Examine individual changes

'Firestick farming has been used for many generations. the practice is often done in floral areas. ANIME UWU {{Short description|Aboriginal Australian practice of regular burning}} {{use Australian English|date=June 2020}} {{use dmy dates|date=June 2020}} '''Fire-stick farming''', also known as '''cultural burning''' and '''cool burning''', is the practice of [[Aboriginal Australians]] regularly using fire to burn vegetation, which has been practised for thousands of years. There are a number of purposes for doing this special type of [[controlled burn]]ing, including to facilitate hunting, to change the composition of plant and animal species in an area, weed control, hazard reduction, and increase of [[biodiversity]]. While it had been discontinued in many parts of Australia, it has been reintroduced in the 21st century by the teachings of custodians from areas where the practice is extant in continuous unbroken tradition such as the [[Noongar]] peoples' [[Cold fire (Noongar fire type)|cold fire]]. ==Terminology== The term "fire-stick farming" was coined by Australian [[archaeologist]] [[Rhys Jones (archaeologist)|Rhys Jones]] in 1969.<ref name=bird>{{cite journal|title=The "fire stick farming" hypothesis: Australian Aboriginal foraging strategies, biodiversity, and anthropogenic fire mosaics|first1=R. Bliege |last1=Bird|first2= D.W. |last2=Bird|first3=B.F.|last3= Codding|first4=C.H.|last4= Parker|first51=J.H.|last5= Jones|journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=30 September 2008|volume= 105|issue=39|pages= 14796–14801|doi=10.1073/pnas.0804757105|doi-access=free|pmid=18809925|pmc=2567447|bibcode=2008PNAS..10514796B}}</ref> It has more recently been called cultural burning<ref name="abc.net.au-2018-09-18-indigenous-burning-before-and-after-tathra">{{cite web | url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-18/indigenous-burning-before-and-after-tathra-bushfire/10258140 | title =Indigenous fire methods protect land before and after the Tathra bushfire | last =Milton | first =Vanessa | date =18 September 2018 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation | access-date =14 November 2019 | quote =In 2017, the Bega LALC began a cultural burning program as part of the management strategy for their landholdings.}}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2019-01-31-indigenous-cultural-burning-to-return-to-victoria">{{cite web | url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-31/indigenous-cultural-burning-to-return-to-victoria/10761772 | title =Cultural burning to return to Victoria after 170 years in the hope of revitalising the land | last =Wales | first =Sean | date =31 January 2019 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation | access-date =14 November 2019 }}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2018-01-22-reading-trees-cultural-burning">{{cite web | url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-22/reading-trees-cultural-burning-helps-dying-landscape/9338654 | title =Reading trees: Using cultural burning to reinvigorate dying landscape | last =Moss | first =Sarah | date =21 Feb 2018 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation | access-date =14 November 2019 }}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2017-06-19-cultural-burning-being-revived">{{cite web | url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-19/cultural-burning-being-revived-by-aboriginal-people/8630038 | title =Ancient technique of cultural burning revived by Indigenous people in NSW | last =Clifford | first =Jessica | date =19 June 2017 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation | access-date =14 November 2019 | quote =The cultural burns use a lot of ground fuel in fire-prone areas, making a bushfire less likely if cultural burns are regularly carried out. }}</ref> and cool burning.<ref name=vffa>{{cite web | title=Indigenous Cool Burn a Revelation | website=Volunteer Fire Fighters Association | date=26 July 2017 | url=https://volunteerfirefighters.org.au/indigenous-cool-burn-revelation | language=nl | access-date=26 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=emm>{{cite web | last1=Nicholas | first1=Thea | last2=Costa | first2=Kirsty | title=Exploring Aboriginal histories and cultures through Cool Burning | website=Education Matters Magazine | date=23 February 2016 | url=https://www.educationmattersmag.com.au/exploring-aboriginal-histories-and-cultures-through-cool-burning/ | access-date=26 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=korff>{{cite web | last1=Korff | first1=Jens | last2=Spirits | first2=Creative | title=Cool burns: Key to Aboriginal fire management | website=Creative Spirits | date=20 June 2020 | url=https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/land/aboriginal-fire-management | access-date=26 June 2020}}</ref> ==History== <!---Not sure where this comes from, but it's not supported by the source, so commenting out for now. The associated loss of browsing and grazing animals caused by burning by Aboriginal peoples resulted in [[savannah]] changing into dry forest. In the resultant [[sclerophyll]] forests, fire-stick farming maintained an open [[canopy (forest)|canopy]] and allowed [[germination]] of [[understorey]] plants necessary for increasing the [[carrying capacity]] of the local environment for [[Herbivore|browsing]] and [[Grazing (behaviour)|grazing]] animals. Aboriginal people may have been able to aim the burning of the scrub to avoid growing areas. There may have been a ritual taboo against burning certain areas of jungle.<ref>{{cite web |author=Monroe, M. H. |url=http://austhrutime.com/fire-stick_farmers.htm| website=Australia: The Land Where Time Began |title=Fire-Stick Farmers |access-date=25 January 2017}}</ref> This type of farming directly increased the food supply for Aboriginal people by promoting the growth of [[bush potato]]es and other edible ground-level plants.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.schools.nt.edu.au/tlcland/publications/Fire%20Book.pdf | title=The Fire Book | year=2005 | publisher=Tangentyre Landcare | access-date=24 March 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227223739/http://www.schools.nt.edu.au/tlcland/publications/Fire%20Book.pdf | archive-date=27 February 2015 }}</ref> ---> Aboriginal burning has been blamed for a variety of environmental changes, including the extinction of the [[Australian megafauna]], a diverse range of large animals which populated [[Pleistocene]] Australia. [[Palynologist]] A. P. Kershaw has argued that Aboriginal burning may have modified the vegetation to the extent that the food resources of the megafauna were diminished, and as a consequence the largely [[herbivorous]] megafauna became extinct.<ref name="Kershaw 1986 47–49"/> Kershaw also suggested that the arrival of Aboriginal people may have occurred more than 100,000 years ago, and that their burning caused the sequences of vegetation changes which he detects through the late Pleistocene. The first to propose such an early arrival for Aboriginal peoples was Gurdip Singh from the [[Australian National University]], who found evidence in his pollen cores from [[Lake George (New South Wales)|Lake George]] indicating that Aboriginal people began burning in the lake [[catchment]] around 120,000 years ago.<ref name="Elizabeth A 1985"/> [[Tim Flannery]] believes that the megafauna were hunted to extinction by Aboriginal people soon after they arrived. He argues that with the rapid extinction of the megafauna, virtually all of which were [[herbivorous]], a great deal of vegetation was left uneaten, increasing the standing crop of fuel. As a consequence, fires became larger and hotter than before, causing the reduction of fire-sensitive plants to the advantage of those that were fire-resistant or fire-dependent. Flannery suggests that Aboriginal people then began to burn more frequently to maintain a [[biodiversity|high species diversity]] and to reduce the effect of high intensity fires on medium-sized animals and perhaps some plants. He argues that twentieth-century Australian mammal extinctions are largely the result of the cessation of Aboriginal "firestick farming".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Flannery| first=T. F.|author-link=Tim Flannery| date=1 July 1990|title=Pleistocene faunal loss: implications of the aftershock for Australia's past and future|journal=Archaeology in Oceania| volume=25| issue=2| pages=45–55| doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.1990.tb00232.x|issn=1834-4453}}</ref> Researcher [[David Horton (writer)|David Horton]] from the [[Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies]], suggested in 1982, "Aboriginal use of fire had little impact on the environment and... the patterns of distribution of plants and animals which obtained 200 years ago would have been essentially the same whether or not Aborigines had previously been living here".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Horton|first=D. R.|date=1 April 1982|title=The Burning Question: Aborigines, Fire and Australian Ecosystems*| journal=Mankind| volume=13| issue=3| pages=237–252| doi=10.1111/j.1835-9310.1982.tb01234.x| issn=1835-9310}}</ref> A 2010 study of [[charcoal]] records from more than 220 sites in [[Australasia]] dating back 70,000 years found that the arrival of the first inhabitants about 50,000 years ago did not result in significantly greater fire activity across the continent<ref name = Quatern/> (although this date is in question, with sources pointing to much earlier migrations).<ref name="Kershaw 1986 47–49">{{cite journal|last=Kershaw|first=A. P.|date=1986|title=The last two glacial-interglacial cycles from northeastern Australia: implications for climatic change and Aboriginal burning| journal=Nature| volume=322|issue=6074 |pages=47–49|doi=10.1038/322047a0|s2cid=4308883}}</ref><ref name="Elizabeth A 1985">{{cite journal| last1=Singh|first=G.| last2=Geissler|first2= Elizabeth A.|date=3 December 1985|title=Late Cainozoic history of vegetation, fire, lake levels and climate, at Lake George, New South Wales, Australia|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| volume=311| issue=1151| pages=379–447| doi=10.1098/rstb.1985.0156|bibcode=1985RSPTB.311..379S| issn=0080-4622| doi-access=free}}</ref> The study reported higher [[Bushfires in Australia|bushfire]] activity from about 70,000 to 28,000 years ago. It decreased until about 18,000 years ago, around the time of the last [[glacial maximum]], and then increased again, a pattern consistent with shifts between warm and cool climatic conditions. This suggests that fire in [[Australasia]] predominantly reflects climate, with colder periods characterised by less and warmer intervals by more [[biomass]] burning.<ref name = Quatern>{{cite journal | last = Mooney | first = S.D. | title = Late Quaternary fire regimes of Australasia | journal = Quaternary Science Reviews | volume = 30 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 28–46 | date = 15 October 2010 | url = http://palaeoworks-dev.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Mooney-et-al-2011.pdf | doi = 10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.10.010 | access-date = 24 March 2014 | display-authors = etal | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140324094449/http://palaeoworks-dev.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Mooney-et-al-2011.pdf | archive-date = 24 March 2014 | url-status = dead | hdl = 1885/53118 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Regular firing favoured not only [[fire-tolerant]] or fire-resistant plants, but also encouraged those animals which were favoured by more [[open country]]. On this basis, it is clear that Aboriginal burning, in many areas at least, did affect the "natural" ecosystem, producing a range of vegetation associations which would maximise productivity in terms of the food requirements of the Aboriginal people. Jones goes so far as to say that "through firing over thousands of years, Aboriginal man has managed to extend his natural habitat zone".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=Rhys|date=1969|author-link=Rhys Jones (archaeologist)|title=Fire-stick farming|journal=Australian Natural History|volume=16|issue=7|pages=224–228}}</ref> Most of these theories implicate Aboriginal use of fire as a component of the changes to both plant and animal communities within Australia during the last 50,000 years, although the significance of the effect of their burning is far from clear. Some have suggested that the intensive use of fire as a tool followed, but was not directly a consequence of, the extinction of the megafauna. If the megafauna remained in some areas until the [[Holocene]], evidence is needed from within the last 10,000 years for changes induced by new Aboriginal burning patterns.<ref>{{cite conference |last=Wright |first=R| date=1986| title=New light on the extinction of the Australian megafauna|conference=Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales|volume=109|pages=1–9}}</ref> Another factor to be considered is the likelihood that Aboriginal population density increased rapidly and dramatically over the last 5,000 to 10,000 years.<ref>{{cite book|title=Australians to 1788|last1=White|first1=John Peter|last2=Mulvaney|first2=Derek John|publisher=Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates| year=1987| isbn=978-0-949288-18-9| series=Australians, a historical library.|location=Broadway, New South Wales}}</ref>{{Pages needed|date=February 2018}} The stone technology which Aboriginal people had been using with little modification for over 40,000 years diversified and specialised in the last 5,000 years. [[Spear]] barbs and tips peaked about 2,000 years ago, and then completely disappeared from the archaeological record in south-eastern Australia. They were replaced by technologies associated with the exploitation of smaller animals – shell fish hooks and bone points along the coast for fishing, axes for hunting [[Phalangeriformes|possums]] across the woodlands, and [[adze]]s for sharpening digging sticks along the banks of the larger rivers where the [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] were abundant. The intensive and regular use of fire was an essential component of this late [[Holocene]] shift in resource base.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kohen|first=James L.|date=1988|title=Prehistoric Settlement in the Western Cumberland Plain: Resources, Environment and Technology|url=https://www.researchonline.mq.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/mq:31176/SOURCE1|journal=Australian Archaeology| issue=27| pages=131–134|doi=10.1080/03122417.1988.12093171| issn=0312-2417| jstor=40286673}}</ref> Cultural burnings were slowly eradicated after Britain colonised Australia from 1788 onwards.<ref>{{Cite news| last=Nunn| first=Gary| date=12 January 2020| title=Australia fires: Aboriginal planners say the bush 'needs to burn'|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-51043828}}</ref> Studying the layers of [[pollen]] and other organic matter from samples of [[sedimentary]] layers of earth from the around the Bolin Bolin [[billabong]] in Victoria in 2021 revealed that colonisation brought about the biggest changes in around 10,000 years. The samples show a lack of plant biodiversity since then, with huge forests of highly combustible species of [[eucalypt]] replacing plants which were less flammable and burn at lower temperatures. An early result of the disruption of cool burning was the devastating [[Black Thursday bushfires]] in February 1851, which burnt {{convert|5,000,000|ha}} of the [[colony of Victoria]].<ref name="Lee 2021">{{cite web | last=Lee | first=Tim | title=Scientist investigating Australia's past says Indigenous cultural burning key to controlling bushfires | website=ABC News| series=Landline| publisher= Australian Broadcasting Corporation| date=25 June 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-26/cultural-burning-to-protect-from-catastrophic-bushfires/100241046 | access-date=30 June 2021}}</ref> ==Purposes== There are a number of purposes, including to facilitate hunting, to change the composition of plant and animal species in an area,<ref name="abc.net.au-2018-06-23-call-for-return" /><ref name="abc.net.au-2017-06-19-cultural-burning-being-revived" /> weed control,<ref name="abc.net.au-2018-06-23-call-for-return" /><ref name="abc.net.au-2017-06-19-cultural-burning-being-revived" /> hazard reduction,<ref name="abc.net.au-2018-09-18-indigenous-burning-before-and-after-tathra"/><ref name="abc.net.au-2017-06-19-cultural-burning-being-revived" /> and increase of biodiversity.<ref name="abc.net.au-2018-06-23-call-for-return" /> Fire-stick farming had the long-term effect of turning [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry forest]] into savannah, increasing the population of nonspecific grass-eating species like the [[kangaroo]]. ==Current use== While it has been discontinued in many parts of Australia, it has been reintroduced to some Aboriginal groups<ref name="abc.net.au-2018-06-23-call-for-return">{{cite web | url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-23/call-for-return-of-traditonal-aboriginal-fire-control-methods/9877842 | title =Workshops share traditional knowledge of 'cultural burns' as fire management | last =Ingall | first =Jennifer | date =23 June 2018 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation | access-date =14 November 2019 | quote ="I find myself following on from those old people who have passed and continuing the journey of educating and teaching the younger people just like I was taught," said Mr Steffensen an Indigenous fire practitioner from Cape York. }}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2018-09-18-indigenous-burning-before-and-after-tathra" /><ref name="abc.net.au-2018-01-22-reading-trees-cultural-burning" /> by the teachings of custodians from areas where the practice is extant in continuous unbroken tradition,<ref name="abc.net.au-2016-08-12-traditional-owners-kakadu">{{cite web | url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2016-08-12/traditional-owners-fire-management-kakadu/7730254 | title =Kakadu National Park: Traditional burning methods and modern science form a fiery partnership | last =Fowler | first =Courtney | date =12 Aug 2016 | website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation | access-date =14 November 2019 | quote =Senior [[traditional owner]], Bessie Coleman, has had a long connection with fire management on Jawoyn country, at the southern end of Kakadu, spanning back in her family for generations. "From our family, they pass the knowledge down, it stays with me all the time," she said. "It's passed from generation to generation, right up to the new generation and now I'm doing it with my grand kids, working on country, burning on country."}}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2018-06-23-call-for-return" /> such as the [[Noongar]] peoples' [[Cold fire (Noongar fire type)|cold fire]]. Cultural burnings were reintroduced in parts of Australia during the early twenty-first century, and some Australian states now integrate them with other fire-prevention strategies. State investment in Indigenous fire planning strategies has been most widespread in northern Australia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Allam|first=Lorena|date=18 January 2020|title=Right fire for right future: how cultural burning can protect Australia from catastrophic blazes|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/jan/19/right-fire-for-right-future-how-cultural-burning-can-protect-australia-from-catastrophic-blazes}}</ref> In 2019 the Darwin Centre for Bushfire Research at [[Charles Darwin University]] released data suggesting that the reintroduction of traditional burning on a large scale had significantly reduced the area of land destroyed by wildfires.<ref name=":0" /> ===2019–2020 bushfires=== The [[2019-2020 Australian bushfire season]] led to increasing calls by some experts for the greater use of fire-stick farming. Traditional practitioners had already worked with some fire agencies to conduct burns on a small scale, with the uptake of workshops held by the Firesticks Alliance Indigenous Corporation increasing each year. Farmers and other landowners were interested in learning how traditional fire practices could help them to preserve their properties. Former Emergency Management Commissioner for the state of Victoria, [[Craig Lapsley]], called on the [[Australian Government|Federal Government]] to fund and implement a national Indigenous burning program. Firesticks Alliance spokesperson Oliver Costello said that a cultural burn could help to prevent [[wildfire]]s, rejuvenate local flora and protect native animal habitat.<ref>{{cite news|website=ABC News|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-09/indigenous-cultural-fire-burning-method-has-benefits-experts-say/11853096|title=Indigenous fire practices have been used to quell bushfires for thousands of years, experts say|first=Isabella|last= Higgins|date=9 January 2020|access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref> In the final report of the 2020 [[Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements]], the Commission found that "The weight of research into the effects of fuel reduction on the propagation of extreme bushfires indicates that as conditions deteriorate, fuel reduction is of diminishing effectiveness". It distinguished between ordinary and extreme bushfires, saying that fuel reduction could be used to reduce risk: "Reducing available fuels in the landscape can also slow the initial rate of fire spread and fire intensity, which can provide opportunities for fire suppression and thereby reduce the risk of fires escalating into extreme fire events."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements Report| url=https://naturaldisaster.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/html-report/chapter-17| chapter=Chapter 17: Public and private land management| date=28 October 2020}}</ref> ===2021, Adelaide park lands=== On 14 May 2021, a scheduled cultural burn took place in the [[Adelaide park lands]] by representatives of the [[Kaurna people]], in a highly symbolic moment after years of preparation to restore the ancient practice. The project, called Kaurna Kardla Parranthi, was undertaken with the support of the [[City of Adelaide]].<ref >{{cite web | title=Returning flame to soil | website=[[CityMag]]| first= Angela| last= Skujins| others= Photos by Jack Fenby| date=5 July 2021 | url=http://citymag.indaily.com.au/culture/returning-flame-to-soil/ | access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> The burn was part of the ecological management plan for a key area of biodiversity in [[Carriageway Park|Carriageway Park / Tuthangga]] ([[Park 17]]).<ref>{{cite web | title=Kaurna Kardla Parranthi | website=Your Say Adelaide | date=5 May 2021 | url=https://yoursay.cityofadelaide.com.au/Kaurna-Kardla | access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Kemp | first=Jason | title=Kaurna cultural practise returns to the Park Lands | website=Glam Adelaide | date=13 May 2021 | url=https://glamadelaide.com.au/kaurna-cultural-practise-returns-to-the-park-lands/ | access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> ==Examples== A series of [[aerial photograph]]s taken around 1947 reveal that the [[Karajarri]] people practised fire-stick farming in the [[Great Sandy Desert]] of [[Western Australia]] for thousands of years, until they left the desert in the 1950s and 1960s. When fires swept the desert in the decades following their departure, they caused widespread destruction, "losing 36 to 50 per cent of {{convert|24,000|km2}} of desert to just a couple of fires every year". Since the establishment of [[native title in Australia|native title]] over the area and the proclamation as an [[Indigenous Protected Area]] in 2014, Karajarri rangers have reintroduced the practice of burning. [[Traditional owners]] and scientists are studying the flora and fauna in the area to see how the fires affect individual species. While some species prefer more recently burnt vegetation, others favour areas burnt longer ago, so it is important to have a diversity of different fire ages, to encourage biodiversity.<ref>{{cite web | last=Collins | first=Ben | title=New light in a land shaped by fire | website=ABC News| publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date=11 May 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-11/historic-photos-guide-indigenous-burning-great-sandy-desert/100083720 | access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref> ==See also== *[[Native American use of fire in ecosystems]] *[[Biochar]] *[[Fire regime]] *[[Shifting cultivation]] *[[Slash-and-burn]] *[[Slash-and-char]] *[[Terra preta]] ==Notes== {{Reflist}} ==References== {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal|last1=Bird|first1=R. Bliege|last2=Bird|first2=D. W.|last3=Codding|first3=B. F.|last4=Parker|first4=C. H.|last5=Jones|first5=J. H.|date=30 September 2008|title=The "fire stick farming" hypothesis: Australian Aboriginal foraging strategies, biodiversity, and anthropogenic fire mosaics|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=105|issue=39|pages=14796–14801|doi=10.1073/pnas.0804757105|issn=0027-8424|pmid=18809925|pmc=2567447|bibcode=2008PNAS..10514796B|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last=Kimber|first=Richard|date=1983|title=Black Lightning: Aborigines and Fire in Central Australia and the Western Desert|journal=Archaeology in Oceania|volume=18|issue=1|pages=38–45|issn=0003-8121|jstor=40386618|doi=10.1002/arco.1983.18.1.38}} * {{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Gifford H.|last2=Fogel|first2=Marilyn L.|author-link2=Marilyn Fogel|last3=Magee|first3=John W.|last4=Gagan|first4=Michael K.|last5=Clarke|first5=Simon J.|last6=Johnson|first6=Beverly J.|date=8 July 2005|title=Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7741099|journal=Science|volume=309|issue=5732|pages=287–290|doi=10.1126/science.1111288|issn=0036-8075|pmid=16002615|bibcode=2005Sci...309..287M|s2cid=22761857}} * {{cite book|title=Fire and the Australian Biota|last=Nicholson|first=P. H.|publisher=Australian Academy of Science|year=1981|isbn=978-0-85847-057-6|editor-last=Gill|editor-first=A.|location=Canberra|pages=55–76|language=en|chapter=Fire and the Australian Aborigine - an enigma|oclc=924688522|editor-last2=Groves|editor-first2=R.H.|editor-last3=Nobles|editor-first3=I.R.}} * {{cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/181040|title=The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay|last=Phillip|first=Arthur|year=1789|location=London|oclc=944980853|publisher=Printed for John Stockdale}} * {{cite book|title=Burning Bush: A Fire History of Australia|last=Pyne|first=Stephen J|publisher=Holt|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8050-1472-3|location=New York|language=en|oclc=1022744709|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/burningbushfireh0000pyne}} * {{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Richard G.|last2=Jones|first2=Rhys|last3=Smith|first3=M. A.|date=May 1990|title=Thermoluminescence dating of a 50,000-year-old human occupation site in northern Australia|journal=Nature|volume=345|issue=6271|pages=153–156|doi=10.1038/345153a0|bibcode=1990Natur.345..153R|s2cid=4282148|issn=1476-4687}} {{refend}} ==Further reading == *{{cite web | title=Seminole Tribe of Florida Using Water and Fire to Restore Landscapes While Training Wildland Firefighters | website=U.S. Department of the Interior. Indian Affairs | url=https://www.bia.gov/bia/ots/dfwfm/bwfm/forestry-fire-management-stories/seminole-tribe-florida-using-water-and-fire| date= Mar 2017| first= Robyn |last=Broyles}} *{{cite web | last=Burrows | first=Neil | last2=Fisher | first2=Rohan | title=We are professional fire watchers, and we're astounded by the scale of fires in remote Australia right now | website=The Conversation | date=6 December 2021 | url=http://theconversation.com/we-are-professional-fire-watchers-and-were-astounded-by-the-scale-of-fires-in-remote-australia-right-now-172773}} The role of [[Indigenous rangers]] in fire management in Australia's deserts. *{{cite web | first1=Susan|last1= Chenery|first2= Ben |last2=Cheshire| title=Fighting fire with fire | website=ABC News: Australian Story |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=14 April 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-13/how-victor-steffensen-is-fighting-fire-with-fire/11866478 }} *{{cite web | website=ABC News | title=NT Indigenous rangers take to skies to care for country during coronavirus |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=7 May 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-08/coronavirus-restrictions-indigenous-rangers-fire-management/12214714 | first=Chelsea |last =Heaney}} *{{cite web | last=Kim | first=Sharnie | title=Indigenous groups earn millions in carbon credits to burn country to cut emissions | website=ABC News|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-24/savanna-burns-earn-carbon-credits-reduce-wildfire-risk/11874518|date=24 January 2020 }} *{{cite web | last=Rubbo | first=Luisa | title=NSW bushfire survivor tries cultural burn as Willawarrin community prepares for summer | website=ABC News|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date=19 October 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-20/willawarrin-cultural-burn-bushfire-nsw-big-weather/12778694}} *{{cite web | last=Russell | first=Lynette| author-link=Lynette Russell|title=Fighting fire with ancient knowledge | website=Lens|publisher= [[Monash University]] | date=8 January 2020 | url=https://lens.monash.edu/@lynette-russell/2020/01/08/1379433?slug=bringing-indigenous-knowledge-into-the-bushfires-conversation}} * {{cite book | last =Steffensen | first =Victor | author-link = | title =Fire Country | publisher =Hardie Grant Explore | series = | volume = | edition = | date =18 February 2020 | location =Melbourne, Australia | pages =240 | language =English | url =https://www.hardiegrant.com/au/publishing/bookfinder/book/fire-country-by-victor-steffensen/9781741177268 | doi = | id = | isbn =9781741177268 | mr = | zbl = | jfm = }} {{Indigenous Australians}} [[Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft]] [[Category:Agriculture in Australia]] [[Category:Bushfood]] [[Category:Wildfire ecology]]'