin" title="Conantokin">Conantokin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-%CE%B1-Aminoadipate" class="mw-redirect" title="D-α-Aminoadipate"><small>D</small>-αAA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexanabinol" title="Dexanabinol">Dexanabinol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flufenamic_acid" title="Flufenamic acid">Flufenamic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flupirtine" title="Flupirtine">Flupirtine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FPL-12495&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FPL-12495 (page does not exist)">FPL-12495</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FR-115427&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FR-115427 (page does not exist)">FR-115427</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furosemide" title="Furosemide">Furosemide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkinsine" title="Hodgkinsine">Hodgkinsine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ipenoxazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ipenoxazone (page does not exist)">Ipenoxazone (MLV-6976)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MDL-27266&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-27266 (page does not exist)">MDL-27266</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphit" title="Metaphit">Metaphit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">Minocycline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine" title="2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine">MPEP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niflumic_acid" title="Niflumic acid">Niflumic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentamidine" title="Pentamidine">Pentamidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentamidine_isethionate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentamidine isethionate">Pentamidine isethionate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piretanide" title="Piretanide">Piretanide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotridine" title="Psychotridine">Psychotridine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcrocetin" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcrocetin">Transcrocetin</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">saffron</a>)</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Unsorted:</b> <i>Allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGN-241751" class="mw-redirect" title="AGN-241751">AGN-241751</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><i><b>See also:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Receptor_modulators" title="Template:Receptor modulators">Receptor/signaling modulators</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators">Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glutamate_metabolism_and_transport_modulators" title="Template:Glutamate metabolism and transport modulators">Glutamate metabolism/transport modulators</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;background:#ccccff"><div id="Glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate_receptor" title="Glutamate receptor">Glutamate receptor</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px">
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor" title="Ionotropic glutamate receptor">Ionotropic glutamate receptor</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic_acid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor"><abbr title="α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor">AMPAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Fluorowillardiine" title="5-Fluorowillardiine">5-Fluorowillardiine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acromelic_acid_A" title="Acromelic acid A">Acromelic acid (acromelate)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%CE%92-N-Oxalylamino-L-Alanine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β-N-Oxalylamino-L-Alanine (page does not exist)">BOAA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willardiine" title="Willardiine">Willardiine</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniracetam" title="Aniracetam">Aniracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclothiazide" title="Cyclothiazide">Cyclothiazide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX-516" title="CX-516">CX-516</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX-546" title="CX-546">CX-546</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX614" title="CX614">CX-614</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farampator" title="Farampator">Farampator (CX-691, ORG-24448)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX717" title="CX717">CX-717</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX-1739" class="mw-redirect" title="CX-1739">CX-1739</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CX-1942&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CX-1942 (page does not exist)">CX-1942</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazoxide" title="Diazoxide">Diazoxide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochlorothiazide" title="Hydrochlorothiazide">Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDRA-21" title="IDRA-21">IDRA-21</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-392098&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-392098 (page does not exist)">LY-392098</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-395153&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-395153 (page does not exist)">LY-395153</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-404187" title="LY-404187">LY-404187</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-451646&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-451646 (page does not exist)">LY-451646</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-503430" title="LY-503430">LY-503430</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mibampator" title="Mibampator">Mibampator (LY-451395)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nooglutyl" title="Nooglutyl">Nooglutyl</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ORG-26576" title="ORG-26576">ORG-26576</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxiracetam" title="Oxiracetam">Oxiracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEPA_(drug)" title="PEPA (drug)">PEPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesampator" title="Pesampator">Pesampator (BIIB-104, PF-04958242)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piracetam" title="Piracetam">Piracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramiracetam" title="Pramiracetam">Pramiracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-18986" title="S-18986">S-18986</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulrampator" title="Tulrampator">Tulrampator (S-47445, CX-1632)</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATPO&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATPO (page does not exist)">ATPO</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becampanel" title="Becampanel">Becampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroverine" title="Caroverine">Caroverine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasolampanel" title="Dasolampanel">Dasolampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanapanel" title="Fanapanel">Fanapanel (MPQX)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic acid (page does not exist)">GAMS</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">Kynurenine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBQX" title="NBQX">NBQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PNQX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PNQX (page does not exist)">PNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selurampanel" title="Selurampanel">Selurampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tezampanel" title="Tezampanel">Tezampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=YM90K&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM90K (page does not exist)">YM90K</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zonampanel" title="Zonampanel">Zonampanel</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">pentobarbital</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">sodium thiopental</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">Cyclopropane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evans_blue_(dye)" title="Evans blue (dye)">Evans blue</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GYKI_52466" title="GYKI 52466">GYKI-52466</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GYKI-53655&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GYKI-53655 (page does not exist)">GYKI-53655</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irampanel" title="Irampanel">Irampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perampanel" title="Perampanel">Perampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talampanel" title="Talampanel">Talampanel</a>; <i>Unknown/unsorted antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">Minocycline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainate_receptor" title="Kainate receptor"><abbr title="Kainate receptor">KAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Kainate receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5-Bromowillardiine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5-Bromowillardiine (page does not exist)">5-Bromowillardiine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Iodowillardiine" title="5-Iodowillardiine">5-Iodowillardiine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acromelic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acromelic acid (page does not exist)">Acromelic acid (acromelate)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATPA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATPA (page does not exist)">ATPA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainic_acid" title="Kainic acid">Kainic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-339434&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-339434 (page does not exist)">LY-339434</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYM-2081" title="SYM-2081">SYM-2081</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclothiazide" title="Cyclothiazide">Cyclothiazide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazoxide" title="Diazoxide">Diazoxide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasolampanel" title="Dasolampanel">Dasolampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic acid (page does not exist)">GAMS</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-382884&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-382884 (page does not exist)">LY-382884</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBQX" title="NBQX">NBQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NS102" title="NS102">NS102</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selurampanel" title="Selurampanel">Selurampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tezampanel" title="Tezampanel">Tezampanel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBP-302" title="UBP-302">UBP-302</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">pentobarbital</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">sodium thiopental</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evans_blue_(dye)" title="Evans blue (dye)">Evans blue</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NS-3763&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NS-3763 (page does not exist)">NS-3763</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Methyl-D-aspartate_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor"><abbr title="N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor">NMDAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2-Amino-2-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)acetic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2-Amino-2-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)acetic acid (page does not exist)">AMAA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">Aspartate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homocysteic_acid" title="Homocysteic acid">Homocysteic acid (<small>L</small>-HCA)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoquinolinic_acid" title="Homoquinolinic acid">Homoquinolinic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Methyl-D-aspartic_acid" title="N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid">NMDA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolinic_acid" title="Quinolinic acid">Quinolinic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrazolylglycine" title="Tetrazolylglycine">Tetrazolylglycine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a>; <i>Glycine site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%CE%92-Fluoro-D-alanine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β-Fluoro-D-alanine (page does not exist)">β-Fluoro-<small>D</small>-alanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACBD_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACBD (drug) (page does not exist)">ACBD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid">ACC (ACPC)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACPD" title="ACPD">ACPD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AK-51_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AK-51 (drug) (page does not exist)">AK-51</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apimostinel" title="Apimostinel">Apimostinel (NRX-1074)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B6B21" class="mw-redirect" title="B6B21">B6B21</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carboxycyclopropylglycine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carboxycyclopropylglycine (page does not exist)">CCG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine"><small>D</small>-Alanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine"><small>D</small>-Cycloserine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine" title="Serine"><small>D</small>-Serine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N-(3,3-Diphenylpropyl)glycinamide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N-(3,3-Diphenylpropyl)glycinamide (page does not exist)">DHPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylglycine" title="Dimethylglycine">Dimethylglycine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HA-966" title="HA-966">HA-966</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L-687414&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L-687414 (page does not exist)">L-687414</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine"><small>L</small>-Alanine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine" title="Serine"><small>L</small>-Serine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milacemide" title="Milacemide">Milacemide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neboglamine" title="Neboglamine">Neboglamine (nebostinel)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapastinel" title="Rapastinel">Rapastinel (GLYX-13)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcosine" title="Sarcosine">Sarcosine</a>; <i>Polyamine site agonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neomycin" title="Neomycin">Neomycin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermidine" title="Spermidine">Spermidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermine" title="Spermine">Spermine</a>; <i>Other positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24S-Hydroxycholesterol" title="24S-Hydroxycholesterol">24<i>S</i>-Hydroxycholesterol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone"><abbr title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Dehydroepiandrosterone</span> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasterone" title="Prasterone">prasterone</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone_sulfate" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate"><abbr title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</abbr> sulfate</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasterone_sulfate" title="Prasterone sulfate">prasterone sulfate</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epipregnanolone_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epipregnanolone sulfate (page does not exist)">Epipregnanolone sulfate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plazinemdor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plazinemdor (page does not exist)">Plazinemdor</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SAGE-201&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-201 (page does not exist)">SAGE-201</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SAGE-301&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-301 (page does not exist)">SAGE-301</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE-718" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE-718">SAGE-718</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <i>Competitive antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP5" title="AP5">AP5 (APV)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP-7_(drug)" title="AP-7 (drug)">AP7</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGP-37849" title="CGP-37849">CGP-37849</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGP-39551" title="CGP-39551">CGP-39551</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CGP-39653&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-39653 (page does not exist)">CGP-39653</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CGP-40116&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-40116 (page does not exist)">CGP-40116</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGS-19755" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS-19755">CGS-19755</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid (page does not exist)">CPP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-233053&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-233053 (page does not exist)">LY-233053</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-235959" title="LY-235959">LY-235959</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-274614&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-274614 (page does not exist)">LY-274614</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MDL-100453&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-100453 (page does not exist)">MDL-100453</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midafotel" title="Midafotel">Midafotel (d-CPPene)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NPC-12626&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPC-12626 (page does not exist)">NPC-12626</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NPC-17742&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPC-17742 (page does not exist)">NPC-17742</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PBPD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PBPD (page does not exist)">PBPD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEAQX" title="PEAQX">PEAQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perzinfotel" title="Perzinfotel">Perzinfotel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cis-1-(phenanthrene-2-carbonyl)piperazine-2,3-dicarboxylic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cis-1-(phenanthrene-2-carbonyl)piperazine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (page does not exist)">PPDA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SDZ-220581&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SDZ-220581 (page does not exist)">SDZ-220581</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfotel" title="Selfotel">Selfotel</a>; <i>Glycine site antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Chlorokynurenine" title="4-Chlorokynurenine">4-Cl-KYN (AV-101)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5,7-Dichlorokynurenic_acid" title="5,7-Dichlorokynurenic acid">5,7-DCKA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-Chlorokynurenic_acid" title="7-Chlorokynurenic acid">7-CKA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic_acid" title="1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid">ACC</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1328&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1328 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1328</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apimostinel" title="Apimostinel">Apimostinel (NRX-1074)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AV-101" class="mw-redirect" title="AV-101">AV-101</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carisoprodol" title="Carisoprodol">Carisoprodol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CGP-39653&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-39653 (page does not exist)">CGP-39653</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine"><small>D</small>-Cycloserine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">Felbamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavestinel" title="Gavestinel">Gavestinel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GV-196771&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GV-196771 (page does not exist)">GV-196771</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harkoseride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harkoseride (page does not exist)">Harkoseride</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">Kynurenine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=L-689560&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L-689560 (page does not exist)">L-689560</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-701324" title="L-701324">L-701324</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LU-73068&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LU-73068 (page does not exist)">LU-73068</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MDL-105519&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-105519 (page does not exist)">MDL-105519</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meprobamate" title="Meprobamate">Meprobamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MRZ_2/576&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MRZ 2/576 (page does not exist)">MRZ 2/576</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PNQX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PNQX (page does not exist)">PNQX</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapastinel" title="Rapastinel">Rapastinel (GLYX-13)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZD-9379" title="ZD-9379">ZD-9379</a>; <i>Polyamine site antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arcaine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arcaine (page does not exist)">Arcaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Co_101676&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Co 101676 (page does not exist)">Co 101676</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3-Diaminopropane" title="1,3-Diaminopropane">Diaminopropane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethylenetriamine" title="Diethylenetriamine">Diethylenetriamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huperzine_A" title="Huperzine A">Huperzine A</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putrescine" title="Putrescine">Putrescine</a>; <i>Uncompetitive pore blockers (mostly dizocilpine site):</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-MDP" title="2-MDP">2-MDP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-HO-PCP" title="3-HO-PCP">3-HO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCE" title="3-MeO-PCE">3-MeO-PCE</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCMo" title="3-MeO-PCMo">3-MeO-PCMo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCP" title="3-MeO-PCP">3-MeO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-MeO-PCP" title="4-MeO-PCP">4-MeO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8a-Phenyldecahydroquinoline" class="mw-redirect" title="8a-Phenyldecahydroquinoline">8A-PDHQ</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18-Methoxycoronaridine" title="18-Methoxycoronaridine">18-MC</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-Endopsychosin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Endopsychosin">α-Endopsychosin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaproclate" title="Alaproclate">Alaproclate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alazocine" title="Alazocine">Alazocine (SKF-10047)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amantadine" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aptiganel" title="Aptiganel">Aptiganel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argiotoxin-636&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Argiotoxin-636 (page does not exist)">Argiotoxin-636</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arketamine" title="Arketamine">Arketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARL-12495&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ARL-12495 (page does not exist)">ARL-12495</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARL-15896-AR" class="mw-redirect" title="ARL-15896-AR">ARL-15896-AR</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARL-16247" class="mw-redirect" title="ARL-16247">ARL-16247</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budipine" title="Budipine">Budipine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronaridine" title="Coronaridine">Coronaridine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delucemine" title="Delucemine">Delucemine (NPS-1506)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexoxadrol" title="Dexoxadrol">Dexoxadrol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrallorphan" title="Dextrallorphan">Dextrallorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextromethadone" class="mw-redirect" title="Dextromethadone">Dextromethadone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">Dextromethorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrorphan" title="Dextrorphan">Dextrorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieticyclidine" title="Dieticyclidine">Dieticyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphenidine" title="Diphenidine">Diphenidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizocilpine" title="Dizocilpine">Dizocilpine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephenidine" title="Ephenidine">Ephenidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esketamine" title="Esketamine">Esketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etoxadrol" title="Etoxadrol">Etoxadrol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eticyclidine" title="Eticyclidine">Eticyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorolintane" title="Fluorolintane">Fluorolintane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gacyclidine" title="Gacyclidine">Gacyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogamine" title="Ibogamine">Ibogamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indantadol" title="Indantadol">Indantadol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketobemidone" title="Ketobemidone">Ketobemidone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanicemine" title="Lanicemine">Lanicemine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levomethadone" title="Levomethadone">Levomethadone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levomethorphan" title="Levomethorphan">Levomethorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levomilnacipran" title="Levomilnacipran">Levomilnacipran</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levorphanol" title="Levorphanol">Levorphanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loperamide" title="Loperamide">Loperamide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memantine" title="Memantine">Memantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">Methadone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methorphan" title="Methorphan">Methorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxetamine" title="Methoxetamine">Methoxetamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxphenidine" title="Methoxphenidine">Methoxphenidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milnacipran" title="Milnacipran">Milnacipran</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphanol">Morphanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEFA_(drug)" title="NEFA (drug)">NEFA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neramexane" title="Neramexane">Neramexane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitromemantine" title="Nitromemantine">Nitromemantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norketamine" title="Norketamine">Norketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphenadrine" title="Orphenadrine">Orphenadrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCPr" title="PCPr">PCPr</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PD-137889" title="PD-137889">PD-137889</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pethidine" title="Pethidine">Pethidine (meperidine)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Phencyclamine">Phencyclamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">Phencyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propoxyphene" class="mw-redirect" title="Propoxyphene">Propoxyphene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remacemide" title="Remacemide">Remacemide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhynchophylline" title="Rhynchophylline">Rhynchophylline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimantadine" title="Rimantadine">Rimantadine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolicyclidine" title="Rolicyclidine">Rolicyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabeluzole" title="Sabeluzole">Sabeluzole</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernanthine" title="Tabernanthine">Tabernanthine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenocyclidine" title="Tenocyclidine">Tenocyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiletamine" title="Tiletamine">Tiletamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tramadol" title="Tramadol">Tramadol</a>; <i>Ifenprodil (NR2B) site antagonists:</i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besonprodil" title="Besonprodil">Besonprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buphenine" title="Buphenine">Buphenine (nylidrin)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CO-101244&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CO-101244 (page does not exist)">CO-101244 (PD-174494)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliprodil" title="Eliprodil">Eliprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloperidol" title="Haloperidol">Haloperidol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoxsuprine" title="Isoxsuprine">Isoxsuprine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiprodil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiprodil (page does not exist)">Radiprodil (RGH-896)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rislenemdaz" title="Rislenemdaz">Rislenemdaz (CERC-301, MK-0657)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ro_8-4304&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ro 8-4304 (page does not exist)">Ro 8-4304</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ro_25-6981&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ro 25-6981 (page does not exist)">Ro 25-6981</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaprodil" class="mw-redirect" title="Safaprodil">Safaprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traxoprodil" title="Traxoprodil">Traxoprodil (CP-101606)</a>; <i>NR2A-selective antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MPX-004&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MPX-004 (page does not exist)">MPX-004</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MPX-007&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MPX-007 (page does not exist)">MPX-007</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TCN-201&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCN-201 (page does not exist)">TCN-201</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TCN-213&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCN-213 (page does not exist)">TCN-213</a>; <i>Cations:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a>; <i>Alcohols/volatile anesthetics/related:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">Butane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">Chloroform</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">Cyclopropane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desflurane" title="Desflurane">Desflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">Diethyl ether</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexanol" title="Hexanol">Hexanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxyflurane" title="Methoxyflurane">Methoxyflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octanol" title="Octanol">Octanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">Toluene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethane" title="1,1,1-Trichloroethane">Trichloroethane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,2,2-Trichloroethanol" title="2,2,2-Trichloroethanol">Trichloroethanol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">Trichloroethylene</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_carbamate" title="Ethyl carbamate">Urethane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">Xylene</a>; <i>Unknown/unsorted antagonists:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARR-15896&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ARR-15896 (page does not exist)">ARR-15896</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumetanide" title="Bumetanide">Bumetanide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroverine" title="Caroverine">Caroverine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conantokin" title="Conantokin">Conantokin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-%CE%B1-Aminoadipate" class="mw-redirect" title="D-α-Aminoadipate"><small>D</small>-αAA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexanabinol" title="Dexanabinol">Dexanabinol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flufenamic_acid" title="Flufenamic acid">Flufenamic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flupirtine" title="Flupirtine">Flupirtine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FPL-12495&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FPL-12495 (page does not exist)">FPL-12495</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FR-115427&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FR-115427 (page does not exist)">FR-115427</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furosemide" title="Furosemide">Furosemide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkinsine" title="Hodgkinsine">Hodgkinsine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ipenoxazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ipenoxazone (page does not exist)">Ipenoxazone (MLV-6976)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MDL-27266&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-27266 (page does not exist)">MDL-27266</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphit" title="Metaphit">Metaphit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">Minocycline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine" title="2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine">MPEP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niflumic_acid" title="Niflumic acid">Niflumic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentamidine" title="Pentamidine">Pentamidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentamidine_isethionate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentamidine isethionate">Pentamidine isethionate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piretanide" title="Piretanide">Piretanide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotridine" title="Psychotridine">Psychotridine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcrocetin" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcrocetin">Transcrocetin</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">saffron</a>)</li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Unsorted:</b> <i>Allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGN-241751" class="mw-redirect" title="AGN-241751">AGN-241751</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><i><b>See also:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Receptor_modulators" title="Template:Receptor modulators">Receptor/signaling modulators</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators">Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glutamate_metabolism_and_transport_modulators" title="Template:Glutamate metabolism and transport modulators">Glutamate metabolism/transport modulators</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor">Metabotropic glutamate receptor</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor#Group_I" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor">Group I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_1" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1">mGluR<sub>1</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACPD" title="ACPD">ACPD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydroxyphenylglycine" title="Dihydroxyphenylglycine">DHPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ro01-6128" title="Ro01-6128">Ro01-6128</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ro67-4853" title="Ro67-4853">Ro67-4853</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ro67-7476&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ro67-7476 (page does not exist)">Ro67-7476</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VU-71&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VU-71 (page does not exist)">VU-71</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BAY_36-7620&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BAY 36-7620 (page does not exist)">BAY 36-7620</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPCCOEt" title="CPCCOEt">CPCCOEt</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclothiazide" title="Cyclothiazide">Cyclothiazide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-367,385&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-367,385 (page does not exist)">LY-367,385</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-456,236&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-456,236 (page does not exist)">LY-456,236</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MCPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MCPG (page does not exist)">MCPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NPS-2390&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPS-2390 (page does not exist)">NPS-2390</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_5" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5">mGluR<sub>5</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACPD" title="ACPD">ACPD</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADX-47273" title="ADX-47273">ADX-47273</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDPPB" title="CDPPB">CDPPB</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorohydroxyphenylglycine" title="Chlorohydroxyphenylglycine">CHPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1-(3-fluorophenyl)-N-((3-fluorophenyl)methylideneamino)methanimine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1-(3-fluorophenyl)-N-((3-fluorophenyl)methylideneamino)methanimine (page does not exist)">DFB</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydroxyphenylglycine" title="Dihydroxyphenylglycine">DHPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VU-1545&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VU-1545 (page does not exist)">VU-1545</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSN2463359" title="LSN2463359">LSN2463359</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTEP" title="CTEP">CTEP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMeOB" title="DMeOB">DMeOB</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-344,545" class="mw-redirect" title="LY-344,545">LY-344,545</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavoglurant" title="Mavoglurant">Mavoglurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MCPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MCPG (page does not exist)">MCPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NPS-2390&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPS-2390 (page does not exist)">NPS-2390</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remeglurant" title="Remeglurant">Remeglurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIB-1757" title="SIB-1757">SIB-1757</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIB-1893" title="SIB-1893">SIB-1893</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZD9272" title="AZD9272">AZD9272</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basimglurant" title="Basimglurant">Basimglurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipraglurant" title="Dipraglurant">Dipraglurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenobam" title="Fenobam">Fenobam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRN-529" title="GRN-529">GRN-529</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine" title="2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine">MPEP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTEP" title="MTEP">MTEP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raseglurant" title="Raseglurant">Raseglurant</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor#Group_II_&_Group_III" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor">Group II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_2" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2">mGluR<sub>2</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biphenylindanone_A" title="Biphenylindanone A">BINA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBiPES" title="CBiPES">CBiPES</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DCG-IV" title="DCG-IV">DCG-IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eglumegad" class="mw-redirect" title="Eglumegad">Eglumegad</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-379,268" title="LY-379,268">LY-379,268</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomaglumetad" title="Pomaglumetad">LY-404,039 (pomaglumetad)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-487,379" title="LY-487,379">LY-487,379</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LY-566,332&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-566,332 (page does not exist)">LY-566,332</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MGS-0028&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MGS-0028 (page does not exist)">MGS-0028</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomaglumetad_methionil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pomaglumetad methionil (page does not exist)">Pomaglumetad methionil (LY-2140023)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talaglumetad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talaglumetad (page does not exist)">Talaglumetad</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JNJ-40411813" class="mw-redirect" title="JNJ-40411813">JNJ-40411813 (ADX-71149)</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Amino-5-phosphonoindan-1-carboxylic_acid" title="1-Amino-5-phosphonoindan-1-carboxylic acid">APICA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CECXG" title="CECXG">CECXG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EGLU" title="EGLU">EGLU</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HYDIA" title="HYDIA">HYDIA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-307,452" title="LY-307,452">LY-307,452</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-341,495" class="mw-redirect" title="LY-341,495">LY-341,495</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MCPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MCPG (page does not exist)">MCPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGS-0039" title="MGS-0039">MGS-0039</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCCG-4" title="PCCG-4">PCCG-4</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoglurant" title="Decoglurant">Decoglurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RO4491533" title="RO4491533">RO4491533</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_3" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 3"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 3">mGluR<sub>3</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 3</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBiPES" title="CBiPES">CBiPES</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DCG-IV" title="DCG-IV">DCG-IV</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eglumegad" class="mw-redirect" title="Eglumegad">Eglumegad</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-379,268" title="LY-379,268">LY-379,268</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-404,039" class="mw-redirect" title="LY-404,039">LY-404,039 (pomaglumetad)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-487,379" title="LY-487,379">LY-487,379</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MGS-0028&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MGS-0028 (page does not exist)">MGS-0028</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomaglumetad_methionil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pomaglumetad methionil (page does not exist)">Pomaglumetad methionil (LY-2140023)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talaglumetad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talaglumetad (page does not exist)">Talaglumetad</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Amino-5-phosphonoindan-1-carboxylic_acid" title="1-Amino-5-phosphonoindan-1-carboxylic acid">APICA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CECXG" title="CECXG">CECXG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EGLU" title="EGLU">EGLU</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HYDIA" title="HYDIA">HYDIA</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-307,452" title="LY-307,452">LY-307,452</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LY-341,495" class="mw-redirect" title="LY-341,495">LY-341,495</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MCPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MCPG (page does not exist)">MCPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGS-0039" title="MGS-0039">MGS-0039</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoglurant" title="Decoglurant">Decoglurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RO4491533" title="RO4491533">RO4491533</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor#Group_II_&_Group_III" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor">Group III</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_4" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 4"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 4">mGluR<sub>4</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 4</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-AP4" title="L-AP4"><small>L</small>-AP4</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSP2-9166" title="LSP2-9166">LSP2-9166</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHCCC" title="PHCCC">PHCCC</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VU-001,171&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VU-001,171 (page does not exist)">VU-001,171</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VU-0155,041&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VU-0155,041 (page does not exist)">VU-0155,041</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foliglurax" title="Foliglurax">Foliglurax</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine" title="2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine">MPEP</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CPPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CPPG (page does not exist)">CPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MAP4_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MAP4 (drug) (page does not exist)">MAP4</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine (page does not exist)">MPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MSOP_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MSOP (drug) (page does not exist)">MSOP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MTPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MTPG (page does not exist)">MTPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UBP-1112&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UBP-1112 (page does not exist)">UBP-1112</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_6" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 6"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 6">mGluR<sub>6</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 6</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-AP4" title="L-AP4"><small>L</small>-AP4</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CPPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CPPG (page does not exist)">CPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MAP4_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MAP4 (drug) (page does not exist)">MAP4</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine (page does not exist)">MPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MSOP_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MSOP (drug) (page does not exist)">MSOP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MTPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MTPG (page does not exist)">MTPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UBP-1112&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UBP-1112 (page does not exist)">UBP-1112</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_7" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7">mGluR<sub>7</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMN082" title="AMN082">AMN082</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-AP4" title="L-AP4"><small>L</small>-AP4</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSP2-9166" title="LSP2-9166">LSP2-9166</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CPPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CPPG (page does not exist)">CPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MAP4_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MAP4 (drug) (page does not exist)">MAP4</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMPIP" title="MMPIP">MMPIP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine (page does not exist)">MPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MSOP_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MSOP (drug) (page does not exist)">MSOP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MTPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MTPG (page does not exist)">MTPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UBP-1112&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UBP-1112 (page does not exist)">UBP-1112</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XAP044" title="XAP044">XAP044</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADX71743" title="ADX71743">ADX71743</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_8" title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 8"><abbr title="Metabotropic glutamate receptor 8">mGluR<sub>8</sub></abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Metabotropic glutamate receptor 8</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DCPG" title="DCPG">DCPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-AP4" title="L-AP4"><small>L</small>-AP4</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZ12216052" title="AZ12216052">AZ12216052</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CPPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CPPG (page does not exist)">CPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MAP4_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MAP4 (drug) (page does not exist)">MAP4</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha-methyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine (page does not exist)">MPPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MSOP_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MSOP (drug) (page does not exist)">MSOP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MTPG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MTPG (page does not exist)">MTPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UBP-1112&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UBP-1112 (page does not exist)">UBP-1112</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i><b>See also:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Receptor_modulators" title="Template:Receptor modulators">Receptor/signaling modulators</a> • <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators">Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators</a> • <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glutamate_metabolism_and_transport_modulators" title="Template:Glutamate metabolism and transport modulators">Glutamate metabolism/transport modulators</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sigma_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Sigma_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Sigma receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Sigma_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Sigma receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sigma_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sigma receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sigma_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_receptor" title="Sigma receptor">Sigma receptor</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma-1_receptor" title="Sigma-1 receptor">σ<sub>1</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-PPP" title="3-PPP">3-PPP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-PPBP" title="4-PPBP">4-PPBP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-MeO-DMT" title="5-MeO-DMT">5-MeO-DMT</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alazocine" title="Alazocine">Alazocine (SKF-10047)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amantadine" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arketamine" title="Arketamine">Arketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BD-737&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BD-737 (page does not exist)">BD-737</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1052" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1052">BD-1052</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blarcamesine" title="Blarcamesine">Blarcamesine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captodiame" title="Captodiame">Captodiame</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citalopram" title="Citalopram">Citalopram</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcitonin_gene-related_peptide" title="Calcitonin gene-related peptide"><abbr title="Calcitonin gene-related peptide">CGRP</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Calcitonin gene-related peptide</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloperastine" title="Cloperastine">Cloperastine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutamesine" title="Cutamesine">Cutamesine (SA-4503)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclazocine" title="Cyclazocine">Cyclazocine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasterone" title="Prasterone">prasterone</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone_sulfate" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate">Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S)</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasterone_sulfate" title="Prasterone sulfate">prasterone sulfate</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrallorphan" title="Dextrallorphan">Dextrallorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">Dextromethorphan (DXM)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrorphan" title="Dextrorphan">Dextrorphan (DXO)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimemorfan" title="Dimemorfan">Dimemorfan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimethyltryptamine">Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditolylguanidine" title="Ditolylguanidine">Ditolylguanidine (DTG)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donepezil" title="Donepezil">Donepezil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliprodil" title="Eliprodil">Eliprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escitalopram" title="Escitalopram">Escitalopram</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabomotizole" title="Fabomotizole">Fabomotizole (afobazole)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">Fluoxetine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluvoxamine" title="Fluvoxamine">Fluvoxamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifenprodil" title="Ifenprodil">Ifenprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igmesine" title="Igmesine">Igmesine (JO-1784)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IPAB_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IPAB (drug) (page does not exist)">IPAB</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-687384" class="mw-redirect" title="L-687384">L-687384</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA"><abbr title="Methylenedioxymethamphetamine">MDMA</abbr> (midomafetamine)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memantine" title="Memantine">Memantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoxetamine" title="Methoxetamine">Methoxetamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepinalone" title="Nepinalone">Nepinalone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y" title="Neuropeptide Y">Neuropeptide Y</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noscapine" title="Noscapine">Noscapine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OPC-14523&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OPC-14523 (page does not exist)">OPC-14523</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opipramol" title="Opipramol">Opipramol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazocine" title="Pentazocine">Pentazocine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentoxyverine" title="Pentoxyverine">Pentoxyverine (carbetapentane)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRE-084" title="PRE-084">PRE-084</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone" title="Pregnenolone">Pregnenolone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pridopidine" title="Pridopidine">Pridopidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racemethorphan" class="mw-redirect" title="Racemethorphan">Racemethorphan (methorphan)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racemorphan" title="Racemorphan">Racemorphan (morphanol)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-23&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-23 (page does not exist)">UMB-23</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-82&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-82 (page does not exist)">UMB-82</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-PPP" title="3-PPP">3-PPP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC-927" class="mw-redirect" title="AC-927">AC-927</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1008" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1008">BD-1008</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1031" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1031">BD-1031</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1047" title="BD-1047">BD-1047</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1060" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1060">BD-1060</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1063" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1063">BD-1063</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1067" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1067">BD-1067</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMY-14802" title="BMY-14802">BMY-14802 (BMS-181100)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CM-156" class="mw-redirect" title="CM-156">CM-156</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dup-734&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dup-734 (page does not exist)">Dup-734</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E-5842&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="E-5842 (page does not exist)">E-5842</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-52862" title="E-52862">E-52862 (S1RA)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloperidol" title="Haloperidol">Haloperidol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LR-132&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LR-132 (page does not exist)">LR-132</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LR-172&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LR-172 (page does not exist)">LR-172</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-377" title="MS-377">MS-377</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NE-100" title="NE-100">NE-100</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NPC-16377&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPC-16377 (page does not exist)">NPC-16377</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamesine" title="Panamesine">Panamesine (EMD-57455)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PD-144418&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PD-144418 (page does not exist)">PD-144418</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazocine" title="Pentazocine">Pentazocine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimcazole" title="Rimcazole">Rimcazole (BW-234U)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sertraline" title="Sertraline">Sertraline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SR-31742A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SR-31742A (page does not exist)">SR-31742A</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Allosteric modulators:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenytoin" title="Phenytoin">Phenytoin</a>; <i>Positive:</i> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylphenylpiracetam" title="Methylphenylpiracetam">Methylphenylpiracetam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SOMCL-668&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SOMCL-668 (page does not exist)">SOMCL-668</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Unknown/unsorted:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3-Methoxydextrallorphan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3-Methoxydextrallorphan (page does not exist)">3-Methoxydextrallorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCP" title="3-MeO-PCP">3-MeO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4C-T-2" title="4C-T-2">4C-T-2</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4-IBP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4-IBP (page does not exist)">4-IBP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=4-IPBS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4-IPBS (page does not exist)">4-IPBS</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-MeO-PCP" title="4-MeO-PCP">4-MeO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-MeO-DALT" title="5-MeO-DALT">5-MeO-DALT</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-MeO-DiPT" title="5-MeO-DiPT">5-MeO-DiPT</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">Amitriptyline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azidopamil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Azidopamil (page does not exist)">Azidopamil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemastine" title="Clemastine">Clemastine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clomipramine" title="Clomipramine">Clomipramine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clorgiline" title="Clorgiline">Clorgiline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Deprenyl" title="D-Deprenyl"><small>D</small>-Deprenyl</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine"><abbr title="N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine">DiPT</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N,N-Dipropyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N,N-Dipropyltryptamine"><abbr title="N,N-Dipropyltryptamine">DPT</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip N,N-Dipropyltryptamine</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imipramine" title="Imipramine">Imipramine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=KCR-12-83.1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KCR-12-83.1 (page does not exist)">KCR-12-83.1</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemonapride" title="Nemonapride">Nemonapride</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RHL-033&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RHL-033 (page does not exist)">RHL-033</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-67,333" title="RS-67,333">RS-67,333</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTI-55" title="RTI-55">RTI-55</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safinamide" title="Safinamide">Safinamide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selegiline" title="Selegiline">Selegiline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spipethiane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spipethiane (page does not exist)">Spipethiane</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifluoperazine" title="Trifluoperazine">Trifluoperazine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-18_(drug)" title="W-18 (drug)">W-18</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YKP10A" class="mw-redirect" title="YKP10A">YKP10A</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma-2_receptor" title="Sigma-2 receptor">σ<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-PPP" title="3-PPP">3-PPP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arketamine" title="Arketamine">Arketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1047" title="BD-1047">BD-1047</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD1063" title="BD1063">BD1063</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditolylguanidine" title="Ditolylguanidine">Ditolylguanidine (DTG)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DKR-1005&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DKR-1005 (page does not exist)">DKR-1005</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DKR-1051&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DKR-1051 (page does not exist)">DKR-1051</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloperidol" title="Haloperidol">Haloperidol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifenprodil" title="Ifenprodil">Ifenprodil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA"><abbr title="Methylenedioxymethamphetamine">MDMA</abbr> (midomafetamine)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OPC-14523&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="OPC-14523 (page does not exist)">OPC-14523</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opipramol" title="Opipramol">Opipramol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PB-28" title="PB-28">PB-28</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">Phencyclidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siramesine" title="Siramesine">Siramesine (Lu 28-179)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UKH-1114&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UKH-1114 (page does not exist)">UKH-1114</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC-927" class="mw-redirect" title="AC-927">AC-927</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1008" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1008">BD-1008</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-1067" class="mw-redirect" title="BD-1067">BD-1067</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CM-156" class="mw-redirect" title="CM-156">CM-156</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CT-1812&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CT-1812 (page does not exist)">CT-1812</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LR-172&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LR-172 (page does not exist)">LR-172</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIN-101" class="mw-redirect" title="MIN-101">MIN-101</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamesine" title="Panamesine">Panamesine (EMD-57455)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SAS-0132&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAS-0132 (page does not exist)">SAS-0132</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Unknown/unsorted:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3-Methoxydextrallorphan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3-Methoxydextrallorphan (page does not exist)">3-Methoxydextrallorphan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-MeO-PCE" title="3-MeO-PCE">3-MeO-PCE</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-MeO-PCP" title="4-MeO-PCP">4-MeO-PCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-MeO-DALT" title="5-MeO-DALT">5-MeO-DALT</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-MeO-DiPT" title="5-MeO-DiPT">5-MeO-DiPT</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemastine" title="Clemastine">Clemastine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine"><abbr title="N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine">DiPT</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip N,N-Diisopropyltryptamine</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N,N-Dipropyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N,N-Dipropyltryptamine"><abbr title="N,N-Dipropyltryptamine">DPT</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip N,N-Dipropyltryptamine</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu_29-252" title="Lu 29-252">Lu 29-252</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemonapride" title="Nemonapride">Nemonapride</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepinalone" title="Nepinalone">Nepinalone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentazocine" title="Pentazocine">Pentazocine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-67,333" title="RS-67,333">RS-67,333</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safinamide" title="Safinamide">Safinamide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3,4,5-Trimethoxyamphetamine" class="mw-redirect" title="3,4,5-Trimethoxyamphetamine"><abbr title="3,4,5-Trimethoxyamphetamine">TMA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip 3,4,5-Trimethoxyamphetamine</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-23&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-23 (page does not exist)">UMB-23</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-82&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-82 (page does not exist)">UMB-82</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W-18_(drug)" title="W-18 (drug)">W-18</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Unsorted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berberine" title="Berberine">Berberine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylketazocine" title="Ethylketazocine">Ethylketazocine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourphit" title="Fourphit">Fourphit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphit" title="Metaphit">Metaphit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naluzotan" title="Naluzotan">Naluzotan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapentadol" title="Tapentadol">Tapentadol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenocyclidine" title="Tenocyclidine">Tenocyclidine</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AHD1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AHD1 (page does not exist)">AHD1</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AZ66&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AZ66 (page does not exist)">AZ66</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamotrigine" title="Lamotrigine">Lamotrigine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naloxone" title="Naloxone">Naloxone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SM-21&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SM-21 (page does not exist)">SM-21</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-100&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-100 (page does not exist)">UMB-100</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-101&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-101 (page does not exist)">UMB-101</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-103&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-103 (page does not exist)">UMB-103</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UMB-116&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UMB-116 (page does not exist)">UMB-116</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=YZ-011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YZ-011 (page does not exist)">YZ-011</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=YZ-069&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YZ-069 (page does not exist)">YZ-069</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=YZ-185&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YZ-185 (page does not exist)">YZ-185</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Allosteric modulators:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SKF-83959" class="mw-redirect" title="SKF-83959">SKF-83959</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b>Unknown/unsorted:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18-Methoxycoronaridine" title="18-Methoxycoronaridine">18-Methoxycoronaridine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BMY-13980&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BMY-13980 (page does not exist)">BMY-13980</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butaclamol" title="Butaclamol">Butaclamol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caramiphen" title="Caramiphen">Caramiphen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carvotroline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carvotroline (page does not exist)">Carvotroline</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorphenamine" title="Chlorphenamine">Chlorphenamine (chlorpheniramine)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnarizine" title="Cinnarizine">Cinnarizine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cinuperone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cinuperone (page does not exist)">Cinuperone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clocapramine" title="Clocapramine">Clocapramine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezocine" title="Dezocine">Dezocine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EMD-59983&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EMD-59983 (page does not exist)">EMD-59983</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypericin" title="Hypericin">Hypericin</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_wort" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John's wort">St. John's wort</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluphenazine" title="Fluphenazine">Fluphenazine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gevotroline" title="Gevotroline">Gevotroline (WY-47384)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mepyramine" title="Mepyramine">Mepyramine (pyrilamine)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molindone" title="Molindone">Molindone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perphenazine" title="Perphenazine">Perphenazine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimozide" title="Pimozide">Pimozide</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proadifen" title="Proadifen">Proadifen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promethazine" title="Promethazine">Promethazine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propranolol" title="Propranolol">Propranolol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinidine" title="Quinidine">Quinidine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remoxipride" title="Remoxipride">Remoxipride</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SL_82.0715&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SL 82.0715 (page does not exist)">SL 82.0715</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SR-31747A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SR-31747A (page does not exist)">SR-31747A</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiospirone" title="Tiospirone">Tiospirone (BMY-13859)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venlafaxine" title="Venlafaxine">Venlafaxine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i><b>See also:</b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Receptor_modulators" title="Template:Receptor modulators">Receptor/signaling modulators</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Greek_cuisine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Greek_cuisine" title="Template:Greek cuisine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Greek_cuisine" title="Template talk:Greek cuisine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Greek_cuisine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Greek cuisine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Greek_cuisine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_cuisine" title="Greek cuisine">Greek cuisine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Ancient Greek cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Ancient Greece and wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Byzantine cuisine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ingredients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil" title="Basil">Basil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caper" title="Caper">Caper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dill" title="Dill">Dill</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">Eggplant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">Garlic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">Honey</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastic_(plant_resin)" title="Mastic (plant resin)">Mastic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">Olive oil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">Olives</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregano" title="Oregano">Oregano</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raisin" title="Raisin">Raisin</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semolina" title="Semolina">Semolina</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">Tomato</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyme" title="Thyme">Thyme</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walnuts" class="mw-redirect" title="Walnuts">Walnuts</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktyla" title="Daktyla">Daktyla</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eliopsomo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eliopsomo (page does not exist)">Eliopsomo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eptazymo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eptazymo (page does not exist)">Eptazymo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadsticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Breadsticks">Kritsini</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simit" title="Simit">Koulouri</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagana_(bread)" title="Lagana (bread)">Lagana</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paximathia" title="Paximathia">Paximadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pita" title="Pita">Pita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raisin_bread" title="Raisin bread">Stafidopsomo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsoureki" title="Tsoureki">Tsoureki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zea_(bread)" title="Zea (bread)">Zea</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Salads & Dips</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakos" title="Dakos">Dakos</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_salad" title="Greek salad">Greek salad</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant_salads_and_appetizers#Mediterranean/Middle_East" title="Eggplant salads and appetizers">Melitzanosalata</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapenade" title="Tapenade">Pasta elias</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skordalia" title="Skordalia">Skordalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taramasalata" title="Taramasalata">Taramosalata</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirokafteri" title="Tirokafteri">Tirokafteri</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzatziki" title="Tzatziki">Tzatziki</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appetizers & Coldcuts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="el:Απάκι">Apáki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchovies_as_food" title="Anchovies as food">Antzougies</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacalhau" title="Bacalhau">Bakaliaros</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouyiourdi" title="Bouyiourdi">Bouyiourdi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolma" title="Dolma">Dolma</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicia_faba" title="Vicia faba">Fava</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigandes_plaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigandes plaki">Gigandes plaki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squid (food)">Kalamaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalitsounia" title="Kalitsounia">Kalitsounia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squash_blossom" title="Squash blossom">Kolokythoanthoi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zucchini" title="Zucchini">Kolokythakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolokythopita" title="Kolokythopita">Kolokythopita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakerda" title="Lakerda">Lakerda</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loukaniko" title="Loukaniko">Loukaniko</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lountza" class="mw-redirect" title="Lountza">Loutza</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noumboulo" title="Noumboulo">Noumboulo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octopus_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus (food)">Octopus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitaroudia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitaroudia">Pitaroudia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pikt%C3%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piktí (page does not exist)">Piktí</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanakopita" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanakopita">Spanakopita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami" title="Salami">Salami</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saganaki" title="Saganaki">Saganaki</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF" class="extiw" title="el:Σύγλινο">Syglino</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiropita" title="Tiropita">Tyropita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strained_yogurt" title="Strained yogurt">Strained yogurt</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_Protected_Designations_of_Origin_cheeses" title="List of Greek Protected Designations of Origin cheeses">Cheeses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anevato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anevato (page does not exist)">Anevato</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthotyros" title="Anthotyros">Anthotyros</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feta" title="Feta">Feta</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B1" class="extiw" title="el:Φορμαέλλα">Formaela</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviera" title="Graviera">Graviera</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halloumi" title="Halloumi">Halloumi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasseri" title="Kasseri">Kasseri</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kefalotyri" title="Kefalotyri">Kefalotyri</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kefalograviera" title="Kefalograviera">Kefalograviera</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B9_%CE%9B%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85" class="extiw" title="el:Καλαθάκι Λήμνου">Kalathaki Limnou</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopanisti_Mykonou" class="mw-redirect" title="Kopanisti Mykonou">Kopanisti Mykonou</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladotyri_Mytilinis" title="Ladotyri Mytilinis">Ladotyri Mytilinis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manouri" title="Manouri">Manouri</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CE%A7%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85" class="extiw" title="el:Μαστέλο Χίου">Mastelo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metsovone" title="Metsovone">Metsovone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metsovela&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metsovela (page does not exist)">Metsovela</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizithra" title="Mizithra">Mizithra</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sfela&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sfela (page does not exist)">Sfela</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=San_Michali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San Michali (page does not exist)">San Michali</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talagani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talagani (page does not exist)">Talagani</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xynotyro" title="Xynotyro">Xynotyro</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xynomizithra" title="Xynomizithra">Xynomizithra</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_dishes" title="List of Greek dishes">Dishes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<dl><dt>Meat</dt>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beefsteak" title="Beefsteak">Bifteki</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steak" title="Steak">Britzola</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drunken_chicken" title="Drunken chicken">Drunken chicken</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giouvetsi" title="Giouvetsi">Giouvetsi</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyros_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyros (food)">Gyros</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofta" title="Kofta">Keftedakia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stew" title="Stew">Kokkinisto</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_dishes" title="List of Greek dishes">Kleftiko</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokoretsi" title="Kokoretsi">Kokoretsi</a></dd>
<dd><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="el:Κοντοσούβλι">Kontosouvli</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreatopita" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreatopita">Kreatopita</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kotopita_(Greek)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kotopita (Greek) (page does not exist)">Kotopita</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moussaka" title="Moussaka">Moussaka</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_chop" title="Meat chop">Paidakia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancetta" title="Pancetta">Pansetta</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastitsio" title="Pastitsio">Pastitsio</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastitsada" title="Pastitsada">Pastitsada</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant_papucaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Eggplant papucaki">Papoutsaki</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizza" title="Pizza">Pizza</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheftalia" title="Sheftalia">Sheftalia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smyrna_meatballs" title="Smyrna meatballs">Smyrna meatballs</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snail#Snails_as_food" title="Snail">Snails</a></dd>
<dd><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="el:Σπετζοφάι">Spetzofai</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stifado" class="mw-redirect" title="Stifado">Stifado</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofrito" title="Sofrito">Sofrito</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souvla" title="Souvla">Souvla</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souvlaki" title="Souvlaki">Souvlaki</a></dd>
<dd><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B7%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%AC_(%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%84%CF%8C)" class="extiw" title="el:Τηγανιά (φαγητό)">Tigania</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahni" title="Yahni">Yahni</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Pasta (<i>Zimariká</i>)</dt>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gogges" title="Gogges">Gogges</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilopites" title="Hilopites">Hilopites</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flomaria" title="Flomaria">Flomaria</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Makarounes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Makarounes (page does not exist)">Makarounes</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orzo_(pasta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orzo (pasta)">Kritharaki</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Striftaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Striftaria (page does not exist)">Striftaria</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trahanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Trahanas">Trahanas</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Fish</dt>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherina" title="Atherina">Atherina</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dried_and_salted_cod" title="Dried and salted cod">Bakaliaros</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourdeto" title="Bourdeto">Bourdeto</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandade" title="Brandade">Brantada</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrimp_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrimp (food)">Garides</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_carp" title="Common carp">Grivadi</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solea_(fish)" title="Solea (fish)">Glossa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchovies_as_food" title="Anchovies as food">Gavroi</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">Mussels</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardines_as_food" title="Sardines as food">Sardeles</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escabeche" title="Escabeche">Savoro</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">Tonos</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordfish" title="Swordfish">Xiphias</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Soups</dt>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avgolemono" title="Avgolemono">Avgolemono</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bourou-bourou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bourou-bourou (page does not exist)">Bourou-bourou</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasolada" title="Fasolada">Fasolada</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hortosoupa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hortosoupa (page does not exist)">Hortosoupa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentil_soup" title="Lentil soup">Lentil soup</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_soup" title="Chicken soup">Kotosoupa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magiritsa" title="Magiritsa">Magiritsa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orzo_(pasta)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orzo (pasta)">Manestra</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manitarosoupa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manitarosoupa (page does not exist)">Manitarosoupa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psarosoupa" title="Psarosoupa">Psarosoupa</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakavia_(soup)" title="Kakavia (soup)">Kakavia</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_carp" title="Common carp">Grivadi</a>)</dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chickpea_dishes" title="List of chickpea dishes">Revithada</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhana" title="Tarhana">Trahanas</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Omelettes</dt>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omelette" title="Omelette">Classic omeletta</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sfougato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sfougato (page does not exist)">Sfougato</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strapatsada" title="Strapatsada">Strapatsada</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsoucht%C3%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsouchtí (page does not exist)">Tsouchtí</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Froutalia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Froutalia (page does not exist)">Froutalia</a></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Vegetable</dt>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artichoke" title="Artichoke">Anginares <i>alla Polita</i></a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_bean" title="Green bean">Fasolakia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuffed_peppers" title="Stuffed peppers">Gemista</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_vegetable" title="Leaf vegetable">Leaf vegetable</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanakorizo" title="Spanakorizo">Spanakorizo</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrl%C3%BC" title="Türlü">Tourlou</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsigareli" title="Tsigareli">Tsigareli</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsigaridia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsigaridia (page does not exist)">Tsigaridia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomatokeftedes" title="Tomatokeftedes">Tomatokeftedes</a></dd></dl>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Desserts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdalota" title="Amygdalota">Amygdalota</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdalopita" title="Amygdalopita">Amygdalopita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">Baklava</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougatsa" title="Bougatsa">Bougatsa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_(dessert)" title="Copenhagen (dessert)">Copenhagen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diples" title="Diples">Diples</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanouropita" title="Fanouropita">Fanouropita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finikia" class="mw-redirect" title="Finikia">Finikia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaouna" title="Flaouna">Flaouna</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaktoboureko" title="Galaktoboureko">Galaktoboureko</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galatopita&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Galatopita (page does not exist)">Galatopita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halva" title="Halva">Halva</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karydopita" title="Karydopita">Karydopita</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="el:Κουρκουμπίνι">Kourkoubinia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koulourakia" title="Koulourakia">Koulourakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kourabiedes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kourabiedes">Kourabiedes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazarakia" title="Lazarakia">Lazarakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loukoumades" class="mw-redirect" title="Loukoumades">Loukoumades</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_delight" title="Turkish delight">Loukoumi</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="el:Μελεκούνι">Melekouni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nougat" title="Nougat">Mandolato</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="el:Μελιτίνι">Melitini</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melomakarono" title="Melomakarono">Melomakarona</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Melopita&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Melopita (page does not exist)">Melopita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moustalevria" title="Moustalevria">Moustokouloura</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastafrola" title="Pastafrola">Pastafrola</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Platseda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Platseda (page does not exist)">Platseda</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seed_candy" title="Sesame seed candy">Pasteli</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoon_sweets" title="Spoon sweets">Spoon sweets</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancake" title="Pancake">Tiganites</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahinopita" title="Tahinopita">Tahinopita</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF_%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="el:Τρίγωνο Πανοράματος">Trigona</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasilopita" title="Vasilopita">Vasilopita</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_wine" title="Greek wine">Wines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agiorgitiko" title="Agiorgitiko">Agiorgitiko</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aidini" title="Aidini">Aidini</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrtiko" title="Assyrtiko">Assyrtiko</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athiri" title="Athiri">Athiri</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotsifali" title="Kotsifali">Kotsifali</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbian_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbian wine">Lesbian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limnio" title="Limnio">Limnio</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavrodafni" title="Mavrodafni">Mavrodafni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandilaria" title="Mandilaria">Mandilaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malagousia" title="Malagousia">Malagousia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvasia" title="Malvasia">Malvasia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moschofilero" title="Moschofilero">Moschofilero</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscat_(grape)" title="Muscat (grape)">Moschato</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retsina" title="Retsina">Retsina</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robola" title="Robola">Robola</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savatiano" title="Savatiano">Savatiano</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilana" title="Vilana">Vilana</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorini_(wine)" title="Santorini (wine)">Visanto</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinomavro" title="Xinomavro">Xinomavro</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drinks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitron" title="Kitron">Kitron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumquat" title="Kumquat">Kumquat</a></li>
<li><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF" class="extiw" title="el:Κοριαντολίνο">Koriantolino</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastika" title="Mastika">Mastika</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaxa" title="Metaxa">Metaxa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouzo" title="Ouzo">Ouzo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakomelo" title="Rakomelo">Rakomelo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideritis" title="Sideritis">Sideritis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Souma_(drink)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Souma (drink) (page does not exist)">Souma</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgeat_syrup" title="Orgeat syrup">Soumada</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tentura" title="Tentura">Tentura</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsipouro" title="Tsipouro">Tsipouro</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsikoudia" title="Tsikoudia">Tsikoudia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zivania" title="Zivania">Zivania</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frapp%C3%A9_coffee" title="Frappé coffee">Frappé coffee</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varieties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Ionian_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Ionian islands">Ionian islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_cuisine" title="Cretan cuisine">Cretan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Macedonian_cuisine" title="Greek Macedonian cuisine">Macedonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epirotic_cuisine" title="Epirotic cuisine">Epirotic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cuisine_of_the_Cyclades&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cuisine of the Cyclades (page does not exist)">Kykladitiki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine_of_Rhodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of Rhodes">Rhoditiki</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filo" title="Filo">Filo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Greek_chefs" title="Category:Greek chefs">Greek chefs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Greek_food_writers" title="Category:Greek food writers">Food writers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafenio" title="Kafenio">Kafenio</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meze" title="Meze">Meze</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouzeri" title="Ouzeri">Ouzeri</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taverna" title="Taverna">Taverna</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_restaurant" title="Greek restaurant">Greek restaurant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Greece" title="Agriculture in Greece">Agriculture in Greece</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Notable products</dt>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botargo" class="mw-redirect" title="Botargo">Avgotaracho</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florina_pepper" title="Florina pepper">Florina peppers</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_wine" title="Greek wine">Greek wine</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathyrus_clymenum" title="Lathyrus clymenum">Fava Santorinis</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamata_olive" title="Kalamata olive">Kalamata olive</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krokos" title="Krokos">Krokos Kozanis (Saffron)</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menalou_vanilia_fir_honey" title="Menalou vanilia fir honey">Menalou honey</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodi_Ermionis" title="Rodi Ermionis">Rodi Ermionis</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorini_tomato" title="Santorini tomato">Santorini tomato</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sardines">Sardeles</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalloni" title="Kalloni">Kallonis</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albacore" title="Albacore">Tonos</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonnisos" title="Alonnisos">Alonnisou</a></dd>
<dd><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zante_currant" title="Zante currant">Zante currant</a></dd></dl>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/16px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/24px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/32px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Greece" title="Portal:Greece">Greece portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iranian_cuisine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Iranian_cuisine" title="Template:Iranian cuisine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Iranian_cuisine" title="Template talk:Iranian cuisine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iranian_cuisine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iranian cuisine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iranian_cuisine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_cuisine" title="Iranian cuisine">Iranian cuisine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ingredients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vegetables</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">Beans</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_pepper" title="Bell pepper">Bell pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">Cabbage</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea">Chickpea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowpea" title="Cowpea">Cowpea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">Eggplant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentil" title="Lentil">Lentil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">Pomegranate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split_pea" title="Split pea">Split pea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinach" title="Spinach">Spinach</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">Tomato</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhana" title="Tarhana">Tarkhineh</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Herbs and spices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advieh" title="Advieh">Advieh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berberis" title="Berberis">Barberry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper" title="Black pepper">Black pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgur" title="Bulgur">Balgur</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut" title="Chestnut">Chestnut</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">Cinnamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin" title="Cumin">Cumin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">Garlic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleum_persicum" title="Heracleum persicum">Golpar</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazelnut" title="Hazelnut">Hazelnut</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leek" title="Leek">Leek</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppermint" title="Peppermint">Mint</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">Onion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregano" title="Oregano">Oregano</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paprika" title="Paprika">Paprika</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsley" title="Parsley">Parsley</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistachio" title="Pistachio">Pistachio</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayenne_pepper" title="Cayenne pepper">Red pepper</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walnut" title="Walnut">Walnut</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breads and nans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbari_bread" title="Barbari bread">Barbari</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dushabi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dushabi (page does not exist)">Dushabi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghandi_Bread" title="Ghandi Bread">Ghandi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gisu_bread&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gisu bread (page does not exist)">Gisu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khuske-shirin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khuske-shirin (page does not exist)">khuske-shirin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandoor_bread" title="Tandoor bread">khuske-e-tanour</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavash" title="Lavash">Lavash</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naan" title="Naan">Naan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangak" title="Sangak">Sangak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheermal" title="Sheermal">Shirmal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taftan_(bread)" title="Taftan (bread)">Taftan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Salads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meze" title="Meze">Mazeh</a> (main article)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirazi_salad" title="Shirazi salad">Shirazi salad</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salad_Shoor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salad Shoor (page does not exist)">Salad Shoor</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogurt" title="Yogurt">Yogurt</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cheeses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighvan_cheese" title="Lighvan cheese">Lighvan cheese</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feta" title="Feta">Feta</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beyaz_Peynir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beyaz Peynir (page does not exist)">Beyaz Peynir</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soups and āshes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abgoosht" title="Abgoosht">Abgoosht</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aush" title="Aush">Aush</a> (main article)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aush_reshteh" title="Aush reshteh">Aush reshteh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomegranate_soup" title="Pomegranate soup">Ash-e-Anar (Pomegranate)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash-e_doogh" title="Ash-e doogh">Aush-e-doogh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aush-e-Shalqham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aush-e-Shalqham (page does not exist)">Aush-e-Shalqham</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aush-e-Sholeh-Ghalam-Kar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aush-e-Sholeh-Ghalam-Kar (page does not exist)">Aush-e-Sholeh-Ghalam-Kar</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozbash" title="Bozbash">Bozbash</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorba" title="Chorba">Chorba</a> (main article)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haleem" title="Haleem">Haleem</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piti_(food)" title="Piti (food)">Dizi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirabi">Sirabi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dishes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kebabs#Iran" title="List of kebabs">Kabab</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelow_kabab" title="Chelow kabab">Chelow kabab</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jujeh_kabab" title="Jujeh kabab">Jujeh kabab</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kabab_chenjeh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kabab chenjeh (page does not exist)">Kabab chenjeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kabab_bakhtiari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kabab bakhtiari (page does not exist)">Kabab bakhtiari</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabab_barg" title="Kabab barg">Kabab barg</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabab_koobideh" title="Kabab koobideh">Kabab koobideh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kabab_mahi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kabab mahi (page does not exist)">Kabab mahi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabab_torsh" title="Kabab torsh">Kabab torsh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shashlik" title="Shashlik">Shashlik</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilaf" title="Pilaf">Polo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaloo_polo" title="Albaloo polo">Albaloo polo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghali_polo" title="Baghali polo">Baghali polo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalam_polo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kalam polo (page does not exist)">Kalam polo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kateh" title="Kateh">Kateh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loobia_polo" title="Loobia polo">Loobia polo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morasa_polo" class="mw-redirect" title="Morasa polo">Morasa polo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabzi_polo" title="Sabzi polo">Sabzi polo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirin_polo" title="Shirin polo">Shirin polo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan_Beryani" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan Beryani">Isfahan Beryani</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahdig" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahdig">Tahdig</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahchin" title="Tahchin">Tahchin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zereshk_polo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zereshk polo (page does not exist)">Zereshk polo</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoresh" title="Khoresh">Khoresh</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghala_ghatogh" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghala ghatogh">Baghala ghatogh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoresh_bademjan" title="Khoresh bademjan">Khoresh bademjan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_b%C4%81denj%C4%81n_lapeh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh bādenjān lapeh (page does not exist)">Khoresh bādenjān lapeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoresh_b%C4%81mieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoresh bāmieh">Khoresh bāmieh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_b%C4%81mieh_lapeh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh bāmieh lapeh (page does not exist)">Khoresh bāmieh lapeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_Beh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh Beh (page does not exist)">Khoresh Beh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_alou_esfenaj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh alou esfenaj (page does not exist)">Khoresh alou esfenaj</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fesenj%C4%81n" title="Fesenjān">Fesenjān</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_havij&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh havij (page does not exist)">Khoresh havij</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_kadu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh kadu (page does not exist)">Khoresh kadu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_q%C4%81rch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh qārch (page does not exist)">Khoresh qārch</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghalieh_mahi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ghalieh mahi (page does not exist)">Ghalieh mahi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gheimeh" title="Gheimeh">Khoresh gheimeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghormeh_sabzi" title="Ghormeh sabzi">Khoresh ghormeh sabzi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_kangar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh kangar (page does not exist)">Khoresh kangar</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoresh_karafs" title="Khoresh karafs">Khoresh karafs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_lubia-sabz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh lubia-sabz (page does not exist)">Khoresh lubia-sabz</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoresh_reevaas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khoresh reevaas (page does not exist)">Khoresh reevaas</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khash_(dish)" title="Khash (dish)">Kale pache</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ke%C5%9Fkek" title="Keşkek">Kashkak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nargesi_(food)" title="Nargesi (food)">Nargesi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofta" title="Kofta">Kofta</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabriz_meatballs" title="Tabriz meatballs">Tabriz meatballs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe#Iran" title="Roe">Ashpal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omelette" title="Omelette">Omelette</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_sausage" class="mw-redirect" title="Port sausage">Port sausage</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesme" title="Kesme">Reshteh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samosa" title="Samosa">Samosa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhana" title="Tarhana">Tarhana</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tas_kebab" title="Tas kebab">Tas kebab</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahni" title="Yahni">Yakhni</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sauces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delal_sauce" title="Delal sauce">Delal sauce</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahyawa" title="Mahyawa">Mahyawa</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hors d'oeuvre</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeytoon_Parvardeh" title="Zeytoon Parvardeh">Zeytoon Parvardeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolma" title="Dolma">Dolma</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strained_yogurt" title="Strained yogurt">Labne</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashk_e_bademjan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashk e bademjan">Kashk e bademjan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuku_(food)" title="Kuku (food)">Kuku</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzatziki" title="Tzatziki">Mast-o-Khiar</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirza_Ghassemi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirza Ghassemi">Mirza Ghassemi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torshi" title="Torshi">Torshi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sweets and desserts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">Baklava</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijani_pakhlava" class="mw-redirect" title="Azerbaijani pakhlava">Azerbaijani pakhlava</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamiyeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamiyeh">Bamiyeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastani" title="Bastani">Bastani</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nan-e_berenji" title="Nan-e berenji">Berenji</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookie" title="Cookie">Cookie</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faloodeh" title="Faloodeh">Faloodeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz_(candy)" title="Gaz (candy)">Gaz</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosh-e_Fil" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosh-e Fil">Gosh-e Fil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halva" title="Halva">Halva</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaymak#The_Middle_East" title="Kaymak">Sarshir</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloocheh" title="Koloocheh">Koloocheh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolompeh" title="Kolompeh">Kolompeh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavashak" title="Lavashak">Lavashak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murabba" title="Murabba">Murabba</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noghl" title="Noghl">Noghl</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nan-e_Nokhodchi" title="Nan-e Nokhodchi">Nokhodchi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masghati" title="Masghati">Masghati</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashmak" title="Pashmak">Pashmak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poolaki" title="Poolaki">Poolaki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qottab" title="Qottab">Qottab</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qurabiya" title="Qurabiya">Qurabiya</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanu" title="Samanu">Samanu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shekarbura" title="Shekarbura">Shekarbura</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sholezard" title="Sholezard">Sholezard</a> (Shole-zard)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sohan_(confectionery)" title="Sohan (confectionery)">Sohān</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sohan_asali" title="Sohan asali">Sohan asali</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbet" title="Sorbet">Sorbet</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabrizi_Lovuez" title="Tabrizi Lovuez">Tabrizi Lovuez</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalebi#Geographic_distribution" title="Jalebi">Zoolbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazdi_cake" title="Yazdi cake">Yazdi cake</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Beverages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragh_sagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aragh sagi">Aragh sagi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_wine" title="Persian wine">Mey</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doogh" title="Doogh">Doogh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharbat_(beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharbat (beverage)">Sharbat</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_coffee" title="Turkish coffee">Turkish coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kefir" title="Kefir">Kefir</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cezve" title="Cezve">Jezve</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangal_(barbecue)" title="Mangal (barbecue)">Mangal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_pin" title="Rolling pin">Oklava</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tava" title="Tava">Taveh/Sac</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samovar" title="Samovar">Samovar</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandoor" title="Tandoor">Tanoor</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related cuisines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Iranian
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_cuisine" title="Caspian cuisine">Caspian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bandari_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bandari cuisine (page does not exist)">Southern Iranian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_cuisine" title="Afghan cuisine">Afghan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochi_cuisine" title="Balochi cuisine">Balochi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dishes_from_the_Caucasus" title="List of dishes from the Caucasus">Caucasian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_cuisine" title="Armenian cuisine">Armenian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijani_cuisine" title="Azerbaijani cuisine">Azerbaijani</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_cuisine" title="Georgian cuisine">Georgian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_cuisine" title="Assyrian cuisine">Assyrian</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Iraqi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_cuisine" title="Kurdish cuisine">Kurdish</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantine_cuisine" title="Levantine cuisine">Levantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Eastern_cuisine" title="Middle Eastern cuisine">Middle Eastern</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajik_cuisine" title="Tajik cuisine">Tajik</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_cuisine" title="Turkish cuisine">Turkish</a> / <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Ottoman</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbek_cuisine" title="Uzbek cuisine">Uzbek</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/16px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/24px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/16px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/24px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a></span> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Moroccan_cuisine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cuisine_of_Morocco" title="Template:Cuisine of Morocco"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Cuisine_of_Morocco" title="Template talk:Cuisine of Morocco"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cuisine_of_Morocco" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cuisine of Morocco"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Moroccan_cuisine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_cuisine" title="Moroccan cuisine">Moroccan cuisine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dishes (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Moroccan_dishes" title="List of Moroccan dishes">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahriche" title="Ahriche">Ahriche</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastilla" title="Pastilla">Bestila</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dchicha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dchicha (page does not exist)">Dchicha</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Couscous" title="Couscous">Kesksou</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dafina" class="mw-redirect" title="Dafina">Dafina</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dafina_(plat)" class="extiw" title="fr:Dafina (plat)">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Djaja_taret&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Djaja taret (page does not exist)">Djaja taret</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djaja_taret" class="extiw" title="fr:Djaja taret">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khlea" title="Khlea">Khlea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9choui" title="Méchoui">Mechoui</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajine" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajine">Tajine</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajine" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajine">Fish tajine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajine" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajine">Lamb tajine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrouzia" title="Mrouzia">Prunes tajine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qamama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qamama (page does not exist)">Qamama</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qamama" class="extiw" title="fr:Qamama">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seffa" title="Seffa">Seffa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakshouka" title="Shakshouka">Shakshouka</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholent" title="Cholent">Skhina</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ourkimen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ourkimen (page does not exist)">Ourkimen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ourkimen" class="extiw" title="fr:Ourkimen">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tagra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tagra (page does not exist)">Tagra</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagra" class="extiw" title="fr:Tagra">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tahlia_(food)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tahlia (food) (page does not exist)">Tahlia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahlia" class="extiw" title="fr:Tahlia">fr</a>]</span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brochettes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boulfaf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boulfaf (page does not exist)">Boulfaf</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebab" title="Kebab">Kabab</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ingredients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chermoula" title="Chermoula">Chermoula</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matbucha" title="Matbucha">Matbucha</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preserved_lemon" title="Preserved lemon">Msiyar</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saffron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">Nutmeg</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">Coriander</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Date (fruit)">Dates</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figs" class="mw-redirect" title="Figs">Figs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Almonds">Almonds</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harira" title="Harira">Harira</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessara" class="mw-redirect" title="Bessara">Bessara</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tadeffi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tadeffi (page does not exist)">Tadeffi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadeffi" class="extiw" title="fr:Tadeffi">fr</a>]</span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghrir" title="Baghrir">Beghrir</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread">Flatbread</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Msemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Msemen">Msemen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harcha" title="Harcha">Harcha</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mekhmar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mekhmar (page does not exist)">Mekhmar/Betbout</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medfouna" title="Medfouna">Medfouna</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merdouma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Merdouma (page does not exist)">Merdouma</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merdouma" class="extiw" title="fr:Merdouma">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qrashel" title="Qrashel">Qrashel</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Desserts & pastries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bechkito&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bechkito (page does not exist)">Bechkito</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bechkito" class="extiw" title="fr:Bechkito">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bejmat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bejmat (page does not exist)">Bejmat</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bejmat" class="extiw" title="fr:Bejmat">fr</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6rek" title="Börek">Bourekas</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chebakia" title="Chebakia">Chebakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briouat" title="Briouat">Briouat</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazelle_ankles" title="Gazelle ankles">Kaab Ghzal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makroudh" title="Makroudh">Makroudh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesfouf" title="Mesfouf">Mesfouf</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sfenj" title="Sfenj">Sfenj</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Beverages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_mint_tea" class="mw-redirect" title="Moroccan mint tea">Moroccan mint tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer_in_Morocco" title="Beer in Morocco">Beer</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">Coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leben_(milk_product)" title="Leben (milk product)">Leben</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahia_(drink)" title="Mahia (drink)">Mahia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rayb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rayb (page does not exist)">Rayb</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_wine" title="Moroccan wine">Wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tasabounte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tasabounte (page does not exist)">Tasabounte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasabounte" class="extiw" title="fr:Tasabounte">fr</a>]</span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related cuisines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_cuisine" title="Algerian cuisine">Algerian cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian_cuisine" title="Tunisian cuisine">Tunisian cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_cuisine" title="Libyan cuisine">Libyan cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusian_cuisine" title="Andalusian cuisine">Andalusian cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine">Arab cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_cuisine" title="Berber cuisine">Berber cuisine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Sephardic_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews">Sephardic cuisine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Albanian_cuisine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Albanian_cuisine" title="Template:Albanian cuisine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Albanian_cuisine" title="Template talk:Albanian cuisine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Albanian_cuisine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Albanian cuisine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Albanian_cuisine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_cuisine" title="Albanian cuisine">Albanian cuisine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ingredients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vegetables</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artichoke" title="Artichoke">Artichoke</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">Bean</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_pepper" title="Bell pepper">Bell pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">Eggplant</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">Garlic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_leaves" title="Grape leaves">Grape leaves</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">Onion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsicum" title="Capsicum">Pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">Tomato</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">Olive</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple" title="Apple">Apple</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">Avocado</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackberry" title="Blackberry">Blackberry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">Grape</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">Orange</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nectarine">Nectarine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry" title="Cherry">Cherry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">Pomegranate</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">Figs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon" title="Lemon">Lemon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peach" title="Peach">Peach</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plum" title="Plum">Plum</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry" title="Strawberry">Strawberry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry" title="Raspberry">Raspberry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus_(plant)" title="Morus (plant)">Mulberry</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Herbs and spices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil" title="Basil">Basil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">Chili pepper</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">Cinnamon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">Coriander</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavender" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender">Lavender</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregano" title="Oregano">Oregano</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppermint" title="Peppermint">Peppermint</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemary" title="Rosemary">Rosemary</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyme" title="Thyme">Thyme</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_leaf" title="Bay leaf">Bay</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">Vanilla</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saffron</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drinks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideritis" title="Sideritis">Mountain tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_tea" title="Black tea">Black tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">Coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boza" title="Boza">Bozë</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doogh" title="Doogh">Dhallë</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakia" title="Rakia">Raki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognac_Sk%C3%ABnderbeu" title="Cognac Skënderbeu">Cognac Skënderbeu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer in Albania">Beer</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_wine" title="Albanian wine">Wine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cold meals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolma" title="Dolma">Japrak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier_salad" title="Olivier salad">Sallatë Ruse</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarator" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarator">Tarator</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sweets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannoli" title="Cannoli">Kanojë</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge_cake" title="Sponge cake">Pandispanjë</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuppa_Inglese" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuppa Inglese">Zupa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_caramel" title="Crème caramel">Krem karamele</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">Bakllava</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballokume" title="Ballokume">Ballokume</a></li>
<li>Gurabie</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halva" title="Halva">Hallvë</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashure" title="Ashure">Hashure</a></li>
<li>Hasude</li>
<li>Hoshaf</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabuni" title="Kabuni">Kabuni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanafeh#Kadaif" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanafeh">Kadaif</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cake" title="Cake">Kek</a></li>
<li>Kompekaj</li>
<li>Mafishe</li>
<li>Mualebi</li>
<li>Pistil</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basbousa" title="Basbousa">Revani</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eekerpare" title="Şekerpare">Sheqerpare</a></li>
<li>Shëndetlie</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_pudding" title="Rice pudding">Sultjash</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulumba" title="Tulumba">Tullumba</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hot meals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Burani</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbit_Stew" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbit Stew">Çomlek</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flia" title="Flia">Fli</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ABrges%C3%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Fërgesë">Fërgesë</a></li>
<li>Hithenik</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mam_bay%C4%B1ld%C4%B1" title="İmam bayıldı">Imam Bajalldi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korma" title="Korma">Kavurme</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kukurec" class="mw-redirect" title="Kukurec">Kukurec</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakror" title="Lakror">Lakror</a></li>
<li>Mantie</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Bean" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Bean">Mashurka</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khash_(dish)" title="Khash (dish)">Paçe</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofta" title="Kofta">Qofte</a></li>
<li>Resenik</li>
<li>Shpargull</li>
<li>Tavë Dheu</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tav%C3%AB_kosi" title="Tavë kosi">Tavë kosi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhana" title="Tarhana">Trahana</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrl%C3%BC" title="Türlü">Turli perimesh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tursu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tursu">Turshi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Baked goods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6rek" title="Börek">Byrek</a></li>
<li>Krelanë</li>
<li>Kulaç</li>
<li>Petulla</li>
<li>Pastiçe</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poga%C4%8Da" title="Pogača">Pogaçe</a></li>
<li>Qahi</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pite_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pite (food)">Pite</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related cuisines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arb%C3%ABresh%C3%AB_cuisine" title="Arbëreshë cuisine">Arbëreshë</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_cuisine" title="Balkan cuisine">Balkan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham_Albanians#Cuisine" title="Cham Albanians">Cham</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epirotic_cuisine" title="Epirotic cuisine">Epirotic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovan_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosovan cuisine">Kosovan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_cuisine" title="Mediterranean cuisine">Mediterranean</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_drinks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Indian_drinks" title="Template:Indian drinks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_drinks" title="Template talk:Indian drinks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_drinks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian drinks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_drinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Indian drinks</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_drinks" title="List of Indian drinks">List of Indian drinks</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aam_panna" title="Aam panna">Aam panna</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aamras" title="Aamras">Aamras</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almond_milk" title="Almond milk">Badam milk</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banta" title="Banta">Banta</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bela_Pana" title="Bela Pana">Bela Pana</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhang" title="Bhang">Bhang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buttermilk" title="Buttermilk">Buttermilk</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaas" title="Chaas">Chaas</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuak" title="Chuak">Chuak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_water" title="Coconut water">Coconut water</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falooda" title="Falooda">Falooda</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shave_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Shave ice">Gola barf</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_filter_coffee" title="Indian filter coffee">Filter coffee</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irani_caf%C3%A9" title="Irani café">Irani café</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jal-jeera" title="Jal-jeera">Jal-jeera</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jil_jil_jigarthanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Jil jil jigarthanda">Jil jil jigarthanda</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanji_(drink)" title="Kanji (drink)">Kanji</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanjika" title="Kanjika">Kanjika</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kesar</a> milk</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lassi" title="Lassi">Lassi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neera" title="Neera">Neera</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimbu_pani" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimbu pani">Nimbu pani</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattha" title="Mattha">Mattha</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus_limetta" title="Citrus limetta">Moosambi</a> juice</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharbat_(beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharbat (beverage)">Sharbat</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikanjvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shikanjvi">Shikanjvi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solkadhi" title="Solkadhi">Solkadhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosyo" title="Sosyo">Sosyo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane_juice" title="Sugarcane juice">Sugarcane juice</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thandai" title="Thandai">Thandai</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Umbil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umbil (page does not exist)">Umbil</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zutho" title="Zutho">Zutho</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_tea_culture" title="Indian tea culture">Tea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam_tea" title="Assam tea">Assam tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berinag_tea" title="Berinag tea">Berinag tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darjeeling_tea" title="Darjeeling tea">Darjeeling tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doodh_Pati_Chai" class="mw-redirect" title="Doodh Pati Chai">Doodh Pati Chai</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangra_tea" title="Kangra tea">Kangra tea</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masala_chai" title="Masala chai">Masala chai</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilgiri_tea" title="Nilgiri tea">Nilgiri tea</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alcoholic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apo_(drink)" title="Apo (drink)">Apo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrack" title="Arrack">Arrack</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangla_(drink)" title="Bangla (drink)">Bangla </a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhang" title="Bhang">Bhang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer_in_India" title="Beer in India">Beer</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholai" title="Cholai">Cholai</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuak" title="Chuak">Chuak</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desi_daru" title="Desi daru">Desi daru</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feni_(liquor)" title="Feni (liquor)">Feni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handia_(drink)" title="Handia (drink)">Handia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hariya" title="Hariya">Hariya</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian-made_foreign_liquor" title="Indian-made foreign liquor">IMFL</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neera" title="Neera">Neera</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">Palm wine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendh%C4%81" title="Pendhā">Pendhā</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonti_(rice_drink)" title="Sonti (rice drink)">Sonti</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulai" title="Sulai">Sulai</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sura_(alcoholic_drink)" title="Sura (alcoholic drink)">Sura</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaati_Kallu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thaati Kallu">Thaati Kallu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tharra" title="Tharra">Tharra</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_whisky" title="Indian whisky">Indian whisky</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_wine" title="Indian wine">Indian wine</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Indian_drinks" title="Category:Indian drinks">Category:Indian drinks</a></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/9px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/14px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/19px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="239" data-file-height="408" /></span></span> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Drink" title="Portal:Drink">Drink portal</a></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/16px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/24px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25434#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Safran <Gewürz>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4438557-2">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh87006102">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Safran (épices)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb123226026">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Safran (épices)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb123226026">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569948">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="šafrán (koření)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1112356&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000305766&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007531899505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1736249341' |